CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OVERVIEW:
The human organism has many membranes that enclose and protect underlying
structures. This Chapter will aid you in understanding the difference between anatomy and
physiology, and its fundamental relationship with one another.

1. Human Anatomy
Anatomy is the scientific discipline that
investigates the structure of the body. It covers a wide
range of studies, including the structure of body parts, their
microscopic organization, and the processes by which
they develop. Some of the body structures are very small
that need assistance of a microscope while other larger
structures can be readily seen, manipulated, measured,
and weighed. In addition, it examines the relationship
between the structure of a body part and its function.
The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that
means “to cut apart”. Human anatomy was first studied by
observing the exterior of the body and observing the
wounds of soldiers and other injuries. Later, physicians
were allowed to dissect bodies of the dead to augment
their knowledge.
When a body is dissected, its structures are cut apart in order to observe their physical
attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is still used in medical schools,
anatomy courses, and in pathology labs. In order to observe structures in living people,
however, a number of imaging techniques have been developed. These techniques allow
clinicians to visualize structures inside the living body such as cancerous tumor or a fractured
bone.

1.1 Area of Specialization in Anatomy

a. Gross anatomy is the study of the larger structures of
the body, those visible without the aid of magnification.
Macro meaning “large”, thus, gross anatomy is also
referred to as macroscopic anatomy. It considers large
structures such as the heart.
 b. Microscopic anatomy (micro means
“small”) is the study of structures that can be
observed only with the use of a microscope
or other magnification devices. This includes
cytology (study of cells) and histology (study
of tissues). With continuous advancement of
technology using microscopes, anatomists
have been able to observe smaller and
smaller structures of the body. The image on
the right side is the micrograph of cardiovascular cells.

1.2 Two Basic Approaches to the Study of Anatomy

a. Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by systems - a group of structures
that work together to perform a unique body function. For example, a
systematic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the
skeletal muscles of the body.
b. Regional anatomy is the study of the organization of the body by areas.
Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships of body
structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures
work together to serve a particular body region.

2. Human Physiology
Physiology is the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of living
things. This includes the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in
which they work together to support the functions of life. The study of physiology certainly
includes observation as well as manipulations and measurements. However, current
advances in physiology usually depend on carefully designed laboratory experiments that
reveal the functions of the many structures and chemical compounds that make up the human
body.

2.1 Major Goals of Physiology

a. To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli.
b. To understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of
values in the presence of a continually changing environment.
3. Structural and Functional Organization
The body can be studied at 6 structural levels: the chemical, cell, tissue, organ, organ
system, and organism.

3.1 Chemical Level of

organization involves
interactions among atoms and
their combination into
molecules. All matter in the
universe is composed of one or
more unique pure substances
called elements. Atom is the
smallest unit of any pure
substance and it is made up of
subatomic particles such as the
proton, electron, and neutron.
Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, and
sugars found in living things. Molecules are the chemical blocks of all body structures.

3.2 Cells are the basic living units of all plants and animals. If
combined atoms form molecules, a group of molecules can form an
organelles, which are the small structures that make up cells. Even bacteria
have a cellular structure and each bacterium is a single cell. All living
structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of
human physiology are performed in cells or are initiated by cells.

3.3 Tissue is a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding

them. It works together to perform a specific function. There are four primary tissue types:
epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
 3.4 Organ is an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more
tissue types that together perform one or more common
functions. Each organ performs one or more specific
physiological functions.

3.5 Organ system is a group of organs classified as a

unit because of a common function or set of functions. For
example, the urinary system consists of kidneys, ureter,
urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys produce urine,
which is transported by the uterus to the urinary bladder,
where it is stored until eliminated from the body by passing
through the urethra.

3.6 Organism is any living thing considered as a

whole, whether composed of one cell (e.g. bacterium) or
trillions of cells (e.g. human). The human organism is a
complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent on one
another.

The image below shows the Levels of Organization for the human body.
4. Review and Summary of Organ System in Human Body
In this handout, the body is considered to have 11 major organ systems:
4.1 Integumentary System which provides protection, regulates temperature,
prevents water loss, and produces vitamin D precursors. It consists of skin, hair, nails, and
sweat glands.
4.2 Skeletal System provides protection and support, allows body movements,
produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. It consists of bones, associated cartilages,
ligaments and joints.
4.3 Muscular System produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces
body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons.
4.4 Lymphatic System removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph,
combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. It
consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
4.5 Respiratory System exchanges the oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
blood and air and regulates blood pH. It consists of lungs and respiratory passages.
4.6 Digestive System performs the mechanical processes of digestion, absorption of
nutrients, and elimination of wastes. It consists of the mouth, esophagus stomach, intestines,
and accessory organs.
4.7 Nervous System a major regulatory system that detects sensation and controls
movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. It consists of the brain, spinal
cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.
4.8 Endocrine System is a major regulatory system that influences metabolism,
growth, reproduction, and many other functions. It consists of glands, such as the pituitary,
that secrete hormones.
4.9 Cardiovascular System transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and
hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of
body temperature. It consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
4.10 Urinary System removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH,
ion balance, and water balance. It consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry
urine.
4.11a Female Reproductive System produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization
and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence
sexual function and behaviors. It consists of the ovaries, vagian, uterus, mammary glands,
and associated structures.
4.11b Male Reproductive System produces and transfers sperm cells to the female
and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. It consists of the
testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis.

5. Characteristics of Life
The different organ systems each have different functions and therefore unique roles
to perform in physiology. The most important common feature of all organisms is life. These
essential characteristics of life are:
5.1 Organization is the condition in which the parts of an organism have specific
relationships to each other and the parts interact to perform specific functions. A human body
consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct internal compartments.
Cells are composed of highly specialized organelles, which depend on the precise functions
of large molecules. Disruption of this organized state can result in loss of functions and death.
For example, the integumentary system is the body’s largest organ system. It includes skin
and its associated structures such as hair and nails. The surface tissue of the skin is the barrier
that protects internal structures and fluids from potentially harmful microorganisms and other
toxins.
5.2 Metabolism is the ability to use the energy to perform vital functions, such as
growth, movement, and reproduction. There are two types of reactions that accomplish this:
1) anabolism which is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into
larger, more complex substances and 2) catabolism is the process by which larger more
complex substances are broken down into smaller simpler molecules. It is the sum of all
anabolic and catabolic reactions that take place in the body.
5.3 Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment
and make the adjustments that help maintain its life. Responses include movement toward
food or water and away from danger or poor environmental conditions. Changes in an
organism’s internal environment, such as increased body temperature, can cause the
responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in the skin in order to decrease body
temperature.
5.6 Movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion
of individual organs and even individual cells. This includes the movement of your red and
white blood cells throughout your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain
your posture and to focus your vision as you read these words. Your body is coordinating the
action of entire muscle groups to enable you to move air into and out of your lungs, to push
blood throughout your body, and to propel the food you have eaten through your digestive
tract. Consciously, of course, you contract your skeletal muscles to move the bones of your
skeleton to get from one place to another and to carry out all of the activities of your daily life.
5.7 Development includes the changes the body goes through in life. It begins with
fertilization and ends at death. Development includes the process of differentiation, in which
unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform certain tasks in
the body. For example, following fertilization, generalized cells specialize to become specific
cell types, such as skin, bone, muscle, or nerve cells. These differentiated cells form the
tissues and organs. In addition, development also includes the process of growth and repair,
both of which involve cell differentiation.
5.8 Growth results in an increase in body size of an organism. It can result from an
increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells. For example,
bones become larger as the number of bone cells increases and they surround themselves
with bone matrix.
5.9 Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms. Without
reproduction of cells, growth and tissue repair are impossible. In humans, reproduction is
carried out by the male and female reproductive systems. Because death will come to all
complex organisms, without reproduction, the line of organisms would end.

6. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment
within the body. Most cells of the body are surrounded by a small amount of fluid, and normal
cell functions depend on the maintenance of its fluid environment within a narrow range of
conditions, including temperature, volume, and chemical content. These conditions are called
variables because their values can change. For example, body temperature is a variable that
can increase or decrease depending on the condition of the environment.
 Remember, maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its
internal conditions. A set point is the physiological value around which the normal range
fluctuates.For example, approximately 37℃ (98.6℉) is the set point for normal human body
temperature. Note that homeostatic mechanisms are not able to maintain body temperature
precisely at the set point. Normal range is the restricted set of values that is optimally healthful
and stable. As long as body temperature remains within this normal range, homeostasis is
maintained. If 37℃ is the approximate normal temperature, physiological parameters, such as
body temperature and blood pressure, tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees
above and below that point (36.1℃( 97℉) to 37.2℃ (99℉)). The image below is the example
normal range and set point in body temperature .The value of the variable fluctuates around
the set point to establish a normal range of values.

6.1 Negative feedback is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point. It
means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. It does not prevent
variation but maintains variation within normal range.
An example of a negative-feedback mechanism is the maintenance of normal
blood pressure. Normal blood pressure is important because it is responsible for moving blood
from the heart to tissues. The blood supplies the tissues with oxygen and nutrients and
removes waste products. Thus normal blood pressure is required to ensure that tissue
homeostasis is maintained.
Negative feedback system has three basic components.
6.1.1 Sensor, also known as receptor, is a component of a feedback system that
monitors a physiological value. This value is reported to the control center.
6.1.2 Control Center is the component in a feedback system that compares the
value to the normal range. If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control
center activates an effector.
6.1.3 Effector is the component in a feedback system that causes a change to
reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range.
The image below shows the negative feedback loop wherein a stimulus - a deviation
from a set point- is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to
homeostasis. Figure A is a negative feedback loop that has four basic parts while Figure B
shows how the body temperature is regulated by negative feedback.
 Maintenance of normal blood pressure is another example of a negative feedback
mechanism. Normal blood pressure is important because it is responsible for moving blood
from the heart to tissues. The blood supplies the tissues with oxygen and nutrients and
removes waste products. Thus, normal blood pressure is required to ensure that tissue
homeostasis is maintained. The sensors that monitor blood pressure are located within large
blood vessels near the heart. If blood pressure increases slightly, the receptors detect the
increased blood pressure and send that information to the control center in the brain. The
control center causes the heart rate to decrease, resulting in a decrease in blood pressure. If
blood pressure decreases slightly, the sensor informs the control center, which increases heart
rate, producing an increase in blood pressure. As a result blood pressure is maintained within
a normal range.

6.2 Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather
than reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system
moves farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when
there is a definite endpoint.
Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the
existing body state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to
expel the baby at the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must
progress rapidly to a conclusion or the life of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme
muscular work of labor and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system. The first
contraction of labor (the stimulus) pushes the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of the
uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching
(the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary
gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin
causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles of the uterus (the effectors), pushing the
baby further down the birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle
of stretching, oxytocin release, and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when
the baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of
oxytocin.

References:
● Seeley, RR, TD Stephens, & P Tate. 2005. Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology,
5th edition. McGraw-Hill.
● https://www.labxchange.org/library/items/lb:LabXchange:aba04a6d-2b07-3741-a4a9-
64e1ad01e086:html:1
● https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-2-structural-
organization-of-the-human-body
● https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-3-functions-of-human-
life
● https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/1-5-homeostasis
● https://www.sciencephoto.com/keyword/birthing-position