Collecting Data

Learning Objectives:

∙ To introduce some elementary statistical concepts

and discuss available information sources;

∙ To discuss the different ways in which primary data are

collected;

∙ To introduce and discuss the importance of

sampling in the design of a survey;

∙ To consider some points in the formulation of

questionnaires.

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 Collecting Data

For decision makers, the primary role of statistics is to

provide methods for obtaining information from data:

Figure 1.1 The process of data analysis

data in

COLLECT ORGANISE ANALYSE INTERPRET Information

out

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 Collecting Data

Data comes in different forms:

Figure 1.2 Types of data

Data

Categorical Quantitative
(qualitative)

Nominal Numbers Any value Only

act as within fixed
labels/ range is values are
ranks possible possible
Continuous Discrete

Named
Categories
Ordinal
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Collecting Data

Categorical (qualitative) data may be nominal or

ordinal.

Nominal data can be divided into non-measurable

named categories, e.g.

colours of eyes
type of accommodation
makes of car

Ordinal data is where numbers act as labels or ranks

e.g. a year label
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Collecting Data

Quantitative data are measured or counted in some

way.

Continuous data are quantitative data for which any

value within a continuous range is possible e.g.

heights
wages
times
weights
or as in this example:

Table 1.1

A table to show the heights of 80 people

Height (cm) Number of People
150 to less than 160 12
160 to less than 170 24
170 to less than 180 28
180 to less than 190 16

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 Collecting Data

Discrete data can only take certain fixed values e.g.

counts
number of messages on an answerphone
number of visits to London
or as in this example:

Table 1.2
Number of letters received each morning over a 30
day period.
Number of letters Frequency
1 12
each morning
2 9
3 5
4 4

Sources of information

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Collecting Data
There are two basic sources of information, primary
and secondary.

Primary data

∙ collected specifically for a particular purpose

∙ often collected from a sample (carefully chosen small

group) - in this case the study is referred to as a
survey

∙ occasionally collected from all items/people of interest

(the population) - in this case the study is called a
census

∙ can be costly/time consuming to collect

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 Collecting Data

Secondary data

∙ data, originally collected for one project which are

then used for another purpose

∙ often available from governments or specialist

market research companies

∙ useful UK government publications include

Social Trends

Financial Statistics

Economic Trends

the Family Expenditure Survey

the Survey of Retail Prices

the New Earnings Survey

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 Collecting Data

Primary data collection methods

If data collection is not carried out in a statistically

sound way, results may be biased. Hence it is
important to consider methods of data collection:

Postal questionnaires

∙ a popular method

∙ easy to make contact with respondents over a wide

geographical area

∙ often has low return rates

∙ not possible to probe for further information or

clarify misunderstandings

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 Collecting Data

Personal interviews

∙ usually requires a trained interviewer

∙ interesting responses can be followed up easily,

clarification can be given if necessary

∙ response rates are generally better than for other

methods

∙ expensive

∙ accurate results rely heavily on the interviewer's

expertise to avoid bias

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 Collecting Data

Telephone interview

∙ personal contact, so it has some of the advantages of

personal interviews without so much cost

∙ in-built bias by excluding sections of the population

without telephones

Observation

Usually used where people's responses are not

required e.g. in a traffic survey.

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 Collecting Data

Estimation of sample size

Another key area to ensure the sample is not biased.

Keep in mind that:

∙ The larger the size of the sample, the more accurate

the information on the population will be.

∙ Above a certain size, little extra information about a

population can be gained yet costs in time and money
increase.

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 Collecting Data

Common sense must be used to determine the sample

size:

Example 1.1
The IT resource manager of a large company wishes to
do a quick market research exercise on employees’
attitudes towards the printing facilities provided.

In this case, no particular specialist information is

required, the results will probably have no major impact
on the employees themselves and, knowing that they
all use the IT facilities regularly, a sample size of say
between 50 and 100 would be sufficient.

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 Collecting Data

Example 1.2
A University is considering extending the teaching
week to include Saturday mornings and wish to
receive some staff and student views on this.

In this case, the outcome of the survey could bring

about a major change in the University’s working
environment. Because of this it would be advisable to
find out the population size and select between 20%
and 30% of the population (staff and students) to be
canvassed.

Choosing a suitable, representative sample

In the same way as selecting a suitable sample size,

common sense is the most important factor in
ensuring a sample is representative.

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 Collecting Data

Example 1.3
You are working for a building society and have been
asked to find out the current average selling price for a
three bedroom, semi-detached house in the North-East
of England.

In this case you could not simply go into the nearest

estate agent and pick up details on say 20 (or even 70)
such houses and expect to have a representative
sample for the whole of the area of interest.

Example 1.4
A Students' Union wishes to gauge students’ opinions
of the catering facilities provided in the Union building.

In this case it would be reasonable to assume that

asking 50 - 100 students as they leave the union
building would give a sufficiently representative
sample as all would probably have an interest in the
catering facilities.

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Collecting Data
Sampling methods

A number of methods are available:

Simple random sampling

∙ every member of the population must have the same

chance of selection

∙ this can be done by 'drawing from a hat' or using a

random number generator

∙ method 'feels' fair and has no bias

∙ might be difficult to contact all of the sample

∙ through chance, an unrepresentative sample may

occur

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Collecting Data
Stratified random sampling

∙ similar to simple random sampling, used where the

population contains distinct groups with differing
views

∙ sample is stratified according to the groups in the

population - the sample proportions match the
population proportions

∙ for each group, the members are selected randomly ∙

comparatively unbiased

∙ stratification adds costs to the process

∙ good information about/access to the population is

required

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Collecting Data
Systematic sampling

∙ data assumed to be in random order

∙ every nth member is selected with n chosen by

(population size) ÷ (desired sample size)

∙ easy to use

∙ useful where the exact population is not known ∙

care necessary to avoid bias

∙ start point should be randomly chosen

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 Collecting Data

Cluster sampling

∙ frequently used for widely spread population items

∙ areas are selected at random, then every item

within that area is included in the sample

∙ care must be taken to avoid bias

Quota sampling

∙ usually used in conjunction with interviewing

∙ attempts to make sure the composition of the

sample matches that in the population

∙ interviewer works with a predetermined sample

profile and finds interviewees to match this

∙ tends to have good response rates because non

respondents are simply replaced until the quota is
met

∙ non-random technique, so bias can occur

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Collecting Data

Multistage sampling

∙ similar to cluster sampling - also useful for widely

spread data

∙ sampling process is divided into stages

∙ final selection is of individual sampling units ∙

care needed to avoid bias in the sample

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Collecting Data

Questionnaire design
Good questionnaire design is crucial to the success of a
survey. A pilot study is important to check the
questionnaire.

Question types
The main types are dichotomous, multiple choice and
open ended.

Dichotomous questions
Only two answers are possible:

Example 1.5
1. Are you living in Halls of Residence ?
Yes No

2. Is your personal tutor

Male Female

3. 7 * 3 = 20
True or False

4. Do you
Like or
 Slide 21 of 36

Collecting Data

Multiple Choice Questions

In these respondents can choose from several

possibilities.

The possibilities should be 'comprehensive' and

'mutually exclusive'.

Example 1.6

What type of accommodation are you living in

during this year of study ?

Halls of Residence Own/Parents House or

Flat
Rented
House/Flat Lodgings

Other (please specify) __________

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Collecting Data

The other category provides for any types which may

have been missed, but care must be taken to make sure
that this category does not end up being the most
popular choice.

Example 1.7
What colour are your eyes ?

Blue Brown

Other (please specify) _______________

(Grey, Green, Hazel and Violet eyes would all
have to be put in the other category)

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Collecting Data
Questions which require a level of opinion should have
the same number of potential answers 'for' as 'against'.

Example 1.8
Do you think the students’ union catering
facilities overall are:

Excellent OK Very Good Bad Quite Good

(Here there are 3 choices on the 'for' side and

only 1 on the 'against')

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Collecting Data

Whenever it is appropriate, remember to account for the

don't knows or the don't haves:
 Example 1.9
How many doors does your car have?
(include the boot, if it is a hatchback)

One Four Two Five Three More than

five Don't own a car

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Collecting Data

Open-Ended Questions

In these, respondents are left to answer in any

manner they choose.

∙ allow for an infinite number of divergent answers. ∙

responses are the hardest to process and analyse ∙

avoid using too many on any one questionnaire.

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Collecting Data

Open ended questions can be very useful in three

particular areas:

1. On pilot surveys - to try and gauge all the

possible responses to a question

Example 1.10
How do you get to and from work on an average day?

2. Probing - to get extra information depending on

choice made by a previous response.

Example 1.11
Was this University your first choice of place to
study for your degree?

If No please briefly explain why __________

3. At the end of a questionnaire or section as a means

of giving the respondent the chance to add anything
they feel is important but is not covered by the
questions.

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Collecting Data

Open ended questions can be very useful to add weight

and credibility to a final report by using actual responses
as direct quotes.

In summary, when looking at the overall design of the

questionnaire remember the following:
∙ Questionnaires should be as short as possible. ∙ The

questions themselves should:

* avoid using complex words and phrases in

their construction

* be meaningful

* not be too technical or involve too much

calculation

* not be too personal or offensive

* not tax the memory

* be unambiguous

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Collecting Data

∙ Questions should be arranged in a logical order.

∙ Questionnaires should be attractively laid out and

constructed.

∙ How the responses will be analysed should be

 considered at the questionnaire design stage.

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Collecting Data

Sources of error
There are several different ways in which errors can
occur and there are steps which can be taken to try and
avoid these.

Sampling errors
∙ arise from the sample not being representative of the
population concerned.

∙ avoided by careful consideration of which sampling

method should be used.

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Collecting Data

Non-sampling errors
arise from a variety of causes including:

∙ incorrect recording of responses (e.g. by

interviewers).
∙ transferring data incorrectly onto a computer for
processing.

∙ refusal of co-operation by sample members (Non

respondents)

∙ failure to make initial contact with sample members

(Non-respondents)

∙ badly designed questions.

∙ generally avoided by good training of the individuals

involved in the data collection and processing
process;

∙ carrying out a pilot survey helps minimise non

sampling errors

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Collecting Data

Overall survey design

Planning

1. Define the survey aims.

2. Define the population.

3. Identify each member of the population.

4. Identify the sampling scheme (How to choose the

sample and how large it should be).

5. Decide upon the method of data collection

(Postal questionnaire; Interviews etc.).

6. Design a questionnaire
(Equally appropriate for personal interviews and
observation).

7. Select and train any people involved in the data

collection process.

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Collecting Data

Fieldwork

1. Select the sample.

2. Collect the data.

3. Follow up non-responses wherever possible.

4. Collate and code information
(particularly if a computer is to be used for the
analysis).

Analysis & interpretation

1. Screen data for recording errors and extreme

values (known as outliers).

2. Carry out any statistical computations.

3. Identify and note any possible sources of error

and/or bias.

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Collecting Data

Publication
Generally in two sections:

1. Written results and conclusions

2. Detailed Statistical Section which includes: ∙

 details of the questionnaires used

∙ sampling details

∙ background statistical theory

∙ summary of data collected.

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Collecting Data

Key points to remember:

1. Data may be defined as categorical (qualitative) or
quantitative.

2. Categorical data can be further divided into

nominal data and ordinal data.
 3. Quantitative data can be further divided into
continuous data and discrete data.

4. Data comes from either a primary or a secondary

source.

5. A census involves collecting data from a population

(all items/people of interest), while a survey
collects data from a sample (a carefully chosen
small group).

6. Primary data may be collected through a postal

questionnaire, a personal interview, a telephone
interview or by observation.

7. Common sense must be used to decide on a

suitable sample size.

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Collecting Data

8. Samples may be chosen through the use of simple

random sampling, stratified random sampling,
systematic sampling, cluster sampling, quota
sampling or multistage sampling.

9. Good questionnaire design is essential to the

 success of a survey.

10. The basic question types used in questionnaires

are dichotomous, multiple choice and open ended.

11. The categories in multiple choice questions should

be comprehensive and mutually exclusive.

12. The answers to open ended questions are

difficult to process and analyse, hence care
should be taken not to overuse these types of
questions.

13. Sampling or non-sampling errors may arise from

the survey process. Non-sampling errors are
generally avoidable.

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