ENGLISH DIDACTICS

UNIT I
1 . APPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE........................................................................................... 2
2 . AT THE LEVEL OF APPROACH ........................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Beliefs about the nature of language ....................................................................................... 3
2.2 Theories on Second Language Acquisition................................................................................ 4
2.3 Variables and factors that Influence Second Language Learning .............................................. 5
2.3.1 Input and interaction. ..................................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 The Role of Formal Instruction in the Learning of a Second Language ....................... 7
2.4 Other important variables or Ingredients of Language Teaching ............................................. 7
3 . LINGUISTIC THEORIES AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT) ................................... 8
3.1 Chomsky’s linguistic competence and Hyme’s communicative competence. .......................... 8
3.2 Halliday’s research .................................................................................................................... 8
3.3 Canale and Swain: The subskills and communicative competence .......................................... 8
3.4 The implications of a communicative view for the classroom .................................................. 8
3.5 Beliefs about the process of language learning/ acquisition .................................................... 9
4 . AT THE LEVEL OF METHOD .............................................................................................................. 9
4.1 The concept of method ............................................................................................................ 9
4.2 The objectives of a method ...................................................................................................... 9
4.3 The role of language and grammar......................................................................................... 10
4.4 The roles of learners and teachers ......................................................................................... 10
4.5 The role of instructional material ........................................................................................... 10
5 . NEW TRENDS IN ELT LITERATURE .................................................................................................. 10
6 . CULTURE-RELATED METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 10

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 ENGLISH DIDACTICS
English didactics is the science of teaching and learning of the English language,
literature, and culture. The study of English as a foreign language didactics has two aims: it
provides study of theoretical concepts and beliefs about language learning and at the same time
it studies the application of these guiding concepts by different approaches concerning teaching
and learning the language in a variety of historical contexts.

An overview by Rey Fonseca

(2020)

UNIT I

THEORETICAL ORIENTATIONS TO L2 METHODS &

APPROACHES

The following names or acronyms have been suggested as professional labels in this course.

TEFL Teaching/ Teachers of English as a Foreign Language.

TESL Teaching/ Teachers of English as a Second Language.
TEAL Teaching/ Teachers of English as an Additional Language.
TESOL Teaching/ Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
ELT English Language Teaching.

1 . APPROACH, METHOD AND TECHNIQUE

According to Edward Anthony (1963) there are three levels of organization in language
teaching.

An approach is a set of correlative assumptions (theories and beliefs) dealing with the nature
of language teaching and learning. It is axiomatic or theoretical.

Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material. It is procedural.

Technique is a particular trick (clever way), stratagem (an artistic plan), or contrivance (an
ingenious action) used to accomplish an immediate objective in the classroom. It is
implementational.

A technique must be consistent with a method and in harmony with an approach.

Anthony´s proposal failed to give sufficient attention to the nature of method itself. He did not
mention the roles of teachers, learners, nor the role of instructional materials.

Based on this proposal, Richard and Rodgers (1986) preferred to consider method as an
umbrella term for the specifications and interrelation of theory and practice, and therefore they
preferred to use the terms Approach, design and procedure.

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Approach refers to the theories and principles about the nature of language and language
learning.

Design specifies the relationship of theories, selection of content (syllabus) tasks, activities,
and the roles of teachers, learners and materials within the method.

Procedure comprises the classroom techniques and practices.

In their opinion a method is theoretically related to and approach, organizationally determined

by a design and practically realized in procedure.

2 . AT THE LEVEL OF APPROACH

2.1 Beliefs about the nature of language

There are three main trends in language theory.

a) The structural view. Language is seen as a system of structurally related elements:

phonological units, grammatical units, grammatical operations, and lexical items. Language
learning means understanding how its elements are interrelated. The target of language
learning is to master these elements. Its contents are organized by elements of structure
and grammar.

Methods that fall in this perspective are Grammar translation, Audiolingual, TPR, and Silent
Way.

b) The functional view. Language is considered as a vehicle for the expression of functional
meaning. This theory goes beyond the grammatical characteristics of language and
emphasizes both the semantic and communicative dimensions. The weak versions of CLT
subscribe to this view of language namely PPP approach. Learning a language means
learning how to use a foreign language to communicate. Language teaching content is
organized by categories of meaning and communicative functions without neglecting
grammar and lexis. As many linguists started to take social and situational contexts, as well
as the attitudes of the speakers into consideration, a series of new disciplines arouse:

Yule gives us a clear definition of each one:

Syntax is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms (form)
Semantics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world.
(meaning)
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those
forms (use)

c) The interactional view. Language is understood as action, that is, “we do things with
words”. This view sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations
and for the performance of social transactions between individuals.

Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. We do things
through language. We use language to learn it. The strong versions of CLT follow this view:
Task-based, Content-based, and participatory approach.

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 J.L. Austin & J. R. Searl advocated that language is much more than transmission of
information or meaning, since it also expresses an intention and produces an effect on the
listener.

Communicative methods: weak and strong versions follow in this view.

2.2 Theories on Second Language Acquisition

The SLA theories presented here represent views which are based on the assumption that first
language and second language learning are similar.

a) Behaviorism. According to behaviorists all learning (verbal and non-verbal) is a

process of habit formation. Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment,
and positive reinforcement for their correct repetitions and imitations.

It is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits associated with
the first language, and errors are seen as the result of L1 interference. This theory has often
been linked to the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH).

It is based on beliefs about the structure of language and descriptive or contrastive

linguistics. Involves isolation of grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 taught either
deductively or inductively in a predetermined sequence. Often involves much meta-linguistic
content or “learning about the language” in order to learn the language.

b) Cognitive theory. Cognitive psychologists tend to see second language acquisition

as the gradual building up of knowledge systems through practice that can eventually be called
on automatically for speaking and understanding.

Learning is a gradual build up of automaticity through practice. (Notices here that practice is
not limited to production of language, but exposure and comprehension is also counted) (We
learn a language to use it in real communication). First the learners focus on understanding
(comprehensible input) certain aspects of the language. Then, they practice and experience
such aspects. Finally, they start to use certain parts of their knowledge so quickly and
automatically. (PPP approach)

Recently, cognitive psychologists have also investigated a phenomenon they call “restructuring”.
This refers to the observation that there are certain things that are not the result of a gradual
build up through practice, but rather they are based on the incorporation of new knowledge in
our existing system and may restructure this system. This may lead to sudden bursts of progress
or apparent back-sliding.

Cognitive theory is a relatively newcomer to SLA research, and has not yet been widely tested
empirically. It cannot easily predict what kinds of structures will be automatized through practice
and what will be restructured.

It is similar to Chomsky´s innatist theory about L1 acquisition and learners are thought
to “construct” internal representations (mental pictures) of the language being learned and to
develop such representations in predictable stages.

What is distinctive about this theory is that it proposes that internal processing strategies operate
on language input without any direct dependence on the learners actually producing the
language. Acquisition takes place internally as learners read and hear samples of language
that they understand. (we first learn certain aspects of a language, then we use them to
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communicate) Oral or written production is useful only when it allows the learner to participate
in communicative situations.

The theory which has had the most influence on SLA practice is the one proposed by Stephen
Krashen whose monitor model constitutes five hypotheses: The acquisition learning hypothesis,
the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the comprehensible input hypothesis, and
the affective filter hypothesis.

Such theory focuses on the psychological and affective pre-dispositions of the learner that
enhance or inhibit learning. Emphasizes interaction among and between teacher and students
and the atmosphere of the learning situation as well as students’ motivation for learning.

c) The interactionist/ socio-constructivist view. Constructivism is a school of thought which

integrates psychological and linguistic principles and emphasizes social interaction and the
discovery, or construction of meaning

Proponents of this theory claim that the crucial element in the language acquisition process is
the modified input that learners are exposed to and the way in which native speakers interact
in conversations with learners. Speakers negotiate meaning in order to be understood.

Long 2003) argues that there are no cases on beginning-level learners acquiring a second
language from native-speakers talk which had not been modified in some way.

This view is based on theories of language acquisition, often referred to as the “natural”
approach, and on the use of language for communication. It encompasses multiple aspects of
the communicative act, with language structures selected according to their utility in achieving
a communicative purpose. Instruction is concerned with the input students receive,
comprehension of the “message” of language and student involvement at the students’ level of
competence.

2.3 Variables and factors that Influence Second Language Learning

The learning of a second language is influenced by a number of variables and factors of different
types: contextual (environment) and individual (age, cognitive style, intelligence, aptitude,
attitude & motivation, personality, affective factors, learning opportunities, type of instruction,
etc.)

Skehan (1989) provides an overview of them. According to him there are five variables. These
may be divided into three independent variables: teaching, learning & context; and two
dependent ones: Learning & outcome.

The first variable is teaching. Factors such as teacher, materials, syllabus, methodology, and
resources will play a significant role.

The second variable is centered on the learners: The factors affecting each learner can be
cognitive, such as intelligence, cognitive style (dependent/independent, oral/visual,
reflexive/impulsive), or aptitude for language learning; they may also be affective, that is,
attitudes and motivation towards learning. Physical and psychological factors such as age, and
personality (self-esteem, extroversion, anxiety, risk-taking)

The third variable is contextual conditions where learning takes place: SL/FL, opportunities for
language use & social environment.

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In the middles of this lies the learning variable, the most complex of all, and is influenced by the
previous three. It consists of two kinds of processes: unconscious (influenced by
generalization, transference and simplification based on L1) and conscious which is monitored
by the learner though the use of learning strategies.

Finally, the outcome is the result of the whole learning process, that is, the proficiency level
attained by the learner in the four skills (listening, speaking, reading & writing) as well as several
aspects of language performance such as errors, interlanguage and affective reactions to the
language, the people and the culture that the target language represents.

2.3.1 Input and interaction.

Ellis (1985) describes input as “the language that is addressed to a learner either by a native
speaker or by another L2 learner”. The notion of input should not be confused with that of intake.
This refers to the part of input which is really processed and assimilated by the learner.

This language processing and assimilation does not usually occur at the very moment we are
told or taught something. Furthermore, the learning of a second language should not be
regarded as a linear process but cyclical; it is necessary to go back to areas already studied at
some point to consolidate them. Using syllabuses, units and lessons is mainly for pedagogical
reasons not for learning requirements. In addition, the nature of input may vary according to the
form of exposure (natural or formal) and the medium used for its transmission (speech or
writing). A central topic in SLA has been the nature and role of this input. In fact, there are
different theories and perspectives on this.

Behaviorism, for instance, stressed the importance of input. The SL was thought to be learned
automatically by forming a series of habits by presenting the L2 in the right doses to the learner.
Chomsky, however, claimed that, on many occasions, there was no match between what the
learners were exposed to and what they actually produced. He believed that learners processed
the information they received through the LAD.

We might say that while the behaviorist theory tries to explain progress purely in terms of what
is going outside the learner (the environment), the nativists, emphasize those factors internal
to the learner. However, the interactionists, treat the acquisition of language as the result of
the interaction between the learner’s metal process and the linguistic environment. The learner
processing mechanisms both determine and are determined by the nature of input. Therefore,
the quality of input affects and is affected by the action of this internal mechanisms. For the
interactionist view of SLA, the important data are not just the utterances produced by the learner,
but the discourse which learner and caretaker both construct and negotiate. Out of this
interaction, it is claimed, learning will take place.

Although, there are still key questions that need to be answered in relation to the function of
input, in SLA, it is quite clear that simple exposure to linguistic information is not enough. This
suggests that input should be modified and adapted in some way so that actual learning may
take place. In this respect Krashen (1985) asserts that for acquisition to occur, input should
always be comprehensible, and slightly above the students´ current level.

Interaction consists of the discourse jointly constructed by the learner and the interlocutor; input
may then be the result of interaction. Input & interaction have been studied in natural settings
and in classroom environments. In the case of natural settings, input has to be considered in
terms of foreigner talk, and in classroom environments as teacher talk. Studies reveal similar
features in both settings, although ungrammatical modifications may be less common in
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classroom interactions. Discourse analysis shows that many classroom interactions follow an
IRF (initiate, response, feedback) pattern, which restricts the opportunity to negotiate meaning.
However, other types of discourse appear when the L2 is used as a vehicle for classroom
organization and for social purposes. Student-centered approaches such as immersion, TBL,
and CLIL can lead to interaction similar to that found in natural settings (Dalton Puffer, 2007)

In one of the few existing studies on the effects of input and interaction on comprehension, Pica,
Young and Doughty (1987) found that modifications in interaction produced higher levels of
comprehension than modifications in the nature of input. The results revealed that learner who
were given the opportunity to ask questions and check their comprehension of the text
understood it much more than those learners who listened to a more simplified version but had
no opportunity to interact while doing the task. In spite of this studies, there is not conclusive
research showing whether input & interaction do affect SLA, and thus further investigation is
required.

2.3.2 The Role of Formal Instruction in the Learning of a Second Language

This has been a highly controversial issue. In Newmark’s view (1966) formal instruction does
not play an important role in learning a L2, therefore, it is more important for learners to spend
their time engaging in conversation with native speakers in real-life situations. However, there
seems to be general agreement on the significant role of formal instruction.

Morpheme and longitudinal studies indicate that formal instruction is useful when the learner is
attending to form, not meaning. While the rate of development is clearly affected by formal
instruction, the natural route or overall sequence is not affected. As regards the rate of
acquisition, the results in general support that instruction aids the success of SLA.

Three different positions attempt to explain classroom SLA.

The non-interface position, associated with Krashen (1982) distinguishes between “acquired”
and “learned” knowledge and argued that they were independent. According to this, the natural
route is only affected by acquisition which is informal and unconscious.

The interface position maintained by Stevick (1980) and Sharwood Smith (1981) defended the
notion that “learned” or explicit knowledge could turn into “acquired” or implicit if there was
enough practice.

The variability position (Taron 1983; Biailystock 1982) saw acquisition and language use as
closely related. Thus, different types of knowledge arose from and are required for performance
of different language tasks.

2.4 Other important variables or Ingredients of Language Teaching

There is a list of important variables when teaching a second language:

• Goals of language learning.
• Content to be taught.
• Beliefs about the nature of a language.
• Beliefs about the process of language learning/ acquisition.
• Amount of preparation for teachers
• Attitudes to different classroom techniques and activities.
• The role and nature of materials.
• The relative roles of teachers and learners.
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 • Attitude to the use of L1.
• Attitude to error.
• Beliefs about evaluation and assessment.

3 . LINGUISTIC THEORIES AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

(CLT)

There have been different linguistic theories that have influenced the development of the CLT
model.

3.1 Chomsky’s linguistic competence and Hyme’s communicative

competence.
Linguistic competence, according to Chomsky, is knowledge and mastery of the underlying
abstract system of rules. Hyme, on the other hand, goes beyond to believe that learners also
need to acquire a communicative competence, that is, language system is always used in a
social context or situation. To complement this view, Swain proposed his Comprehensible
output hypothesis. He thinks that learners also need to be encouraged to produce language
fairly accurately in order to learn it. Allwright sees the two competences as overlapping.

3.2 Halliday’s research

He proposed a functional view of language. He said that the functions of language and all
components of meaning are brought into focus only though the study of language in use (the
speech acts and texts)

In his research in children learning their first language, Halliday identified that language
performs seven basic functions:

• Instrumental function: using language to get things

• Regulatory: to control the behavior of others
• Interactional: to create interaction
• Personal: To express personal feelings and meaning
• Heuristic: to learn and discover
• Imaginative: to create a world of imagination
• Representational: to communicate information

3.3 Canale and Swain: The subskills and communicative competence

They identified four sub-groups that make up communicative competence
• Grammatical: the ability to use grammar and lexis accurately (Linguistics)
• Sociolinguistic: ability to understand the social context.
• Discourse: ability to interpret a message
• Strategic: ability to start, maintain, repair, and finish communication

3.4 The implications of a communicative view for the classroom

Widdowson proposed a set of contrasting concepts between linguistic categories and
communicative categories (p. 85). His purpose was to point out that if classroom practice was
to reflect the communicative view, it needed to include more communicative pedagogy which
does not mean a complete change in pedagogy, but a shift of emphasis and focus. It would
mean to focus on appropriacy rather than correctness, use rather than usage (knowledge of
rules), communicative abilities rather than linguistic skills, etc.
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Widdowson also characterizes the two approaches as the medium and mediation views. The
medium view will focus attention on the syntactic and semantic properties of the language itself
(structure-based) and look for ways to manipulate them with the purpose of transmission of
meaning – weak version of CLT. A view of language as mediation (communicative classroom)
will focus attention on creating conditions for negotiation. Learning, in this view, is a self-
generating process by the learners themselves, though controlled by the teacher sometimes –
strong version of CLT.

3.5 Beliefs about the process of language learning/ acquisition

Theories of language learning have influenced decisions for the location of classroom activities
in a continuum
a) Deductive ……………………………inductive
b) Analytic ……………………….. experimental
c) Habit formation ………………. Naturalistic acquisition

4 . AT THE LEVEL OF METHOD

4.1 The concept of method

There is a fundamental weakness in the concept of method: “the prolonged preoccupation with
the new methods is becoming increasingly unproductive and misguided” (Stern, 1983). The
concept of method, rather than analyzing what is happening in the language classrooms,
is regarded as a prescription for classroom behavior, disregarding other extrinsic factors
that condition teaching such as social, cultural, political and philosophical ones. This is why; the
search for it has disappeared, and the developments in methodology have moved from the idea
of method to the idea of approach.

Similarly, Clark (1983) states that “the term method is a label without substance” because after
the 70s professionals lost enchantment and certainty about the benefits of the concept of
method with the new understanding of language as a communicative event.

Despite all the methods and approaches invented, we are no nearer to a universally appropriate
and effective language teaching method. Peter Strevens (1981) states that “the complex
circumstances of teaching and learning languages make it inconceivable that any single method
could achieve optimum success in all circumstances”

4.2 The objectives of a method

Most of the methods include information about the syllabus to be followed and the
learning objectives to be achieved. These may be focused on:
• Language- using skills
• Language knowledge
• Specific situational abilities
• General competence
• Aspects of the culture/ literature of the target language.

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 4.3 The role of language and grammar

Each method advocates a specific syllabus model and different types of learning tasks and
teaching activities. Techniques and activities are the trademarks of methods.

4.4 The roles of learners and teachers

Some aspects of teacher role will depend on the expectations of learners, the institution and the
society rather than on the method.

4.5 The role of instructional material

This is another characteristic by which different approaches are easily identified. While
a textbook may be the cornerstone of one method (CLL), other methods may require teachers
to select and produce their own material (CLT)

5 . NEW TRENDS IN ELT LITERATURE

New trends in ELT are moving in the direction of the learner and the classroom rather than of
prescriptive methods and theoretical models. “Method is a word used with different labels that
is meant to distinguish different groups of teaching practices; but the term is too global and lacks
specificity” (Fanselowe, 1987) What teachers need to do is to select specific activities and tasks
that are relevant and effective in their own local contexts.

Richards (1990) claimed that “methodology can be characterized as the activities, tasks, and
learning experiences selected by the teacher in order to achieve learning, and how these are
used within the teaching/learning process”. A common notion is that what is important in
education is not so much the product as the process involved in searching for a method.

In the 1990s several applied linguists abandoned the terms “method” and “approach” in favor of
teaching techniques and teaching styles. Vivian Cook (1991) defines a teaching style as a
loosely connected set of teaching techniques.

6 . CULTURE-RELATED METHODOLOGY

There is now an increasing demand for teaching culture in language teaching since it is
believed that language makes sense in its cultural context. Bryam (1991) advocates a cultural
studies approach to language learning. He thinks that the cultural content may significantly
contribute to the learner’s linguistic, cognitive and social development.
However, the question that arises here is whose culture is to be taught? Research indicates that
different meaning systems, which exist across cultures, make the transference of particular
pedagogical practices from one culture to another problematic. Also, Ellis (1996) sees a need
to make new knowledge sensitive to existing beliefs and values of learners and teachers.

“Learning involves the incorporating of new information into old sets of beliefs
and knowledge for the purpose of maintaining a consistent world view”.

Therefore, in order to have an appropriate methodology, we need to adapt methodology and

materials as well as adapt teacher/ learner roles to different contexts considering culturally
specific traditions. What is familiar mode of reasoning in one culture may not be familiar at all in
another (Widdowson, 1990) and to encourage learner autonomy universally may lead at best to
inappropriate pedagogies and at worst to cultural imposition (Penny Cook, 19997)
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