STEEL STRUCTURES

Steel is an alloy made up of iron with typically a few percent of carbon to improve its strength
and fracture resistance. They are structural members prepared in a control environment for the
structural purposes. The following are standard shapes in which steels are fabricated.

1. Rolled Angle Sections

Angle sections are manufactured in “L” shape. It contains two legs. Some angle sections contains
legs with similar dimensions are called as equal angle sections and some contains different legs
are called as unequal angle sections.
Angle sections are widely used for roof truss constructions and for filler joist floors.

2. Rolled Channel Sections

The channel section or C- section consists of two equal flanges connected to web at both ends.
Channel sections are extensively used in steel framed structures.

3. Rolled T- Sections

T section consists of flange and web arranged in “T” shape. They are used in steel roof trusses to
form built up sections. Two angle sections can also be joined to get T section.
4. Rolled I - Sections

I sections which are also called as steel beams or rolled steel joist are extensively used as beams,
lintels, columns etc. It consists two flanges and a web connected as shown in figure.

5. Rolled Round Bars

Round bars contain circular cross sections and these are used as reinforcement in concrete and
steel grill work etc. Round bars are available in various diameters varies from 5 mm to 250 mm.

6. Rolled Square Bars

Square bars contain square cross sections and these are widely used for gates, windows, grill
works etc. the sides of square cross section ranges from 5 mm to 250 mm.
7. Rolled Flat Bars
Flat bars are also used for gates, windows, grill works etc. Flat bars are designated with width of
the bar which varies from 10 mm to 400 mm. thickness of flat bars will be from 3 mm to 40 mm.

8. Corrugated Sheets
Plain steel sheets are passed through machines which produce bends by pressing them called
corrugations. These sheets are used for roof coverings.

9. Expanded Metal
Expanded metal sheets are made from mild steel sheets. Which are cut through machine and
expanded. Generally, Diamond shaped mesh is appeared in this type of sheets.
10. Rolled Steel Plates
Steel plates are well used items in steel structures. They are used for connecting steel
beams, tensional member in roof truss etc. They are designated with their thickness which is
varying from 5 mm to 50 mm.

11. Ribbed Bars (HYSD)

Ribbed HYSD bars are made of high yield strength steel. Ribs are nothing but projections
produced on bars by cold twisting of bar in hot rolled condition. The twist is made according the
standard requirements.

HYSD bars are important innovation of steel and they are extensively used as main
reinforcement materials in all concrete works like bridges, buildings, precast concrete works,
foundations, roads etc.

They are available in many sizes varying from 6 mm to 50 mm diameter. The reason why these
are more famous than any other bars is because of following advantages:
 · HYSD bars can be bend up to 180o without any cracks.
· High strength and durable.
· 30 to 40% of cost reduced when compared to other round bars.
· Suitable for any type of concrete work.
· Excellent bonding properties with concrete.
· HYSD bars can be welded using electronic flash butt welding or arc welding.

12. Ribbed Bars (Mild Steel)

Ribbed bars can also be produced from mild steel. These are look-alike HYSD ribbed bars but
these bars are not recommended by any code and they also have very less strength compared to
HYSD bars.

13. Rolled Thermo-Mechanically Treated (TMT) Bars

Thermo-mechanically treated bars or TMT bars are manufactured by a special technique in
which the red-hot steel bars are suddenly quenched by spraying water on it. So, surface of bar
gets cooled down and inner side or core of the bar still in hot condition.

The core helps the outer surface to be tempered. By this combination of different temperature,
the bar gains more yield strength and exhibits good elongation at ultimate failure.

Copper, phosphorus and chromium etc. are added in manufacturing process of TMT bars which
improves its corrosion resistance.
14. Welded Wire Fabrics
Welded wire fabrics are nothing but a series of mild steel bars which are arranged perpendicular
to each other and welded at all intersection.

METHOD OF STEEL CONNECTIONS

Steel structures are constructed by properly connecting the available standard sections. The
connections are an important part of steel structure and are designed more conventionally than
any individual members.
Connections are structural elements used for joining different members of a structural steel frame
work.

Bolting applications
 Rivet application

Bolted
A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread requiring a matching pre-
formed female thread such as a nut. Bolts are very closely related to screws.

Riveted
A riveted joint is a permanent joint with mainly two components (parts to be joined) which are
held together by a rivet with the head at top and tail at the bottom.

Welding
Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together by means of heat,
pressure or both forming a join as the parts cool. Welding is usually used on metals and
thermoplastics but can also be used on wood. The completed welded joint may be referred to as a
weldment

Welded joints are more rigid than bolted joints, due to the continuity of the cross section. On the
other hand, bolted joints are connected with plates or angles, and the deflection of these elements
during load transfer adds flexibility. For this reason, bolted joints allow more movement with
less structural stress.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOLTS AND NUTS.

The nuts and bolts are the types of fasteners that are used in every manufacturing industry to join
two parts together.

S.no Nuts Bolts

The nut is a type of fastener which The bolt is a solid cylindrical fastener used
1.
is always used with the bolt. with the nut.

The nuts are hollow circular

The bolts are solid cylinders with circular
2. cylinders with circular cross
cross section.
section.

3. Nuts have internal threads. The bolts have external threads.

They are smaller in size as They are bigger in size as compared with the
4.
compared with the bolts. nuts.

They have lock mechanism to

5. They don’t have any lock mechanism.
prevent loosening.

They have heads for the tightening and

6. They do not have heads.
loosening.

The nuts experience compression They experience tensile forces on it and are
7. forces on it and are generally failed failed due to the tensile
due to compressive stresses. stresses.
 Detailed drawing of a typical Bolt and Nut

GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

A grillage foundation is a type of foundation made of two or more than two-tier beams placed
at the right angle to disperse the load evenly over a large area.

High rise buildings are built with steel columns encased in concrete. Such columns carry very
heavy load and hence they need special foundations to spread the load to a larger area of soil.
Grillage foundation is one such special foundation. It consists of one tier or more tiers of I-
sections steel beams
Top tier consists of less number but large size steel section while lower tier consists of larger
number but smaller size steel sections. Column load is transferred to the top tier through a base
plate. The grillage beams are unpainted and are encased in concrete with minimum cover of 100
mm beyond the edges of steel sections. A minimum clear space of 75 mm should be maintained
between the flanges of adjacent grillage beams so that concreting can be made properly.
To maintain spacing, pipe separators are used.

Advantages of Grillage Foundation

1. It requires less time and materials for installation.

2. It reduces the evocation of heat from the house.
3. It reduces the vibration level of the house built close to highways.
4. The installation process of Grillage Beam requires less time and materials.
5. This type of foundation can be used for significant structures such as column, piers, and
scaffolds.
6. It is capable of transforming load over a larger area.

Disadvantages of Grillage Foundation

1. It requires the need to build piles at a sufficiently large depth.

2. Space under the grid must be filled and heated.
3. Excavation of a larger area is needed, which increases the excavation cost.
4. It gets affected by a larger uplift force.
5. Column alignment in this type of foundation might slightly change.
6. Steel joints require protection from corrosion by concrete.

DOMESTIC HOT WATER SERVICES

 INSTALLATION

Gravity fall system is a system of plumbing that water flows from the overhead reservoir to the
fittings in the house. The water flows because of the height difference between storex and the
building without the use of pressure pump. Cold water flows from the tank with two pipes. One
to the plumbing fixtures in the building and the other to the central heater where the water
trapped is heated before forwarding the hot water.

Whereas the whole house pump system requires pressure pump to pressurize water from the
storage tank to every part of the building.

SOIL AND WASTE PLUMBING

A soil pipe is for soiled water. This type of pipe will carry water and solids into the sewer. While
any pipe could physically perform the task, the soil pipe, also known as a soil vent pipe, as
installed in most homes has a specific quality.
First, it is of a dimension to allow solid waste to pass.
Second, it is vented in a very specific way to maintain a safe environment and reduce odours.
Soil pipes are vented high at the top or near to the top of a building, to allow gases produced by
waste to vent safely into the atmosphere. Such gases can be harmful to health so venting them
high keeps them out of the way. This is a vital feature of soil pipes and it forms part of building
regulations too.

A waste pipe is often a smaller diameter pipe that carries waste water from your sinks, washing
machine, shower, bath and any other appliance you may have that uses water. It can be narrower
than a soil pipe as the waste pipe is only designed to carry water. It also doesn’t need the same
venting system as a soil pipe. Wastewater does not typically generate harmful gas so does not
need to be vented high above ground level.

TRAPS
Plumbing traps are U-shaped portion of pipes designed to trap liquid or gas to prevent
unwanted flow. In domestic applications, traps are typically U, S, Q, or J-shaped pipe located
below or within a plumbing fixture.

A typical U-Shaped trap

 MANHOLES AND INSPECTION CHAMBERS
Manhole is an opening to a confined space such as a shaft, utility vault, or large vessel.
Manholes are often used as an access point for an underground public utility, allowing
inspection, maintenance, and system upgrades.

Inspection chambers are access points to underground pipework which allow maintenance and
the removal of blockages. When installing any type of underground.

A soak-away is a hole dug in the ground and loaded up with rubble and coarse stones, intended
to collect water and sink it into the surrounding ground.

A septic tank is an underground chamber made of concrete, fiberglass, or plastic through which
domestic wastewater (sewage) flows for basic treatment.
Draw traps, manholes and inspection chambers, septic tank and soak-away pit

SIMPLE ROAD LAYOUT.

IRRIGATION CANAL
 CANAL LINING

Canal Lining is an impermeable layer provided for the bed and sides of the canal to improve the
life and discharge capacity of the canal.

TYPES OF CANAL LINING

1.Cement or lime concrete lining

2.cement mortar lining
3.Stone
This masonry
of stones arelining
available.

4.Brick lining
5.shotcrete lining
In the shotcrete on the

6.Asphaltic lining
7.Precast concrete block lining

It has
 PROPERTIES OF CANAL LINING:

· Strength: The material should be quite strong to withstand various pressures behind the
lining.
· Easy in construction: The material selected can be used in any difficulty in giving the
desired shape.
· Resistance to the growth of weeds: It is able to resist the growth of weeds and attack
burrowing animals.
· Durability: It is durable and provides sufficient resistance against forces such as
weathering, chemical attack, and wearing.
· Hydraulic efficiency: The surface of the lining material should be smooth for higher
hydraulic efficiency.
· Reparability: The lining material can be easily repaired.
· Water tightness: To reduce seepage losses the lining material should be water.

Advantages of canal lining:

1. Reduction in losses due to seepage: The lining prevents dripping, in the end more water
2. can be irrigated
Prevention
lined
thus helps
the seepage with
inoftection the same
waterlogging:
is reduced
from amount
thus helpsof
Seepage in water
is the andcause
protection
main valuable water is saved.
fromofwaterlogging.
waterlogging Seepage
if the canal
is the
is main cause of wa

3. Low maintenance cost: The maintenance of lined canal is less as compared to the
unlined canal.

The4.thePrevention
of weeds. of weed growth: The lining prevents the growth of weeds.

5. Stepper bed slope: The hard surface lining can maintain high velocity which means the
stepper bed slope can be provided.

6. Less breaches: The lining canal is less likely to split because the lining is more stable
and stronger as well as silting is less due to higher velocity.

7. Low evaporation losses: Water can reach the area quickly due to the high velocity thus
the evaporation losses are minimum.

8. Less salt problem: As canal water does not come in contact with harmful salt present in
natural soil, salt problem reduced to some extent.

Disadvantages of canal lining:

1. High initial cost: The initial cost of the lined canal is high.
2. Leakage from the joint: There may be a possibility of leakage through the joint.
3. Difficult to repair: If it is damaged it is difficult to repair.
 4. Difficult to shift outlet: Due to the strong lining, it is difficult to shift the outlet at a later
stage.

CROSS-DRAINAGE WORK.

This is a structure constructed when there is a crossing of canal and natural drain, to prevent the
drain water from mixing into canal water.