Data Storage

Dr. Sana’a Wafa Al-Sayegh

Engineering Department
University College of Applied Sciences

2022 - 2023
1
Outline

► Introduction
► Bits and their storage
► Boolean operations
► Gates
► Main memory
► Memory organization
► Mass storage

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 Introduction

► We begin our study of computer

science by considering how
information is encoding and stored
inside computers

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Bits and their storage
► Inside the computers information is
encoded as patterns of 0s and 1s. These
digits are called bits (binary digits).

► Bits are used to represent:

► Numeric values

► Characters

► Images

► Sounds
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Boolean operations
► bit 0 represent the value false
► bit 1 represent the value true
► Operations that manipulate
true/false values are called Boolean
operations.
► basic Boolean operations are:
► AND, OR, and XOR (exclusive or)
► There is also NOT

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 Boolean operations
► AND, OR, and XOR operators take two
operands, but the NOT operator takes a
single operand
► AND
► The AND operator performs logical
conjunction on two Boolean
expressions.
► If both expressions are equal to true
(1), then the AND return true,
otherwise all other cases should
produce an output False (0) 6
Boolean operations

► OR
► The OR operator performs logical
disjunction on two Boolean
expressions.
► OR operator returns true value
when at least one of their Boolean
expression is equal to true.

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 Boolean operations

► XOR (exclusive or)

► XOR performs logical exclusion on two
expressions.
► XOR produce an output of 1 (true) when
one of its inputs is 1 and the other is 0
► (In short, the XOR operation produces
an output of 1 when its input are
different)

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Boolean operations

► NOT
► The operation NOT is another
Boolean operation. It differs
from AND, OR, and XOR because
it has only one input.
► Its output is the opposite of
that input.

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A pictorial representation of AND, OR, XOR, and NOT
gates as well as their input and output values
 Gates

► Gate is a device that produces the output

of a Boolean operation.
► Its often implemented as (small) electronic
circuits, in which the digits 0 and 1 are
represented as voltage levels.
► Gates provides the building blocks from
which computer are constructed.

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Gates

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Exercise
► What input bit patterns will cause
the following circuits to produce an
output of 1?

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Main memory

► For storing data, a computer contains a

large collection of circuits, each capable
of storing a single bit.
► Also known as RAM “Random Access
Memory”

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Memory organization
A computer main memory is organized in
manageable units called cells.
Cell: A unit of main memory (typically 8 bits
which is one byte)
Each cell’s size equal to eight (8) bits.
higher-order end: the left end of the row of bits
on the memory
lower-order end: the right end
most significant bit: the last bit at the high-order
end.
least significant bit: the bit at the right end.
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Memory organization

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Memory organization
► To identify individual cell in a computer’s
main memory, each cell is assigned a
unique “name”, called its address.
► Address: A “name” that uniquely
identifies one cell in the computer’s main
memory. As shown in the following Figure

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Measuring memory capacity

► Kilobyte = 1024 byte

► Megabyte = 1024 kilobyte
► Gigabyte = 1024 megabyte
► Terabyte = 1024 Gigabyte
► Petabyte = 1024 Terabyte

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Mass storage

► Due to the volatility and limited size

of a computer’s main memory, most
computers have additional memory
devices called mass storage (or
secondary storage) system.
► Example: magnetic disks, CDs, DVDs,
and flash drivers.

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Advantages of mass storage

► less volatility
► large storage capacity
► low cost
► the ability to remove the
storage medium from machine
for archival purpose

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Disadvantages of mass storage

► It require mechanical motion and

therefore require significantly more
time to store and retrieve data than a
machine’s main memory, where all
activities are performed
electronically.

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Mass Storage Systems
► Magnetic Systems
► Disk
► Tape
► Optical Systems
► CD
► DVD
► Flash Drives

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Magnetic systems

► Example: magnetic disk

► Thin spinning disk with magnetic
coating is used to hold data.
► Read/write heads are placed above
and/or below the disk so that as the
disk spins, each head traverses a
circle, called track.
► Repositioning the read/write heads,
different concentric tracks can be
accessed.
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Magnetic systems

► Each track divided into small arcs called

sectors on which information is recorded as
a continuous string of bits.

► The location of tracks and sectors are

marked magnetically through the format
process.

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A magnetic disk storage system

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Magnetic systems
► Magnetic disk performance evaluation depends
on four criteria's:
► Seek time, the time required to move the
read/write head from track to another.
► Rotation delay (latency time), half -average
calculation the time required for the disk to
make complete rotation.
► Access time, the sum of the seek time and
rotation delay.
► Transfer rate, the rate at which data can be
transferred to/from the disk.
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 Optical system

► Another class of mass storage.

► CD, consists of reflective material covered with a
clear protective coating
► Information is recorded by creating variations in
their reflective surfaces
► Information retrieved by laser beam that
monitors irregularities on the reflective surface

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Flash drivers
► In mass storage, data storage and
retrieval is slow compared to the
speed of electronic circuitry .
► Flash memory has the potential of
solving this drawback.
► Bits are stored by sending
electronic signals directly to the
storage medium
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Representing text
► Each of different symbol on the text
(alphabet letter) is assigned a unique
bit patterns
► the text is then representing as a long
string of bits.
► ASCII” American Standard Code for
Information Interchange”: Uses
patterns of 7-bits to represent most
symbols used in written English
text.
► Today, it is extended to 8-bits. 29
Representing Text
► Each character (letter, punctuation,
etc.) is assigned a unique bit pattern.
ASCII: Uses patterns of 7-bits to
represent most symbols used in
written English text
ISO standard: Uses patterns of
32-bits to represent most symbols
used in languages world wide
Unicode: Uses patterns of 16-bits to
represent the major symbols used in
languages world wide 30
Figure 1.13 The message “Hello.” in ASCII

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Representing Numeric Values
► Binary notation is a way of
representing numeric values
using only digits 0 and 1.
► Limitations of computer
representations of numeric
values
► Overflow: occurs when a
value is too big to be
represented
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 Representing Numeric Values

► A number can be represented

differently in different systems. For
example, the two numbers (2A)16
and (52)8 both refer to the same
quantity, (42)10, but their
representations are different.
► Each number system is associated
with a base
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Representing Numeric Values

⚫ A number represented as:

Integer Fraction

⚫ Each digit carries a certain

weight based on its position
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Binary system

► In the binary system, there are

only two symbols or possible digit
values, 0 and 1. This base-2
system can be used to represent
any quantity that can be
represented in decimal or other
number system

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 Binary system
⚫ For example, here is (11001) in binary
2

⚫ (101.11)2

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Decimal

► The decimal system is composed of

10 numerals or symbols. These 10
symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9; using these symbols as digits
of a number, we can express any
quantity.
► The decimal system, also called
the base-10 system

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 Decimal system

⚫ (224)10

⚫ Note that the digit 2 in position 1 has the value 20, but the
same digit in position 2 has the value 200

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Figure 1.15 The base ten and binary
systems

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Figure 1.16 Decoding the binary
representation 100101

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Exercise

► Convert each of the following binary representation to

its base ten:
► 0101
► 1001
► 1011
► 0110
► 1000
► 10010

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Figure 1.18 An algorithm for finding
the binary representation of a
positive integer

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Figure 1.18 Applying the algorithm in Figure 1.15
to obtain the binary representation of thirteen

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Hexadecimal (Hex)
• Hex is a numbering system that uses Base 16. The numbers
0-910 are represented normally, but the numbers 1010 through
1510 are represented by the letters A through F
• 1 hex digit is equivalent to 4 bits
• Numbers are 0,1,2…..8,9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
• The following shows that the number (2AE)16 in hexadecimal is
equivalent to 686 in decimal.

• The equivalent decimal number is N = 512 + 160 + 14 = 686.

Hexadecimal (Hex)

► Using hexadecimal, a very large binary string of 1s and

0s can be represented with just a few hexadecimal
numbers by breaking the binary number into groups of
four and then using the hexadecimal equivalent; for
example,

► 1101100101001111 can be written as 1101 1001 0100 1111

Hexadecimal to decimal
• The following shows how to convert the
hexadecimal number (1A)16 to decimal

= 1 × 161 + A × 160
=16 + 10 ×1
=16+10 = 26
convert (F4C)16 to decimal

= (F x 162) + (4 x 161) + (C x 160)

= (15 x 256) + (4 x 16) + (12 x 1)
Decimal to hexadecimal
convert (4768)10 to hex.
= 4768 / 16 = 298 remainder 0
= 298 / 16 = 18 remainder 10 (A)
= 18 / 16 = 1 remainder 2
= 1 / 16 = 0 remainder 1
Answer: 1 2 A 0
Hexadecimal to binary
• (24C)16
• Each hexadecimal digit is converted to 4-bit
patterns
• 2 → 0010, 4 → 0100, and C → 1100
• (306 ) = (00110000 0110)
Binary to hexadecimal

Convert (010011100010)2 to hexadecimal ?

We first arrange the binary number in 4-bit patterns:

0100 1110 0010
4 E 2
Convert (0010110001101011)2 to hexadecimal?
0010 1100 0110 1011
2 C 6 B
 Octal
► The Octal numbering system is similar to the Hexadecimal numbering
system.
► This big difference is that the maximum value for Octal is 7 since it is
Base 8
► 1 octal digit is equivalent to 3 bits.
Octal
• (1256)8
Octal to Decimal

► convert (632)8 to decimal

= (6 x 82) + (3 x 81) + (2 x 80)
= (6 x 64) + (3 x 8) + (2 x 1)
= 384 + 24 + 2
= (410)10
Decimal to Octal

► convert (177)10 to octal

177 / 8 = 22 remainder is 1
22 / 8 = 2 remainder is 6
2/8=0 remainder is 2
Answer = 2 6 1
Binary to octal

► 111001112 = 3478
► 11000 010101010 010 0012 = 30252218
Octal to binary

► convert (632)8 to binary

(110011010)2
Binary addition

► To add two integers represented in binary notation, we follow the same

procedure in the traditional base ten except that all sums are computed
using the following addition fact.

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Binary addition

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Fraction in binary

► The digit to the right of radix point represent the

fractional part.
► The positions are assigned fractional quantities
► The first position is assigned the quantity ½ (which is
2-1), and so on

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Fraction in binary

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Decimal fraction to binary

► Covert 0.625 to base 2

0.625 x 2 = 1.25
0.625 = .1
0.25 x 2 = 0.50
0.625 = .10
0.50 x 2 = 1.00
0.625 = .101

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Representing images

► One mean of representing an image it to interpret the

image as a collection of dots, each is called pixel.
► Pixel is a picture element.
► Each pixel is encoded.
► Image is represented as a collection encoded pixels.
► Such collection is called bit map

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Black and white image

► Each pixel can be represented by a single bit.

► For more elaborate black and white picture, each pixel
can be represented by a collection of bits.

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Color image

► RGB encoding
► Each pixel is represented as three color: red, green and
blue.
► One byte is normally used to represent the intensity of
each color.
► Three byte of storage are required to represent a single
pixel.

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Representing sounds

► The most generic method of encoding audio information is

to sample the amplitude of the sound wave at regular
intervals and record the series of values obtained.
► Sound waves rises in amplitude, falls, rises at a higher
level, and then drop back to 0.
► The voice at one end of the communication is encoded as
numeric values representing the amplitude of the voice.
► The numeric values can be then transmitted over the
communication line to the receiving end.

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Figure 1.14 The sound wave represented
by the sequence 0, 1.5, 2.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0,
4.0, 3.0, 0

0-65
Storing integers

► Two’s complement Notation, excess notation are used

for representing integer values in computing equipment.

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Two’s complement Notation

► The most popular system within today’s

computer.
► system in which negative numbers are
represented by the two's complement of
the absolute value
► Used a fixed number of bits to represent
each of the values in the system.
► In today’s equipment, it is common to
represent by a pattern of 32 bits which
allows a wide range of numbers to be
represented.
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Figure 1.21 Two’s complement notation
systems

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Two’s complement Notation

► The leftmost bit of a bit pattern represent the sign of

the value.
► “1” represent the negative sign.
► “0” represent the positive sign
► The complement of a pattern is the pattern obtained by
changing all the 0s to1s and all the 1s to 0s.

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Coding the value using Two’s complement

► Representing negative value

► Copy the original pattern from the right to left until a 1
has been copied, then complement the remaining bits until
the final bit pattern.

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Example of encoding value

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Addition in two’s complement

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Addition in two’s complement

► To add values represented in two’s complement, we

apply the same way that we used for binary.
► The answer must be in the same length, this means that
any extra bit generated at the left of the answer by a
final carry must be truncated.

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The problem of overflow

► When using the two’s complement with

pattern with four bits, the largest positive
integer that can be represented is 7 and
the most negative integer is -8.
► We can’t obtain the correct answer to the
problem 5+4.
► This is called overflow problem
► Overflow is the problem that occurs when
a computation produces a value that falls
outside the range of values that can be
represented.
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Excess notation

► Another method of representing integers values

► As in two’s complement , each of the values is
represented by a bit patterns of the same length.
► The difference between an excess system and two’s
complement id that the sign bits are reversed.

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Figure 1.24 An excess eight conversion table

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Figure 1.25 An excess notation system using bit patterns
of length three

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