ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: LESSON 3 CELLS
AND ITS FUNCTION
CELLS – Basic unit of life.
Human cells – vary in size, shape and functions.
Cells functions:
 Cell metabolism and energy use
 Synthesis of molecules
 Communication
 Reproduction and inheritance
Major parts of the cell:
1. Nucleus – present in most cells; except in
mature red blood cells
2. Cytoplasm – living material
3. Plasma membrane – encloses the
cytoplasm and
Nucleus
Cell /plasma membrane -outermost component of
the cell, this creates a barrier between the inside
and outside of the cell.
Extracellular -the environment outside the cell
Intracellular – the environment inside the cell.
Selectively permeable barrier – determines what
can move into and out of the cell.
Fluid mosaic model - arrangement of molecules in
the cell membrane; structure. There is a bilayer of
phospholipids.
Sugar may also attach to phospholipids and they
creating Glycolipids.
Cholesterol – also found in cell membrane;
function is to help strength and flexibility.
Proteins – responsible in bilayer for most
specialized function of the membrane. Functions:
enzymes, binding sites, (receptors, carriers and
channel)
GLYCOPROTEIN – Determines your blood type;
act as receptors that certain bacteria can bind and
play roles in cell interactions
CELL MEMBRANE:
Cell membrane junctions: 3 ways
1. Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an
adhesive or
cellular glue.
2. Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent
cells fit
together in a tongue-and-groove fashion
3. Special cell membrane junctions are formed,
which vary
structurally depending on their roles
main type of cell junctions:
1.Tight junctions – impermeable junctions; they
bind cells together into leak proof sheets. (ex.
small intestines) ZIPPER
2. desmosomes- anchoring junctions; prevents
cells from being pulled apart as a result of
mechanical stress. VELCRO AND BUTTONS
(ex. Heart muscles, skin)
3.Gap junctions -communicating junctions; allows
communication between the cells, they have
hallow cylinders of proteins that span the width of
the membranes
Nucleus – control center or headquarters of the
cell since it has a DNA and DNA has our genes
which carry instructions to make our protein.
Important regions of NUCLEUS:
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: LESSON 3 CELLS
AND ITS FUNCTION
Nuclear envelope – also called nuclear membrane;
bilayer and in between the 2 layers there is
perinuclear space.
In nuclear envelope it encloses the nucleoplasm-
which is the thick fluid where the nuclear
elements are suspended into one.
Nuclear pores – openings for the passage of
substances going in or out of the nucleus.
Nucleolus – small round body; sit where
ribosomes are assembled
Chromatin – complex of DNA and proteins that
form the chromosome within the nucleus; when
under microscope they look like beads on a string.
Nucleosomes –they bead in chromatins; they are
sub-unit of chromatins the consist of proteins
called histone and DNA is wrapped around them.
CYTOPLASM – cellular material outside the
nucleus but still inside the plasma membrane.
Major components;
Cytosol – a semi transparent fluid that suspends
the other elements; largely water with dissolved
nutrients and cells.
Organelles
1.Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell; major
sites of ATP production within cells.
It has a double membrane for its wall; the outer
membrane is smooth and featureless and inner
membrane has folds called CRISTAE.
ATP -main energy source for the cell’s activities.
2.ribosomes -made out of proteins and RNA
Ribosomes that are free floating; that are incharge
of protein that function inside the cell
Ribosomes that attach to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum are in-charge for proteins that function
outside of the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum – system of fluid filled
canals that twist through the cytoplasm in a
continuous manner with the nuclear envelope.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum – since there are
no ribosomes attached; LIPID SYNTHESIS and
detoxification of drugs and pesticides. (Liver cells
have lot of smooth e.r since it’s for detoxi.)
3.Golgi apparatus - responsible for transporting,
modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids.
Golgi vesicles; 3 paths
1st path: Secretion by exocytosis- the secretory
vesicle will travel to plasma membrane and fuse
with plasma m. so the membrane will rupture and
contents are secreted outside of the cell. via
exocytosis.
2nd path: the Golgi vesicle will deliver the
products like proteins and phospholipids into the
plasma membrane.
3rd path: Golgi vesicle will deliver the products
like enzymes to Lysosome.
4.LYSOSOME – The suicide bags since they
contain enzymes that are capable of digesting the
non-usable cell structures and foreign substances.
(Abundant in white blood cells)
Peroxisomes – vesicles that break down the fatty
acids, amino acids and hydrogen peroxides (can
be toxic to the cell). Also abundant in liver and
kidney cells.
Cytoskeleton – support; network of proteins that
holds the organelles in place and determine the
shape of the cell.
Microfilaments – small fibrils that are
important for cell movement. (ex. Actin &
myosin)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: LESSON 3 CELLS
AND ITS FUNCTION
Intermediate filaments – strong rope like
fibrous sub-unit that help form desmosomes;
structural support for the cell.
Microtubules – help support the cytoplasm
and is important for cell division.
Centriole – small and cylindrical shape; has 9
triplets that are arranged like a pinwheel; it
generates the microtubules and help in cell
division.
Pericentrioles – centrosome
CELL EXTENSIONS; 3 TYPES
Cilia – projections on the surface of the cell that
help in moving substances. Numerous in our
respiratory trap ( line the kungs and have rhythmic
movement for airway clearance.)
Flagella – longer than cilia; they occur one per
cell (ex. Sperm cell).
Microvilli – tiny finger like extensions of the
plasma membrane they project from the exposed
cell surface; don’t actively move like the other 2
types but THEY INCREASE SURFACE AREA.
They are also abundant in areas for
ABSORPTION (EX.intestine)
. of higher water concentration to lower water
CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISM
 Transporting of the substances in or out of
the cell through the cell membrane;
selectively permeable ( it wont be allowing
everything to pass through)
Solution – homogenous mixture of 2 or more
components
Intracellular fluid – fluids inside the cell. (Includes
cytosol and nucleoplasm)
Extracellular fluid – fluid outside the cell.
Solvent -dissolving medium (universal solvent is
WATER since its capable of dissolving substances
more than any other solvent; WATER – BODY’S
CHIEF SOLVENT)
Solutes – substances present that can be dissolve
in solvent.
2 ways of processes:
Active processes – substances that we could bring
into or out of the cell w/ energy or ATP
Passive processes – processes that don’t use up
ATP/Energy.
1.Passive diffusion -movement of molecules from
an area of higher concentration to lower
concentration. (Oxygen and carbon dioxide
exchange in lungs and tissues.)
Factors that affect diffusion is faster if:
 Greater difference in concentration
 Size (smaller)
 Temperature (warmer)
2 types of diffusion:
Simple – don’t need any assistance
Facilitated – needs assistance; since substances are
maybe too large for the membrane pores.
(Assistance may be a channel or carrier protein ex.
Glucose)
2.Osmosis – diffusion of water; diffuses to an area
concentration. (Can be seen in small intestine)
OSMOTIC PRESSURE – ABILITY of the
solution to hold water into it.
The HIGHER the SOLUTE CONCENTRATION
= the greater the Osmotic pressure; the greater the
tendency of water to move into the solution.
Isotonic solution – same amount of solute and
water concentration as cells. EQUAL (cells are
normal)
Hypertonic solution – More SOLUTES OUTSIDE
than there are inside of the cell; the cells will
shrink (since water is higher inside the cell than
outside)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: LESSON 3 CELLS
AND ITS FUNCTION DNA
C
RNA
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Hypotonic solution – Fewer SOLUTES outside
than inside the cell. cell will inflate and could
possibly burst. (Sometimes infuse to veins to
rehydrate extremely dehydrated patients)
. vesicle and is going to detach from the cell
ACTIVE PROCESSES
Active transport – area moves lesser concentration
> area of greater concentration.
Ex. is sodium potassium pump
Secondary active transport – transport of molecule
across the cell membrane utilizing energy coming
from the iron gradient created by the ions of the
cell .
2 types of secondary active transport:
Cotransport – diffusing of the substances in the
same direction as the transported substance.
Counter transport – the diffusing substance moves
in a direction opposite to that of the transported
substance.
Vesicular transport – involves of atp to form or
separate the membrane vesicles to transport
substances in bulk.
G C
2 types of
T A
Vesicular
transport:
Endocytosis – requires ATP so that the substances
EXTRACELLULARLY can be enclosed in a
membrane and will deliver the substances going
inside the cytoplasm.
Endocytosis is a cellular process in which
substances are brought into the cell.
2 types of endocytosis;
Phagocytosis- cell eating; engulfs large substances
and take it inside the cell (Example white B.C that
will eat the bacteria to destroy them.)
Pinocytosis – cell drinking; will take in fluids and
solutes & other small molecules to be carried
inside the cell (example is kidney tubular cells that
are in charge to reabsorb small proteins)
EXOCYTOSIS -moving the substances out of the
cell; is the mechanism to actively secrete
hormones (mucus or other products).
.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS - Process of making
proteins.
DNA and the gene expression
DNA – contains information that would direct
proteins synthesis
Gene expression – process of making
Gene expression Involves 2 steps:
Transcription – making a COPY of specific gene
Translation – CONVERTING the copied
information into a protein.
Dna has 2 nucleotide strands that are twisted
around
Gene – nucleotide sequence that serves as
instructions for making specific protein.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: LESSON 3 CELLS
AND ITS FUNCTION
CELL CYCLE
Non dividing phase ; interphase – the cells spends
more time here than
any other A U phase in cell
RNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS cycle .

Messenger RNA (mRNA) – the copy itself
Information Carried in mRNA is carried by 3
nucleotides called CODONS – that specify a
particular amino acid
There are 64 possible mRNA codons but only 20
amino acids.
Stop codon – wont code as amino acids but act as
a signal to end translation.
Anti-codon – the pair of codons; with amino acid
RNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
TRANSLATION
tRNA-transfer RNA carries the amino acids
rRNA- ribosomal RNA
polypeptide chain – group of amino acids
EXPRESSION OF THE GENETIC CODE
dna replication occurs the wherein the dna strands
will separate and each strand will become a new
template for new ones.
And at the end of interphase it will have a 2 sets of
genetic material.
EACH CELL OF HUMAN BODY EXCEPT
FOR SEX CELLS HAVE
46 CHROMOSOMES – Diploid no. of
chromosomes and arranged in pairs
23 pairs- autosomes
1 pair left – sex chromosome; that will determine
an individual sex
Xx – female sex chromosome
Xy – male sex chromosome
Cell division – formation of daughter cells from a
single parent cell.
a. Prophase- chromatin will condense into
chromosomes.
b. Metaphase -chromosome will align at the
center of the cell.
c. Anaphase – the chromatids are pulled
away from each other
d. Telophase – the cells will begin to be
divided into 2
Mitosis –new cells necessary for growth and
repair
Apoptosis – programmed cell death; important
since its used during early development to
eliminate unwanted cells
 Helps the body get rid of cells that have
been damaged beyond repair
Meiosis - sex cells required for reproduction;
haploid (23)
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: LESSON 3 CELLS
AND ITS FUNCTION
Sperm cells - have 22 autosomal chromosomes;
either x/y chromosome
Egg cells – contains 22 autosomal chromosomes;
last is x chromosome
Meiosis involves 2 divisions;
First division meiosis (meiosis I)
2ND Division meiosis (meiosis II)
Genetic diversity
Crossing over – exchange of genetic material bet.
Chromatids that results in different DNA content ■ Proteins called chaperones, which are
responsible for the
Random distribution – the chromosome are align
randomly and when split apart during anaphase proper folding of many other proteins and for the
the daughter cell can receive some of the father or repair or
mother’s chromosome. disposal of damaged proteins, no longer function
as well as
cells age.
■ Without chaperones, damaged proteins
accumulate within cells
and disrupt normal cellular processes.
■ Clinical manifestations of impaired chaperones
include
– cataracts and
– neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s
disease.

Aging and the cells