Diploma Thesis1.edited

Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment
Diploma Thesis
Name of Student
University of Affiliation
Professor’s Name
Course Name
Date
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Table of Contents
I.THEORETICAL PART...................................................................................................................................5
1. Introduction.........................................................................................................................................5
2. Formation of Petroleum (Crude Oil)....................................................................................................6
2.1 Fossil Petroleum............................................................................................................................6
2.2 Anaerobic Decay............................................................................................................................6
2.3 Kerogen Formation........................................................................................................................6
2.4 Transformation of Kerogen into Fossil Fuels..................................................................................7
2.5 Oil Window (Temperature Range).................................................................................................7
2.6 Abiogenic Petroleum.....................................................................................................................8
3. Discovery of Oil....................................................................................................................................9
4. History of Petrochemical in Oman.....................................................................................................10
5. The Technology used in Oil and Gas Extraction.................................................................................12
5.1. Hydraulic Fracturing....................................................................................................................12
5.2. Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology............................................................................................13
5.3. Gas Injection...............................................................................................................................14
5.4. Thermal Injection........................................................................................................................15
5.5. Steam Flooding...........................................................................................................................16
5.6. Fire Flooding...............................................................................................................................16
5.7. Chemical Injection......................................................................................................................17
5.8. Polymer Flooding........................................................................................................................18
5.9. Microbial Injection......................................................................................................................18
5.10.Liquid Carbon Dioxide Superfluids.............................................................................................19
5.11. Water-Alternating-Gas(WAG)...................................................................................................20
5.12. Plasma-Pulse.............................................................................................................................21
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6. Environmental Effects (Water, Soil, Air)............................................................................................23
6.1. Phenol Compound......................................................................................................................24
6.2. Acetone Compound....................................................................................................................25
6.3. Benzene Compound....................................................................................................................25
6.4. Petroleum Products....................................................................................................................26
6.5. Nitrogen Compound...................................................................................................................26
7. Pollution Generated in Connection with Oil and Gas Extraction.......................................................27
8. Legal Regulations and Laws in Oman.................................................................................................28
9. Properties of Wastewater..................................................................................................................31
9.1. Physical Properties......................................................................................................................31
9.2. Chemical Properties....................................................................................................................32
9.3. Biological Properties...................................................................................................................32
10. Treatment of Wastewater...............................................................................................................34
10.1. Wastewater Treatment Methods Using Physical Means..........................................................34
10.2. Wastewater Treatment Using Biological Methods...................................................................34
10.3. Wastewater treatment processes that use chemicals..............................................................35
11. Treatment of Petrochemical Wastewater.......................................................................................37
11.1. Method of Chemical Treatment................................................................................................37
11.2. Method of Physical Treatment.................................................................................................38
11.3. Method of Biological Treatment...............................................................................................38
12. Steps could be taken to Reduce the Environmental Impacts...........................................................39
13. Future Expectations Reading the Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment.......................................41
References.................................................................................................................................................43
List of Figures.............................................................................................................................................46
List of Tables..............................................................................................................................................47
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Legal regulations and laws regulating petrochemical industries in Oman.................................................48
Environment, Climate and Investments................................................................................................48
Exploration............................................................................................................................................48
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs)............................................................................................49
Environmental permits..........................................................................................................................49
Waste....................................................................................................................................................50
Flares and vents.....................................................................................................................................50
Decommissioning..................................................................................................................................50
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I.THEORETICAL PART
1. Introduction
By accumulating worth to low-worth by-products that have limited utility in the fuels business,
the petrochemicals industry has grown out of oil and gas processing. Plastics, explosives, solvents,
fertilizers, medicines, synthetic rubber, additives, and adhesives are only a few of the valuable items
made by the sector today. Nearly every aspect of contemporary civilization may benefit from the use of
these materials. To mention just a few popular uses, petrochemical products may be found in anything
from automobiles to packaging to home items to medical equipment. New technologies continue to be
used by the sector, as does the capacity to process a wider range of raw materials [1]. A wide range of
chemical process technologies is used in the petrochemicals sector to transform raw materials sourced
from refining and gas processing into useful products.
Petrochemicals have been examined for their environmental impact in a wide variety of ways.
The use of petrochemicals results in contamination of the air, water, and soil. This may affect more
specialized systems, such as specific ecosystems, but it also has global ramifications. Global climate
change may be exacerbated by emissions of greenhouse gases from the manufacture of petrochemicals.
In addition to particulate matter, petrochemical factories release carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and other pollutants into the air. Even while soil contamination normally only affects
the area immediately around the petrochemical plant, runoff from it may pollute the water. As a
consequence of spills and leaks, chemicals accumulate in the soil, posing a threat to the ecosystem's
health and causing various types of pollution. Additionally, petrochemical manufacturing adds to the
contamination of surface and subsurface waters in lakes, ponds, and streams. Using petrochemicals
produces wastewater that is full of sulfides, ammonia, and other noxious byproducts and toxins [15].
The thesis will thus be focused on the water pollution concerns in Oman, as well as the environmental
repercussions of petrochemicals on the ecosystem, causes, and possible remedies.
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2. Formation of Petroleum (Crude Oil)

2.1 Fossil Petroleum
Petroleum is a fossil fuel-generated from ancient petrified organic elements like zooplankton
and algae. Massive quantities of these remnants sank to the bottom of the sea or lake, where they were
quickly buried by sediments like mud and silt or stagnant water (water devoid of dissolved oxygen). The
oxygen content in the water was less than 0.1 mg/l at a depth of around 1 m below the substrate,
indicating anoxic conditions. Temperatures, on the other hand, stayed the same. The lowest portions of
a sea or lake became very hot and suffocating as more sediment fell to the bottom. As a result of this
process, organic matter was transformed into kerogen, a waxy compound present in diverse oil shales
across the globe, and subsequently into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as
catagenesis [2]. Petroleum is formed via hydrocarbon pyrolysis at high temperatures and pressures, or
both. Below, you'll find a detailed description of each step.
2.2 Anaerobic Decay

After the organic waste was buried behind a layer of silt or water, aerobic bacteria were unable
to decompose it. Anaerobic bacteria, on the other hand, were able to break down sulfates and nitrates
in the matter by utilizing the matter as a source for other chemical reactions. Hydrolysis of
polysaccharides and proteins by anaerobic bacteria led to the earliest stages of this matter's
decomposition: simple sugars and amino acids, respectively. The enzymes of the bacteria further
anaerobically oxidized these compounds: for example, amino acids proceeded via oxidative
decarboxylation to imino acids, which in return reacted extra too -keto acids and ammonia.
Monosaccharides degraded CO2 and methane as a result. Fulvic acids are the anaerobic decomposition
products of amino acids, monosaccharides, phenols, and aldehydes [20]. Under these modest
circumstances, the fats and waxes were not hydrolyzed to a great extent.
2.3 Kerogen Formation

Antibiotics and bactericides were both created by the Actinomycetales order of bacteria in past
events (e.g., streptomycin). Consequently, the activity of anaerobic bacteria stopped approximately 10
meters below the surface. It included fulvic acids, as well as lipids and waxes that had not yet been fully
reacted and lignin that had been somewhat changed. Lower sections of the sea or lake were very hot
and pressurized as more organic debris fell to the bottom. When this combination was exposed to the
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elements, they started to form complex chemicals known as kerogen. This is how phenol and
formaldehyde molecules react to urea-formaldehyde resins, but the production of kerogen was more
complicated because of the greater diversity of reactants [3]. Diagenesis is a term that refers to the
alteration of materials by the dissolution and recombination of their components, which is what kerogen
creation is all about.
2.4 Transformation of Kerogen into Fossil Fuels

Temperatures may reach up to 50°C at depths of around one kilometer below the surface of the
Earth. There are two ways to look at kerogen: either it may be open to oxygen, oxidized, and therefore
lost, or buried deep in the crust of the Earth and slowly transformed into fossil fuels like petroleum,
which is what happens when kerogen is formed. The latter was achieved by a process known as
catagenesis, in which kerogen underwent several drastic structural changes. Thousands to millions of
years and no external factors were involved in these processes. For the radical reactions, kerogen was
attracted to either carbon-rich or hydrogen-rich products, such as anthracene or methane, depending
on the H/C ratio of the product. The fuel mixture's composition was determined by the kerogen's
stoichiometry since catagenesis was isolated from external reactants. Algal and humic kerogens are the
three most common forms of kerogen, generated mostly from algae, plankton, and woody plants (this
phrase covers trees, shrubs, and lianas). Even though it occurred at temperatures of 60 to several
hundred °C, catagenesis was pyrolytic. Long response times allowed pyrolysis to take place.
Decomposition of radioactive elements in the crust, particularly 40K, 232
Th, 235
U, and 238
U, provided the
heat needed for catagenesis [21]. As the geothermal gradient increased, so did the temperature, which
ranged from 10 to 30°C each kilometer below the Earth's surface. Larger local heating might have been
caused by unusual magma intrusion.
2.5 Oil Window (Temperature Range)

The temperature range in which oil occurs is commonly referred to as an "oil window" by
geologists. Oil is trapped in the form of kerogen below the minimum temperature. Thermal cracking
occurs above the maximum temperature at which oil is transformed into natural gas. Occasionally, oil
that was created at great depths may move to the surface and get stuck. One example of this is the
Athabasca Oil Sands [4].
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2.6 Abiogenic Petroleum

Geological and geochemical data has shown that Russian scientists in the mid-1850s offered an
alternate process to the one described above, the abiogenic petroleum formation theory (petroleum
generated by inorganic causes). However, economically viable levels of abiogenic oil have never been
discovered. According to Larry Nation of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, the debate
isn't about whether abiogenic oil reservoirs exist at all. When it comes to the amount of time and effort
geologists should commit to finding them, there's a lot of debate [8].
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3. Discovery of Oil
In 600 B.C., the Chinese found oil and used bamboo tubes to transport it. However, Colonel
Drake's celebrated oil finding in Pennsylvania in 1859 and the Spindletop discovery in Texas in 1901 laid
the groundwork for the new oil industry. Coal, on the other hand, was much less malleable and flexible.
Additional to that, crude kerosene gave a cheap and dependable alternative to "coal oil" and whale oil
for igniting lanterns. The remainder of the inventory was thrown away. Oil became the dominant energy
source after the twentieth century's technical advances. Both the incandescent light bulb and the
vehicle were instrumental in bringing about this shift [5]. Automobile ownership and power usage
expanded at an exponential rate, increasing oil demand.
It was in 1919 when gasoline sales outstripped kerosene sales. During World War I, oil-powered
ships, vehicles, tanks, and military aircraft demonstrated oil's importance as a military tool as well as a
strategic energy supply. As a byproduct of oil production before the 1920s, natural gas was burnt (or
flared). Gas was eventually employed as a fuel for heating and powering industrial and residential
buildings. Natural gas has become a valuable commodity in and of itself as the worth of the resource has
been recognized [3]. Therefore, oil is used as an energy source in combustion processes - power plants
and engines, it is also used in the chemical industry as a substrate for organic synthesis.
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4. History of Petrochemical in Oman

To meet Oman's vital domestic need for refined goods, the Refinery Company in Oman was
started in 1982 as a restricted liability organization with a refining capacity of fifty thousand barrels per
day (7,900 m3/d). As a result of 1987 and 2001 renovations, the Refinery then produced eighty-five
thousand barrels per day (13,500 m 3/d). Its capacity was increased to one hundred and six thousand
barrels per day (16,900 m3/d) by a 2007 renovation project. Oman Petrochemical Refineries Corporation
(OPRC) was the new name of the newly combined company. The sultanate's worldwide footprint had
grown, as had the company's asset base, and its investment income. It was no secret that Oman's
energy officials were always looking for better methods to put their assets together. Recent
consolidation takes occurred in this framework, with the possibility for future spin-offs to arise [6]. Part
of this growth could be attributed to the fact that ORPIC was founded in the early 1980s.
In addition to its aromatics and polypropylene factories, the business owned two refineries in
Sohar and Muscat. When it came to the first refinery, the Sohar Refinery Improvement Project (SRIP)
started construction in 2014. As a result of this $2.1billion investment project, the facility brought more
than 5 new units: a vacuum distillation unit, a crude distillation unit, a delayed coker unit, an ethane
blowing unit, and a hydrocracker unit. MEED, a Middle Eastern company intelligence website and
magazine honored SRIP with its Project of the Year award in May of 2018. With the addition of eighty-
two thousand BPD, the refinery's current capacity of one hundred and sixteen thousand BPD increased
by about seventy percent. For certain kinds of fuel, this number was greater [1]. Diesel capacity had
expanded by ninety percent, jet fuel and kerosene had increased by ninety-three percent, liquefied
petroleum gas had increased by ninety percent, naphtha had increased by one hundred and seventy-five
percent, and propylene had increased by forty-four percent.
SRIP also placed a high value on environmental best practices and adhered closely to local and
EU performance requirements as well as EU regulations on emissions reduction. Volatile organic
compound and tail gas emissions have been treated at the facility with the use of a sulfur recovery unit,
carbon absorption equipment, and vent scrub. ORPIC planned to employ the increased capacity at the
new Liwa Plastics Industry Complex, which was to cost $3.6 billion. The refinery and aromatics complex
in Sohar would offer light ends, as well as natural gas liquids and dry gas generated by the delayed
coking and hydrocracker units. ORPIC's $320 million Muscat-Sohar Product Pipeline expansion project
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(MSPP) was also significant. An intermediate distribution and storage facility in Jifnain connected Muscat
and Sohar refineries across a 280-kilometer stretch. First, of its sort in the sultanate, it was expected to
reduce gasoline truck traffic between the two locations by almost 70% [7]. Leak detection and control,
as well as supervisory control and data collecting technologies, were all part of the MSPP's capabilities.
The program, therefore, began operations in late 2017.
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5. The Technology used in Oil and Gas Extraction

There has been an increase in oil and natural gas production throughout the globe due to
advancements in drilling and completion technology. In addition to enabling more oil and gas to be
produced with fewer wells, new technologies have helped lessen the environmental effect of energy
production. The discovery of new resources, access to harsh or isolated places, and the development of
reservoirs that were previously uneconomical to produce will all play a significant part in satisfying
global energy demand as a result of advances in technology. Modern technology has improved oil and
gas recovery by increasing the amount of oil and natural gas that can be squeezed out of a well while
also lowering its impact on the environment [2]. Different mining/extraction technologies include
hydraulic fracturing, Enhanced Oil Recover technology, gas injection, thermal injection, steam flooding,
fire flooding, chemical injection, polymer injection, microbial flooding, liquid carbon dioxide superfluids,
plasma pulse technologies.
5.1. Hydraulic Fracturing

To extract petroleum (oil) and natural gas from deep below the Earth, the drilling procedure
known as hydraulic fracturing (fracking) is utilized. Fracking involves pumping water, chemicals, and
sand under high pressure into fractures in the Earth's surface and subsurface. Rocks like shale can store
gases, water, or oil far under the surface (some 7,000 feet/2,133 meters). Drilling for oil and gas is
facilitated by hydraulic fracturing. A vertical well is used to create horizontal "veins," which are then
filled with water (along with sand and chemical additives) and pumped at exceptionally high pressure
[8]. As a result, fractures form in the rock, allowing gas, oil, and water to escape. Storage tanks are filled
with the water that returns from the horizontal wells and the gases and oils that have been pushed
down into them.
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Figure 1: Hydraulic Fracturing [3]
5.2. Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology

The so-called Shale Revolution in U.S. oil and gas production has been made possible by
breakthroughs in oil and gas technology. Oil and gas may now be extracted from previously inaccessible
low-permeability geological formations thanks to hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling. Until
recently, Oman was a well-known consumer of oil, accounting for 18 percent of world consumption, but
this has since decreased. New advancements in Oman's oil and gas business have promoted the creation
of new jobs, boosted investment in oil and gas-producing areas, and decreased gasoline costs for
consumers. Oman's Oil and gas production innovations are spreading beyond Oman's borders. In
Canada, South America, and Africa, multinational oil firms are already exploiting unconventional
hydrocarbon resources in quest of better profits [6]. Tar sands and deepwater water drilling are two of
the most important of these new technologies.
Enhanced Oil Recovery, or EOR (also known as tertiary recovery) technology, has been widely
used in Oman. The Qarn Alam oil field, owned by Petroleum Development Oman, is the world's first and
biggest full-field steam injection EOR project. This kind of EOR involves the use of three basic methods:
chemical and gas injection. Nearly 60 percent of Oman's EOR output is accounted for by gas injection
that employs gases like nitrogen, natural gas, or carbon dioxide (CO 2). Thirty percent of Oman's EOR
output comes from the thermal injection, which introduces heat into the reservoir [9]. Polymers are
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long-chained molecules that may be used to enhance the efficacy of waterfloods in Oman, accounting
for around 10% of the country's EOR output.
Figure 2: Enhanced Oil Recovery [5]
5.3. Gas Injection

Enhanced oil recovery now relies heavily on gas injection or miscible flooding. To put it another
way, miscible flooding refers to the process of injecting miscible gases into a storage reservoir. As a
result of the lower interfacial tension, miscible displacement maintains reservoir pressure and enhances
the displacement of oil. When two fluids interact with one other, an interface is created between them.
Total displacement efficiency is achieved as a result. CO 2, natural gas, and nitrogen are all examples of
gases that may be employed. It is standard practice to utilize carbon dioxide as a miscible displacement
fluid since it is cheap compared to liquefied petroleum gas and decreases the oil's viscosity [7]. Oil
displacement by CO2 injection relies on the behavior of the phase of the mixes of that crude and gas that
are heavily reliant on pressure and reservoir temperature.
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Figure 3: Gas Injection [7]
5.4. Thermal Injection

Different procedures are used for heating crude oil and/or vaporizing a portion of it to lower its
viscosity and hence decrease its mobility ratio. The permeability of the oil is enhanced when the surface
tension is reduced by the rising heat. Also, the heated oil may be turned into better oil by vaporizing and
then condensing it. Circular steam injection, steam flooding, and combustion are a few of the methods.
Sweep and displacement efficiency are improved by these techniques. In California fields, the steam
injection has been utilized commercially since the 1960s [10]. Projects began in 2011 in Oman using
solar thermal enhanced oil recovery, a technology comparable to thermal EOR that employs a solar
array to generate steam.
Solar energy company GlassPoint Solar and Petroleum Development Oman announced in July
2015 that they had inked a $600 million deal to develop the Amal oilfield's first 1 GWth solar power
plant. In terms of thermal capacity, Miraah will become the world's biggest solar field. Oman's
Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) and GlassPoint completed the first block of Miraah solar plant
construction safely and below budget in November 2017, supplying hot water and steam to Amal West
oilfield found in Oman. It was also reported in November 2017 that Aera Energy and GlassPoint will
work together to build California's biggest solar Enhanced Oil Recovery field found in the South Belridge
Oil Field, located next to Bakersfield, CA. According to current estimates, the plant will have an 850MW
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thermal solar steam generator producing around twelve million barrels of steam annually [14]. As a
result, the facility's annual carbon emissions will be reduced by 376,000 metric tons.
5.5. Steam Flooding

Introducing heat to a reservoir via pumping steam to the well in a manner same to water
injection is a method of steam flooding. At some point in time, the steam will condense into hot water;
this will result in the oil evaporating and expanding. Oil expands, viscosity decreases, and permeability
rises as a consequence. A cyclical approach is required for success. This is the most common method of
enhancing oil recovery today. It's a sort of steam flooding in which solar arrays focus the energy of the
sun to produce steam by heating water [13]. Using solar EOR instead of gas-fired steam generation is
proving to be a feasible solution for the oil sector.
Figure 4: Steam Flooding [13]
5.6. Fire Flooding

When oil saturation and porosity are high, the optimal conditions for fire flooding are achieved.
The heat generated by combustion is contained inside the reservoir. The flame front will continue to
burn if a high-oxygen gas combination is injected into the blaze regularly. As the fire spreads, it will
eventually reach the wells that will be used to produce the oil and gas. Reduced oil viscosity is a result of
the fire's heat, which also aids in the evaporation of reservoir water to steam. Fuels like steam and hot
water are used to push oil into producing wells, as well as a bank of distilled solvents. Dry forward,
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reverse, and moist combustion are all ways of combustion. The oil is ignited by a dry forward using an
igniter. The oil is forced off the fire and to the direction of the producing well as the fire continues. Air is
injected into the engine from the opposite direction of ignition, and vice versa [11]. In wet burning,
water is introduced behind the front and steamed up by the hot rock as it smolders around it. When the
flames are extinguished, the heat is spread out more evenly.
Figure 5: Fire Flooding [11]
5.7. Chemical Injection

Many chemicals have been injected into the water to improve movement and decrease surface
tension. When caustic or alkaline solutions are injected into reservoirs containing oil that contains
organic acids, the formation of soap may be adequate to reduce the interfacial tension sufficiently to
enhance output. A water-soluble polymer solution may raise the injected water viscosity in specific
formations, increasing the quantity of the oil that can be recovered. Biosurfactants or petroleum
sulfonates like rhamnolipids may be injected to minimize the capillary pressure or interfacial tension
that prevents droplets of oil from migrating through a reservoir, and this is studied in bond number
terms, which relates capillary forces to gravity forces. Interfacial tension may be reduced by special
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microemulsions of water, oil, and surfactant, which can be very effective. The expense of the chemicals,
the loss, and the adsorption of the chemicals onto the rock of the oil-containing formation restrict the
use of these technologies [21]. For each process, the chemicals are put into numerous wells as the
production takes place at a different location inside the same well.
5.8. Polymer Flooding

When long-chain polymer molecules are mixed with the injected water, the water viscosity is
increased. This method improves the effectiveness of vertical and area sweeps by boosting the water/oil
mobility ratio. They may be used in combination with polymers because they help break up oil droplets
in water by reducing their surface tension. This minimizes the amount of leftover oil and enhances the
macroscopic effectiveness of the procedure. Primary surfactants often include co-surfactants, co-
solvents, and activity boosters to enhance the formulation's long-term stability. Sodium hydroxide
addition to the injection water is known as caustic flooding [12]. Lowering reversing wettability, surface
tension, mobilization of oil, emulsification of oil, and aiding in the extraction of oil from rock are some of
how it accomplishes this goal.
Figure 6: Polymer Flooding [21]
5.9. Microbial Injection

Due to its high cost and the fact that it is still a new technology, microbial injection is seldom
employed in microbial enhanced oil recovery. Biosurfactants and carbon dioxide are produced by these
bacteria, which may either partly digest long hydrocarbon molecules or generate biosurfactants. The
microbial injection may be accomplished using one of three methods. The first method involves injecting
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an oil field with bacterial cultures and a food supply (molasses is a typical choice). It has been employed
since 1985 when nutrients were first put to the ground to support present microbial physiques; the
nutrients stimulate the bacteria to produce more of the natural surfactants they utilize to break down
crude oil. If nutrients are used, the microorganisms shut down, their outer surfaces become hydrophilic
and move to the oil-water interface region, where they generate oil droplets that are more likely to flow
to the wellhead. It has been employed at the Beverly Hills Oil Field found in Beverly Hills, California, and
near the Four Corners [11]. As crude oil rises from the depths to the surface, the components of paraffin
wax found in the crude oil tend to precipitate because the surface of the Earth is much colder as
compared to the petroleum deposits.
Figure 7: Microbial Injection [11]
5.10.Liquid Carbon Dioxide Superfluids

Using carbon dioxide (CO2) in reservoirs that are more than 2,000 feet deep is most effective.
High-pressure CO2 injections with lighter oils result in swelling of the oil and a decrease in viscosity and
may also reduce surface tension with the reservoir rock. Carbon dioxide (CO 2) will produce an immiscible
fluid in low-pressure reservoirs and heavy oils. Even though some oil swelling may take place, the
viscosity of oil may still be greatly decreased. Half to two-thirds of the CO 2 injected is returned with the
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oil and is generally re-injected into the reservoir to reduce operating costs in these applications. The rest
of the oil is held in place by different methods [13]. Carbon dioxide is a more cost-effective solvent than
propane and butane, which are both miscible.
Figure 8: Liquid Carbon Dioxide Superfluids Injection [13]
5.11. Water-Alternating-Gas(WAG)
Another EOR approach is water-alternating-gas (WAG) injection. In addition to CO 2, water is
utilized. Carbonate deposits in oil wells are protected here by using a saline solution. Because of their
limited miscibility with oil, carbon dioxide and water are pumped into the oil well to increase recovery.
With both water and carbon dioxide, the gas is less mobile, making it more effective in dissolving the oil
in the well [5]. For rapid oil recovery, it is possible to use tiny slugs of both carbon dioxide and water.
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Figure 9: Water-alternating-gas (WAG) Injection [5]
5.12. Plasma-Pulse
The technique has been tested in vertical wells in Russia, Europe, and the United States, with over 90%
of the wells reporting favorable results. To achieve the same results as many other technologies, the
Plasma-Pulsed Oil Well EOR relies on minimal energy emissions. In most cases, the amount of water
extracted with the oil is lowered rather than increased after EOR treatment. ConocoPhillips, Gazprom,
ONGC, Lukoil, and Rosneft are among the current users and customers of the new technology [7]. Pulsed
plasma thruster, which was deployed on two spacecraft and is now being developed for horizontal wells,
is based on the same technology.
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Figure 10: Plasma-pulse [7]
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6. Environmental Effects (Water, Soil, Air)

Particles that settle to the bottom of petrochemical wastewater account for more than 54.85
percent of total COD in petrochemical wastewater. A total of 34.17 percent of the COD in the treated
wastewater is attributed to colloidal particles with particle sizes in the range of 450–1000 nm. The major
reason treated wastewater does not fulfill treatment criteria is due to soluble fractions. According to
tests on the organic compounds in petrochemical effluent, the majority of the pollutants are linear and
branched parafanes as well as benzene series compounds and plasticizers. The linear alkanes and the
nearby dibutyl phthalate are the most common contaminants in treated petrochemical effluent.
According to an FTIR transmission spectroscopy examination, petrochemical wastewater and
wastewater treated in membrane bioreactors (MBRs) include a variety of organic compounds in the
settleable particles [14].
Water contamination, air pollution, and soil contamination are all factors that contribute to
health problems in those who live near industrial regions. Some of the repercussions of the
petrochemical industry are harmful. One of the dangers is the increase in noise pollution. Noise
pollution may cause a variety of unpleasant emotions, including headaches, irritability, tension,
resentment, impatience, irritability, hypersensitivity, panic, rage, anger, and violence. It is also due to
the petrochemical sector that biodiversity and ecosystems are being lost. Because of the absence of
purification mechanisms, toxic chemicals found in effluents contaminate water sources, resulting in the
death of aquatic and human life. Petrochemicals may be ingested or absorbed via the skin, for example.
Toxins accumulate in the tissues/organs of a person's body and may lead to a wide range of health
problems including a range of birth abnormalities to cancer [17]. Petrochemical exposure causes skin
irritation, ulceration, and an array of allergic reactions in its wake.
Natural oil seeps, accidental oil tanker spills, oil storage wastes, coal tar processing wastes,
emissions, and petrochemical industrial wastes are all ways aromatic compounds found in
petrochemicals end up in the environment. Global warming's primary greenhouse gas sources are the
petrochemical sector. Other negative effects on the environment include the loss of the ozone layer,
acid rain, and air pollution. Potentially hazardous compounds released by the petrochemical sector
might be unpleasant, foul-smelling, or flammable. Excessive noise pollution in communities near
petrochemical plants leads to a host of unpleasant emotions such as irritability or irritation as well as
tension and feelings of impatience or dissatisfaction [15]. Some hazardous trash, coke dust, tank
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bottoms, and treatment sludge may contaminate soils as a result of refinery procedures, which can also
contaminate groundwater.
Oil and petrochemical companies have the potential to cause biodiversity loss and ecological
devastation. Phenols, metal derivatives, Polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, surface-active
compounds, sulfides, naphthalene acids, and other chemicals abound in petrochemical industry effluent.
Toxic compounds in effluents build up in waterways due to ineffective purification systems, causing
pollution that is harmful to aquatic and human life. Chemical exposure may occur in many ways, such as
via the skin or by ingesting them. As they accumulate in tissues and organs, they have the potential to
have negative effects on human health, including brain, nerve, and liver damage, as well as birth
abnormalities, cancer, and respiratory and hormonal diseases. Chronic symptoms of exposure include
skin irritation, ulceration, and allergic dermatitis [16]. Refineries and petrochemical effluent include
more than 20 hazardous chemicals, including phenol, acetone, benzene, petroleum products, and
nitrogen compound.
6.1. Phenol Compound

Phenols, which may be found in petrochemical wastewater, are very hazardous. Living creatures
face very substantial hazards if these substances are released into the environment without first being
treated. Natural organic matter degradation or decomposition, industrial and home waste disposal, and
agricultural runoff may all contribute to the existence of these microorganisms. Toxic chemicals may
convert into even more toxic ones when they enter the water, making them more dangerous than the
original substances. Physical, chemical, and biological or microbial components in water combine to
produce this transition. Through absorption, most phenolic chemicals may permeate the skin and are
quickly absorbed from the human digestive system [18]. As soon as they're in the system, they go
through metabolism and transition into a variety of reactive intermediate forms, including quinone
moieties, which may readily form covalent connections with proteins and so have harmful effects on
people.
6.2. Acetone Compound

Acetone is somewhat hazardous to aquatic life when it comes into contact with it. Various
agricultural and ornamental plants have suffered membrane damage, shrank in size, and had lower
germination rates after exposure to acetone. We don't know how this will affect birds or other land
24
creatures at this time. Bioaccumulation of acetone is not predicted to occur in any living organisms.
Acetone mostly escapes into the atmosphere. When it rains or snows, it might enter the soil or water,
and then swiftly return to the air. If a spill or landfill dumps any acetone into the groundwater, it will
decompose within days. If ejected as a liquid, acetone rapidly turns into a gas. With a half-life of 22 days
under sunshine, it breaks down into other compounds [16]. No soil binding or animal bioaccumulation
occurs. Acetone may be degraded by microorganisms in soil and water.
6.3. Benzene Compound

Car exhausts, paints, and dyes are all sources of benzene that pose damage to the environment.
A few days after exposure, it is almost always dispersed due to its tendency to react with other airborne
elements, making it almost completely harmless. Volatile amounts of the gas might, of course, result
from a large-scale leak, but this is very unlikely. Benzene concentrations seen in nature have little effect
on aquatic life. Toxic to aquatic creatures, it has a low toxicity level that persists for a longer period in
soil and groundwater (possibly weeks) than air [12]. If there is no substantial spill or unintentional
discharge of the drug into a body of water, the environmental impact is not considerable.
But these so-called "normal" concentration values ignore the fact that benzene is utilized in
large amounts regularly in many places. Workers in benzene-producing or benzene-using facilities may
be exposed to harmful quantities of the material in the air, which might pose a threat to both the
workers and the surrounding environment. Local water sources, soil, and air might be more polluted
than previously thought, which could harm the area's wildlife and vegetation [7].
6.4. Petroleum Products

Even while petroleum products make life simpler, the process of locating, extracting, and
transporting crude oil may have significant environmental consequences. Oil exploration and drilling
may harm marine and terrestrial ecosystems. Fish and marine animals may be harmed by the use of
seismic exploration methods. Clearing ground for an oil well is a necessary part of the process on land. A
significant portion of oil contamination comes from natural seeps and urban runoff. Rainwater washes
away oil drippings from autos and machines, and individuals spill spent oil into the gutters and other
incorrect disposal techniques, causing urban runoff. About 50% of marine habitats' petroleum imports
come from natural seepage [17]. When petroleum products are burnt, harmful air pollutants such as
carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are released into the atmosphere.
25
6.5. Nitrogen Compound

Various kinds of nitrogen may decrease oxygen generated by petrochemical wastewater, feed
aquatic plant development, be poisonous to aquatic life, and alter chlorine disinfection efficacy, posing a
risk to public health. A combination of nitrogen compounds from petrochemical wastes and particulate
matter from ammonia raises the risk of respiratory illnesses and cancer. Eutrophication occurs when
nitrates are present in lakes and coastal regions, affecting fisheries and the quality of drinking water. In
addition, nitrogen degrades ecosystems by raising the pH of soils and oceans. Toxic nitrogen dioxide
may cause ground-level ozone that is subsequently converted to nitric acid that penetrates the soil and
leaches into the groundwater as a byproduct. It is hard to keep track of since the chemical is always
changing [4]. Nitrogen pollution is a serious issue that has to be addressed by restricting the use of
nitrogen in agriculture and industry, as well as monitoring and reporting its impacts and implementing
national legislation to govern it.
26
7. Pollution Generated in Connection with Oil and Gas Extraction

A vast variety of activities and equipment are involved in the oil and gas business, from wells to
natural gas collection lines and processing facilities, to storage tanks and pipelines. Many negative
consequences have been brought about by the exploitation of natural gas and oil. Climate change is a
direct result of these extraction-related side effects on the ecosystem. The maritime ecosystem is
adversely affected by pollution from petroleum extraction operations [18]. There has been severe harm
to the marine ecology, particularly in the North-East Atlantic, hence international legislation is needed to
protect marine species from future degradation.
Oil and gas extraction infrastructure may have profound effects on wildlands. Heavy machinery
is required for the building of roads, infrastructure, and drilling sites, and large areas of unspoiled
wilderness may be destroyed as a result. In many cases, the harm is permanent. In the wilderness, a
wide variety of people gather to enjoy the natural splendors of the world. They don't expect to see oil
tanks, electricity poles, deafening compressors, and bustling roadways. Anyone's vacation may be ruined
by excessive noise, polluted air, or deteriorated scenery. The process of extracting oil and gas poses a
danger to animals. Drilling activities may disturb animal communication, breeding, and nesting due to
loud sounds, human activity, and vehicle traffic. For many species, habitat fragmentation is caused by
power lines, well pads, fences, and highways. The glare from oil and gas installations is so bright that it
can be seen from orbit [5]. NASA satellite images show the Bakken oil fields in North Dakota shining as
brightly as the cities of Minneapolis and Chicago. Flames from well pads and storage facilities are
responsible for most of the illumination.
27
8. Legal Regulations and Laws in Oman

Table 1: Standards for Emission or Discharge of Environmental Pollutants [8]
Parameter Standards (mg/l)
pH 6.0-8.5
Oil & Grease 5.0
BOD (3 days, 27oC) 15.0
COD 125.0
Suspended Solids 20.0
Phenols 0.35
Sulfides 0.5
CN 0.20
Ammonia as N 15.0
TKN 40.0
P 3.0
Cr (Hexavalent) 0.1
Cr (Total) 2.0
Pb 0.1
Hg 0.01
Zn 5.0
Ni 1.0
Cu 1.0
V 0.2
Benzene 0.1
Benzo (a) – Pyrene 0.2
His Majesty the Sultan has ultimate control over the MEM, which serves as the government's oil
and gas liaison. All oil and gas production and exploration operations in Oman's concession territories
are overseen by MEM, the Omani Energy Ministry. As a government counterpart to EPSAs, it grants
rights to explore for, develop, and produce hydrocarbons. Oman's environmental upstream activities are
regulated by the Environment Authority, which took over from the Ministry of Environment and Climate
Affairs (MECA). Requirements for health, safety, and environment (HSE) derive from several legislative
sources and are therefore governed by various authorities/bodies [19]. For example, HSE provisions
under the Labour Law are within the ambit of the Ministry of Labour, while the MEM oversees
compliance with HSE measures provided under the Oil and Gas Law (Sultani Decree No. 8/2011), MEM
Ministerial Decisions, and EPSAs.
28
Oil and Gas Law No. 8/2011, issued by Sultani Decree No. 8/2011, laws regulating oil and gas
extraction and production are governed by this basic legislation. The state owns all minerals that are
found in the ground. Oil and gas exploration, prospecting, appraisal, development, and exploitation
rights are given under the Oil and Gas Law via an EPSA-based concession agreement [10]. A designated
representative of Oman's government, the Ministry of Energy and Minerals (MEM), is authorized to
negotiate and sign Offshore Production Sharing Agreements (EPAs) with chosen oil and gas production
and exploration firms. Only after a Sultani Decree authorizing it may an EPSA go into force.
The Oil and Gas Law outlines just a few of the concessionaire's responsibilities (the "right-
holder"). Among the things, the EPSA defines are the concession area, duration of the contract, bonuses
and other government payments, as well as minimum labor requirements for employees. For example,
the criteria for the appraisal; cost recovery; commercial discovery; exploration; development;
reclamation; production; and production sharing; and relinquishment of the concession area The MEM
issues a separate license for the right to export, import, transport, store, process, distribute, or sell
petroleum compounds [17]. Negotiating EPSA commercial arrangements with right-holders is
consequently within the purview of MEM.
Several key laws were issued in 2019, which should improve the business environment and
investment climate, and boost foreign direct investment:
Foreign Capital Investment Law (Sultani Decree - 50/2019) (FCIL). This came into force on 1
January 2020, replacing the 1994 Foreign Capital Investment Law [19]. Importantly, this law does not
provide for any minimum share capital requirement (this was OMR150,000 under the 1994 law), but it
remains to be seen whether this applies to all commercial activities and sectors.
Privatization Law (Sultani Decree - 51/2019). This came into force on 8 July 2019 and expressly
repeals the old Privatisation Law issued by SD 77/2004. The Privatisation Law distinguishes between a
"privatisation project" and a "company transformation project", and provides that the provisions of the
Tender Law (SD 38/2008) will not apply to either. The Executive Regulations to the Privatisation Law
were issued under Decision No. 4/2020 [6]. Together with the Public-Private Partnership Law (SD
52/2019), this legislative reform is expected to liberalize the market and make Oman economically more
attractive to foreign investment.
Public-Private Partnership Law (Sultani Decree - 52/2019). The Public-Private Partnership Law
came into force on 8th July 2019 and is the first source of legislation to provide a framework for PPPs in
Oman. Some key features introduced by the PPP Law include: exempting public-private partnership
29
projects from the provisions of the Tender Law and the Privatisation Law; offering a maximum duration
of 50 years in respect of public-private partnership projects; requiring project companies to take the
form of an Omani joint stock company where financing is required; and allowing procurement by way of
competitive tender.
Bankruptcy Law (Sultani Decree - 53/2019). The Bankruptcy Law came into force on 7 July 2020,
introducing reforms to Oman's insolvency regime and allowing insolvent businesses (with the express
exception of banks and insurance companies) the option to undergo either restructuring, preventative
composition, or judicial composition.
30
9. Properties of Wastewater
Water that has been used in a way that has had a detrimental influence on its quality is referred
to as wastewater. Examples of wastewater include water released from homes, businesses, and
industrial units, among others. Chemicals manufactured from oil and natural gas have a wide range of
uses, making the petrochemical sector big and diversified. In petrochemical wastewater, a wide range of
organic and inorganic pollutants may be found [20]. The recovery of water, organics, and minerals from
wastewater may be difficult due to the presence of certain petroleum compounds and resistant
organics. Contaminants in wastewater may be found in a broad variety of concentrations.
9.1. Physical Properties
The components that can be detected with the physical senses are included in the wastewater's
physical characteristics. Temperature, color, smell, and solids make up this group.
a) Temperature
Because of the variety of processes carried out at any facility, the temperature of the wastewater
fluctuates substantially. Because of the presence of industrial sewage, the sewage's temperature is
somewhat higher than water. Chemical processes lead sewage to become septic, which results in a shift
in temperature [16]. Water from the earth has entered the sewage, as can be seen by the reduced
temperature.
b) Color, smell, and odor
Fresh sewage has a yellowish gray to light brown color. It is black or dark in color because organic
waste has been broken down and oxidized in the septic tank. In terms of odor, the fresh sewage has an
oily or soapy scent, whereas that of the decomposed sewage is unpleasant. H 2S is the primary pollutant
in the atmosphere.
c) Solid
A substance that does not contain water is considered to be solid. The matter that remains as
residual after evaporation and drying at 103 plus or minus 2 0C is the usual definition of solids. It is
referred to as suspended solids when particles that have not been dissolved in wastewater are found.
Floatable solids, or scum, are solids that float when they are suspended in water. Grit, sludge, and
settleable solids are all terms for the materials that settle to the bottom of a liquid. Volatile solids are all
solids that burn or evaporate at temperatures between 500°C and 600°C. Fixed solids are those solids
31
that do not burn or evaporate at temperatures between 500°C and 600°C, but stay as a residue [2].
There are a variety of inorganic materials that make up fixed solids, such as grit, clay, salts, or metals.
d) Turbidity
Substantiated materials or limited visibility are examples of "turbid" water/wastewater.
9.2. Chemical Properties

According to Hasan et al. (2019), chemicals such as H 2S, CO2, CH4, and NH3 are generated when
sewage decomposes, and these gases are also found in sewerage. pH, DO (dissolved oxygen), oxygen
demand, nutrients, and toxic substances are some of the most important chemical characteristics of
wastewater.
a) PH
Water solutions' acidity or basicity is measured using the PH scale. In the beginning, the sewage's pH
is high, but it reduces when it gets septic. However, the pH rises again throughout the treatment
process.
b) Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Fresh or aerobic wastewater contains dissolved oxygen (DO). Solubility in freshwater varies from
14.6 mg/L at 0oC to about 07 mg/L at 35 oC and 1.0 psi.
c) Obligation for O2
To put it another way, it's the quantity of oxygen that bacteria and other wastewater microbes use
while feeding on the organic matter included in the waste. It is the quantity of oxygen needed by the
bacteria when stabilizing decomposable organic matter in aerobic conditions BOD520. The COD
measures the oxygen equivalent of a sample's organic matter content when exposed to a strong
chemical oxidant, i.e., how much oxygen is needed to stabilize the organic matter chemically.
d) Nutrients
Nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for life. Various kinds of hazardous chemicals are used in
almost every industrial setting, and their emissions might affect wastewater treatment operations.
9.3. Biological Properties

Bacteria, viruses, and parasites make up the biological creatures found in wastewater. Sewage
contains an enormous number of germs, most of which are not harmful to humans. Pathogenic (disease-
causing) organisms like typhoid and dysentery may also be found in wastewater. Approximately 500,
32
000 to 5,000,000 bacteria per mL may be predicted in raw sewage. Complex chemicals may be
decomposed into stable ones with the aid of external and intracellular enzymes from these bacteria
[21]. Bacteria may be categorized into the following three groups based on their manner of action:
Aerobic Bacteria, Anaerobic Bacteria, and Facultative Bacteria.
33
10. Treatment of Wastewater

Wastewater is an effluent that can be reintroduced to the water cycle after it has been cleaned
of impurities. The effluent may be utilized for a variety of uses after it is reintroduced to the water cycle
(known as water reclamation). A wastewater treatment facility is a point where the treatment occurs. At
a wastewater treatment facility, there are a variety of different types of wastewater. When it comes to
treating sewage, the treatment facility is referred to as a sewage treatment plant (also known as
municipal wastewater or sewage) [11]. Treatment of industrial wastewater takes occurs either in a
different industrial treatment of wastewater facility or at a sewage treatment facility.
This includes phase separation (such as sedimentation), biochemical and oxidative reactions
(such as oxidation), and polishing. Sludge is the primary wastewater treatment facility's by-product, and
it is often handled at the same or another facility. If anaerobic treatment procedures are applied, biogas
might be another by-product. Reclaimed water may be made from some wastewater that has been
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected [22]. To ensure that the water can be safely disposed of or reused.
However, before the wastewater can be treated, the disposal or reuse alternatives must be examined so
that a suitable treatment technique may be applied.
10.1. Wastewater Treatment Methods Using Physical Means

In physical wastewater treatment, pollutants are removed by the use of physical barriers and
natural forces including gravity, van der Waal forces, and electrostatic attraction. In most cases, physical
therapy does not alter the chemical structure of the material it is applied to. Dispersed compounds
typically get agglomerated during filtering because of the physical state shift that occurs during
filtration, as is the case with vaporization [4]. Sedimentation, adsorption, flotation, and barriers like
barracks, deep bed filters, screens, and membranes are all physical techniques of wastewater
treatment.
10.2. Wastewater Treatment Using Biological Methods

According to Hasan et al. (2019), the following are some of the most often used biological
treatments:
Pre-treatment: Stabilization chambers are often used for pre-treatment, allowing big particles to
settle out of the wastewater before they can be removed.
34
Anaerobic treatment: Secondary wastewater treatment often involves either aerobic or

anaerobic processes. It is possible to utilize anaerobic therapy because anaerobic bacteria don't need
oxygen to carry out their metabolic functions. Processing's great for wastewaters with high levels of
organic content since it takes place in enclosed containers that eliminate oxygen.
Aerobic treatment: To break down and digest trash, aerobic treatment relies on bacteria that
need oxygen. Aerators or diffusers are often used to introduce air to the water column and aid in the
transmission of oxygen to the water. Aerobic treatment includes coagulation, flocculation, activated
sludge return, and biofilm processes like the use of a moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) or a
membrane-aerated biofilm reactor (MABR).
Disinfection: Finally, tertiary treatment (also known as disinfection) may be added to the process
of biological treatment of wastewater. Ozone or UV sterilization are other options in addition to chlorine
treatment.
10.3. Wastewater Treatment Processes that use Chemicals

According to Abdel-Gadir (2020), the kind of treatment that is needed depends on what
pollutants are present in a given water supply and how chemical reactions occur within it. The following
are the most common processes in wastewater chemical treatment:
 Precipitation:
Chemical wastewater treatment plants cause metals to precipitate from the wastewater when it
rains. These charged ions may be used to produce new, safe compounds when they are introduced into
the water during chemical treatment.
 Coagulation and flocculation:
This means combining smaller trash particles with bigger, heavier waste particles by adding
chemical ingredients to the mixture. Aluminum-based coagulants, like poly aluminum chloride and alum,
are often used in the chemical process. It is called flocculation when a plant can readily eliminate solid
clumps of the smaller, dispersed particles.
 Ion exchange:
Treatment facilities utilize ion-containing resins in ion exchange to swap out the wastewater's
hazardous ions for non-toxic ones. If you're looking for water that's clean enough to consume or use in
industrial activities, ion exchange is a regular phase in the process.
 Disinfection:
35
It's very uncommon for wastewater that has gone through a rigorous treatment process to be
disinfected or sterilized before it can be reused. As a disinfectant, chlorine is both ubiquitous and
affordable. Ozone and ultraviolet (UV) light sterilization are other alternatives. Some intermediary
procedures, like pH modifications to improve temperature or coagulation adjustments to improve
chemical reactions, may be necessary depending on the pollutants.
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11. Treatment of Petrochemical Wastewater

Milky liquid is the most common form of petrochemical wastewater. Oil, sulfur, ammonia, nitrogen,
and chemical oxygen demand (COD) are more prevalent in petrochemical wastewater than in most
others. The water quality is complex and the volume is large, and the treatment difficulty coefficient is
also high, making this a very difficult process. That can be achieved mainly by the Waste Water
Treatment Plants (WWTPs). Antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance (AMRDs) may be found in large
quantities in WWTPs. Amino Acid Residue Dispersants (AMRDs) may be released into the environment
by the solid and liquid byproducts of WWTPs, which are very nutrient-rich and extensively polluted
settings [11]. A wide range of contaminants, including antimicrobial agents, medicines, personal care
items, and heavy metals, may build up in WWTPs. Chemical treatment, physical treatment, and
biological treatment are the primary methods of treatment.
11.1. Method of Chemical Treatment

In the chemical treatment method, dissolved toxic substances are separated by using a chemical
action, such as adding a specific agent to wastewater to alter its structure, so that the toxicity is
eliminated. Pollutants are collected by separation after they have been transformed into precipitation,
such as colloidal particles or suspended particles. Chemical treatment has proven to be the most
convenient and effective method of wastewater treatment to date. Coagulation (suitable for removing
heavy metal ions from wastewater) and redox methods are two examples of chemical treatment
methods. When dealing with industrial waste that contains pollutants with varying properties, it is
common practice to use a variety of treatments [9]. In the treatment of low-concentration phenol-
containing wastewater, for example, the coagulation method (primarily removing suspended solids) and
advanced redox method (primarily removing phenol) can be used to remove macromolecular organic
matter and heavy metals more efficiently and conveniently.
11.2. Method of Physical Treatment

The insoluble suspended solids in the wastewater are separated and recovered using physical
(gravity, resistance, etc.) or mechanical force, and this process does not alter the pollutants. To remove
refractory suspended solids and toxic substances from wastewater, physical treatment is commonly
37
used as a pretreatment method before recycling. When it comes to the removal of suspended particles
and refractory organics, physical treatment outperforms chemical treatment. It is also simpler to
operate and requires less equipment investment [14]. Physical treatment procedures, such as sieving,
sedimentation, air flotation, adsorption, membrane separation, etc., are extensively utilized in industry.
11.3. Method of Biological Treatment

Chemical contaminants and refractory organic molecules in wastewater may be broken down and
converted to non-toxic compounds by the metabolism of microorganisms, which is aided by enzyme
catalysis. The biological treatment approach is less expensive, more efficient, and more environmentally
friendly than physical and chemical methods. For large-scale treatment of wastewater, biological
treatment technology is widely employed because of its cost-effectiveness and practicality. The
application of biological treatment in the area of oil extraction wastewater treatment, on the other
hand, is less common than one would expect Biological treatment of certain biodegradable and
refractory organics in oily wastewater is impossible because the water quality is so complicated [19].
Methods of biological therapy are classified as either aerobic or anaerobic based on whether or not
microbial reproduction requires the presence of oxygen.
38
12. Steps could be taken to Reduce the Environmental Impacts

On-the-ground processes aimed at lowering petrochemical pollution risk range from planning
considerations and environmental concerns through engineering design to the implementation of
practical measures connected to operational factors. When efforts are coordinated via a particular
program with high visibility among employees, a proactive and preventative approach works well. A
coordinator and a plan of action have been formed with the cooperation of workers at all levels in
pollution prevention and cleaner production programs that are prevalent in enterprises. Water
treatment methods, atmospheric emissions reduction strategies, as well as water/oil-based drilling mud
wastes are now accessible as engineering and operational solutions to minimize or decrease pollution
[3]. Managers that take a pragmatic approach to implementation are more likely to operate sustainably.
 Petroleum waste treatment and disposal techniques
As a result, waste management must include strategies such as reduction, reuse, recycling, resource
recovery, treatment, and disposal if it is to be successful. If you have a waste management strategy in
place, you may tailor your waste handling and disposal alternatives to meet the specific needs of the
region, including environmental concerns, governmental regulations, and infrastructural constraints.
Each waste stream should have specific instructions in the strategy on how to handle it [15]. Protection
of the surrounding and continuous compliance with legal requirements; Minimization of the amount;
Ongoing training of field people; and toxicity of petrochemical wastes are all included in waste
management planning, implementation, and review assistance.
 Oil spill contingency planning
All activities should thoroughly assess the danger, magnitude, type, and possible effects of spills
before putting together emergency plans. When it comes to contingency planning, there are four main
pillars: risk identification, action planning, readiness testing, and employee training. As a result of
contingency planning, the required staff and equipment to support emergency response activities can
be quickly mobilized and used efficiently. In the case of a spill, the plans should spell out exactly what
has to be done. Communications infrastructure; organizational structure; crucial emergency responders'
roles [13]. Site employees should be explicitly given responsibility for the execution of contingency
plans, training and exercises, and periodic audit and review as required by the environmental
management system.
39
 Decommissioning and rehabilitation

Environmental management necessitates the decommissioning and restoration of former
construction sites. The major goal is to restore a location to a state where it satisfies predetermined
goals. Early in the planning process, rehabilitation strategies must be prepared based on the findings
from the assessment phase. Preliminary plans for decommissioning and restoration identify all
equipment and materials to be disposed of, including items utilized and wastes, created on-site. Such a
strategy should take oil removal from pipelines, surface equipment removal, well abandonment, and
pipeline decommissioning and reinstatement into consideration. Before the end of field life, the plan
should be further developed and detailed in detail, including plans for the execution of decommissioning
activities and procedures for monitoring and aftercare after decommissioning [22]. To make future
rehabilitation easier, the site must be properly prepared and maintained. As a general rule, reclamation
should be done after conducting a risk assessment to determine the extent to which it is necessary.
 Monitoring
Through inspection, surveillance, and analysis, monitoring measures performance against specified
criteria. There should be a balance between the amount of information collected and the frequency
with which it is collected. To address all activities that have been identified as potentially having
significant consequences on the environment, environmental monitoring procedures should be
undertaken both during normal operations and during upset situations. Emissions, effluents, and
resource usage indicators specific to a project should form the basis for environmental monitoring
operations [6]. Data for the parameter being monitored should be collected on a frequent enough basis
to produce reliable results. To perform any required corrective steps, monitoring data should be
evaluated and reviewed regularly and compared to operational standards.
40
13. Future Expectations Reading the Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment

Progress in science and technology will be critical in the years to come, and this is no different in
the petrochemical sector, where new technologies will have a significant impact on the whole supply
chain, from raw materials to finished goods. Fracking and on-purpose technologies will have an impact
on the source of precursors. The ability to generate petrochemical precursors at lower costs and in
greater quantities is made possible by these two cutting-edge technologies, which have a substantial
influence on competitiveness [9]. As a result, bioplastics and 3D printing will better serve the demands
of consumers. Plastics like ABS and PLA, for example, will see increased production in response to rising
demand. EIC predicts that Thai operators would have to adapt to new technologies, including fracking
and on-purpose technology, to stay competitive in the global marketplace. Bioplastics and 3D printing,
two technologies that directly address customers' demands, provide a significant possibility for Thai
companies to extend their markets in the future.
Petrochemical activity development's new organic law has been issued. The regulation restricts
international and domestic private investment in a field that had previously been unrestricted. Due to
the legislation, new projects in this field cannot be carried out by organizations that are not mixed
businesses with a state involvement of at least 50%. In addition, national governments look to have a
significant impact on the future of petrochemicals. The Oman government, for example, is attempting to
diversify the country's economy by increasing its position in downstream sectors such as
petrochemicals. As part of this strategy, national oil and energy corporations will be taken public,
merged, invested in growing markets, and benefited from state-of-the-art manufacturing technology. As
far as it is known, countries have different visions for themselves. It aims to lessen the country's reliance
on imports of essential chemical raw materials.
A few big chemical enterprises are re-integrating to create heavier C4 compounds like para-
xylene directly from crude oil as a part of this effort to reduce the country's chemical trade imbalance.
Capacity utilization rates for benzene, paraxylene, and butadiene are decreasing, despite the market
recovering from the lows of 2014 to 2015. Demand for C4 chemicals has surged significantly since 2015,
however, the future is still unclear. New and upcoming steam crackers built on ethane, as well as new
CTO plants that will not co-produce C4 chemicals like benzene, are to blame for this uncertainty. Lower
production runs of refinery FCC units, and a demand slowdown in Oman. Despite the uncertainties,
several crude oil-to-chemicals complexes are planned to be built in the future, with a primary emphasis
41
on C4 chemicals, such as paraxylene and benzene, which are expected to be produced [19]. The C4
chemical supply could be adequately met in the event of a sudden increase in demand.
The wastewater sector is dealing with a slew of new issues that make long-term planning very
difficult. Energy costs, trace organic compounds, limited resources, water conservation, and more
rigorous laws must all be taken into account before making substantial facility upgrades. Scenario
planning and future mapping may assist establish the limits of what the future holds for treatment
facilities, even if it is impossible to predict what will happen. Futurists point out that the seeds for the
future's most significant trends may be found in today's society. To meet the five primary trends in
wastewater treatment, new treatment technologies will be developed; removal and re-absorption of
nutrients; organic substances may be identified by their chemical fingerprints; energy conservation and
production; sustainability; and involvement of the public.
The petrochemical industry has a history of taking longer to develop and deploy innovative
technology than other industries. However, several new technologies are now being developed that
might significantly reduce the time it takes for new technology to become obsolete in the industry. In
the future, wastewater treatment facilities will be drastically altered by the use of these technologies.
Technological advancements in recent years, such as nutrient extraction and recovery, fine sieves,
processes, anaerobic sludge pre-treatment, and thermal conversion.
42
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45
List of Figures
Figure 1: Hydraulic Fracturing [3]……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10
Figure 2: Enhanced Oil Recovery [5]……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11
Figure 3: Gas Injection [7]
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12
Figure 4: Steam Flooding [13]
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….13
Figure 5: Fire Flooding [11]…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
14
Figure 6: Polymer Flooding [21]………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15
Figure 7: Microbial Injection [11]
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
Figure 8: Liquid Carbon Dioxide Superfluids Injection [13]
……………………………………………………………………………………….17
Figure 9: Water-alternating-gas (WAG) Injection [5]
……………………………………………………………………………………………….18
Figure 10: Plasma-pulse [7]………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…19
46
List of Tables
Table 1: Standards for Emission or Discharge of Environmental Pollutants [8]
………………………………………...25
47
Legal Regulations and Laws Regulating Petrochemical Industries in Oman

Environment, Climate and Investments
Foreign Capital Investment Law (Sultani Decree - 50/2019) (FCIL). On January 1, 2020, the 1994 Foreign
Capital Investment Law was abolished and replaced by this new law. This new rule does not need a
minimum share capital (the previous law required OMR150,000), although it's not clear whether this
applies to all economic activities and industries or just some.
Privatization Law (Sultani Decree - 51/2019). As of July 8, 2019, the former Privatization Law
promulgated by SD 77/2004 has been explicitly repealed. The Tender Law (SD 38/2008) does not apply
to "privatization projects" or "business transformation projects" as defined under the Privatisation Law.
The Executive Regulations to the Privatisation Law were issued under Decision No. 4/2020. Oman's
economy is predicted to become more attractive to foreign investment as a result of this legislative
amendment and the Public-Private Partnership Law (SD 52/2019).
Public-Private Partnership Law (Sultani Decree - 52/2019). Public-Private Partnership Law came into
effect on 8 July 2019 and is the first source of law in Oman that provides a framework for PPPs.
(Sultani Decree - 53/2019) Bankruptcy Law On July 7, 2020, Oman's Bankruptcy Law went into effect,
reforming the country's bankruptcy laws and giving insolvent enterprises (except banks and insurance
companies) the choice of restructuring, preventive composition, or judicial composition.
The Administrative Court was established by Sultani Decree No. 91/99 and its statute was promulgated
(as modified).
Exploration
It is mandated by law that oil and gas companies have policies in place to protect the environment, as
well as to ensure the safety, health, and well-being of personnel. Setback zones are also provided for
pipelines. After the announcement of a commercial finding, the Oil and Gas Law mandates that the
48
right-holder devise a "complete security strategy" in coordination with the Royal Oman Police (ROP).
EPAs that existed before the new Oil and Gas Law is subject to this obligation.
The Omani Civil Code (Civil Code) promulgated by Sultani Decree No. 29/2013 lays forth the employer's
responsibilities to its workers. According to this, the employer must offer all required to guarantee that
its workers' safety and security are protected, as well as to ensure that their equipment is safe to use.
With relation to employee work hours and overtime, the Sultani Decree No. 35/2003 promulgating the
Labour Law and subsequent laws revising it has several requirements.
Decree No. 114/2001 by the Sultan To ensure that natural resources be used to their fullest potential,
the Law on Environmental Protection and Pollution Prevention was passed. Concessions for oil and gas
exploration must also contain measures ensuring that contractual parties are committed to adhering to
this law's requirements and its implementing rules and judgments, as well.
The Environmental Law and Ministerial Decision No. 286/2008 on Occupational Health and Safety
Measures are two more pieces of legislation that deal with health and safety concerns. Under this,
employers are required to provide their employees with adequate attire and personal protective
equipment for the sort of job they are engaged in. There must be adequate safeguards in place to
protect workers from exposure to hazardous or toxic gases and chemicals, as well as other potentially
dangerous substances.
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
Sultani Decree No. 114/2001 promulgated the Law on Conservation of the Environment and Prevention
of Pollution in Oman (Environmental Law). Before establishing a "source" or "area of work" that may
generate pollution, an environmental permit must be obtained to prove its environmental soundness
(Article 9, Environmental Law). The Environment Authority is the proper place to submit your request
for a permit.
Environmental Permits
Article 9 of the Environmental Law mandates that environmental permits be obtained by those who
own rights (see Question 19). Unless environmental permission is secured, hazardous chemicals (which
includes oil and gas) cannot be handled (Article 19, Environmental Law). As a result, an environmental
permit is required for oil and gas extraction and processing.
There are environmental issues to be concerned about
49
With appropriate care and in compliance with the EPA's technical criteria, right-holders must ensure
that their activities are carried out in a way that protects the environment (Article 39, Oil and Gas Law).
There is currently no major shale oil/gas production in Oman.
Waste
Ministerial Decision No. 18/93: Regulations for Management of Hazardous Waste. These rules control
the handling of hazardous waste, a wide term that encompasses any waste deriving from commercial,
industrial, agricultural, or any other activity dangerous or potentially hazardous to the environment. This
is expected to encompass waste created in oil or gas extraction and processing operations. A hazardous
waste license is necessary by the Ministry of the Environment and Climate Affairs (since repealed and
replaced by the Environment Authority) to release hazardous waste or to combine it with any other
waste.
Ministerial Decision No. 145/93: Regulations for Wastewater Re-use and Discharge. Article 2 of these
Regulations forbids the discharge of wastewater or sludge into the environment without a license from
MECA (since repealed and replaced by the Environment Authority) (now abolished and replaced by the
Environment Authority).
Ministerial Decision No. 12/17: Amending certain aspects of the Regulations on the re-use and discharge
of wastewater.
Ministerial Decision 17/93: Regulations for the handling of solid non-hazardous waste.
Ministerial Decision No. 57/02: Amending certain aspects of the Regulations on the management of
solid non-hazardous waste.
Flares and Vents
Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs (now the Environment Authority) issued Ministerial
Decision No. 118/2004, which governs the emission of air pollutants from stationary sources. Emissions
from flaring in refineries and oil fields are addressed in the Annexure to the Ministerial Decision.
Decommissioning
The Oil and Gas Law requires concessionaires to obtain insurance covering petroleum operations.
Although the Oil and Gas Law does not directly address decommissioning, the insurance coverage is
often anticipated to extend to actions done during decommissioning. EPAs normally specify forth each
party's duties with relation to decommissioning. Often, operators must create a decommissioning fund
and build it up for a period of years until it reaches a specified level. The details are handled on a case-
by-case basis in the appropriate EPSA.
50

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Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment

2. Formation of Petroleum (Crude Oil)....................................................................................................6

2.1 Fossil Petroleum............................................................................................................................6

2.2 Anaerobic Decay............................................................................................................................6

2.3 Kerogen Formation........................................................................................................................6

2.4 Transformation of Kerogen into Fossil Fuels..................................................................................7

2.5 Oil Window (Temperature Range).................................................................................................7

2.6 Abiogenic Petroleum.....................................................................................................................8

4. History of Petrochemical in Oman.....................................................................................................10

5. The Technology used in Oil and Gas Extraction.................................................................................12

5.1. Hydraulic Fracturing....................................................................................................................12

5.2. Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology............................................................................................13

5.3. Gas Injection...............................................................................................................................14

5.4. Thermal Injection........................................................................................................................15

5.5. Steam Flooding...........................................................................................................................16

5.6. Fire Flooding...............................................................................................................................16

5.7. Chemical Injection......................................................................................................................17

5.8. Polymer Flooding........................................................................................................................18

5.9. Microbial Injection......................................................................................................................18

5.10.Liquid Carbon Dioxide Superfluids.............................................................................................19

6. Environmental Effects (Water, Soil, Air)............................................................................................23

6.1. Phenol Compound......................................................................................................................24

6.2. Acetone Compound....................................................................................................................25

6.3. Benzene Compound....................................................................................................................25

6.4. Petroleum Products....................................................................................................................26

6.5. Nitrogen Compound...................................................................................................................26

7. Pollution Generated in Connection with Oil and Gas Extraction.......................................................27

8. Legal Regulations and Laws in Oman.................................................................................................28

9.2. Chemical Properties....................................................................................................................32

9.3. Biological Properties...................................................................................................................32

10. Treatment of Wastewater...............................................................................................................34

10.1. Wastewater Treatment Methods Using Physical Means..........................................................34

10.2. Wastewater Treatment Using Biological Methods...................................................................34

10.3. Wastewater treatment processes that use chemicals..............................................................35

11. Treatment of Petrochemical Wastewater.......................................................................................37

11.1. Method of Chemical Treatment................................................................................................37

11.2. Method of Physical Treatment.................................................................................................38

11.3. Method of Biological Treatment...............................................................................................38

12. Steps could be taken to Reduce the Environmental Impacts...........................................................39

13. Future Expectations Reading the Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment.......................................41

Legal regulations and laws regulating petrochemical industries in Oman.................................................48

Environment, Climate and Investments................................................................................................48

Environmental impact assessments (EIAs)............................................................................................49

Flares and vents.....................................................................................................................................50

2. Formation of Petroleum (Crude Oil)

2.2 Anaerobic Decay

2.3 Kerogen Formation

2.4 Transformation of Kerogen into Fossil Fuels

2.5 Oil Window (Temperature Range)

2.6 Abiogenic Petroleum

4. History of Petrochemical in Oman

5. The Technology used in Oil and Gas Extraction

5.1. Hydraulic Fracturing

Figure 1: Hydraulic Fracturing [3]

5.2. Enhanced Oil Recovery Technology

Figure 2: Enhanced Oil Recovery [5]

5.3. Gas Injection

Figure 3: Gas Injection [7]

5.4. Thermal Injection

5.5. Steam Flooding

Figure 4: Steam Flooding [13]

5.6. Fire Flooding