RESISTORS ○ Carbon Composition Resistors

Resistor ■ The carbon composition resistors are a

blend of carbon particles, graphite and
- A resistor is a component designed to have a speci c
ceramic dust mixed with a binder substance
value of resistance
like clay. These resistors have low stability
or and high noise.
Resistance ○ Wire Wound Resistors

- The Property of a device to oppose the ow of ■ A wire wound resistor is formed by winding a

electric current. wire made up of a resistive material around

- Represented by R a core. The core acts as a non-conductive

Ohms
- Unit of resistance
- Indicated by the Greek letter Ω Omega
Resistance Color Codes
Solution (Example)
First Band= First Digit: Blue=6
Second Band = Second Digit: Gray=8
Third Band = Multiplier: Gold=0.1
Fourth Band = Tolerance: Gold=±5%
68x0.1=6.8Ω [A ix the tolerance value]
The Resistance value is 6.8Ω ±5%
Categories of resistors
Linear Resistors
- A linear resistor is one whose resistance does not
vary with the ow of current through it.
Fixed Resistors
● A resistor is a xed resistor if its value is xed. Its
resistance value is set at the time the resistor is
manufactured
● Two most common types of xed resistors: Carbon
Composition Resistors and Wire Wound Resistor
material while the resistive wire conducts,
but with some resistance.
■ Usua y, a nichrome wire or a manganin wire
is used to wind the core because they o er
high resistance. Whereas plastic, ceramic,
or glass is used for the core.
Variable Resistor
- Variable resistors are those whose values can be
varied manua y, according to the requirement. A
particular value of resistance is chosen from a
range of resistance values, with the help of a shaft
connected.
- Variable resistors are classi ed as potentiometers,
rheostats, and trimmers.
Potentiometers
● A potentiometer is simply ca ed a pot. This is a
three-terminal resistor having a shaft that slides
or rotates. When the shaft is operated, it forms an
adjustable voltage divider.
● Potentiometers are used as a volume contro er in
TV sets and Music systems.
Rheostat
● A resistive wire is tightly wound around an
insulating ceramic core. A wiper slides over these
windings. One connection is made to one end of the
resistive wire and the second connection is made to
the wiper or the sliding contact, to obtain the
desired resistance.
● The rheostat is used to control current. These are
mostly used in the speed control of electric motors.
Trimmer
● Trimmers are sma variable resistors that are used
for tuning and calibration. They may have two or
three terminals.
Nonlinear Resistors
Thermistor
● The resistance of a thermistor varies with
temperature. Thermistors can be Negative
Temperature Coe icient (NTC) or Positive
Temperature Coe icient (PTC).
○ The resistance of NTC thermistor decreases as
the temperature increases. It is used to protect
devices from over-voltage conditions.
○ The resistance of PTC thermistor increases as
the temperature increases. It is used to protect
devices from over current conditions.
Light Dependent Resistor or Photo Resistor
● The resistance of an LDR varies with the intensity of
light. As light increases, its resistance decreases,
and vice versa.
● LDRs are used in automatic street light switching
and other purposes using light or dim sources.
Voltage Dependent Resistor or Varsitor
● The resistance of a VDR decreases with an increase
of the applied voltage. This change of resistance is
not linear. Doubling the voltage can decrease the
resistance to one-tenth of its original value.
● The VDR is used in the suppression of voltages
surges to protect other devices.
CAPACITORS
>A capacitor consists of an insulator (also ca ed a
dielectric) between two conductors.
>The conductors make it possible to apply voltage
across the insulator.
>An inductor is simply a coil of copper wire.
>One very important property of an inductor is its
inductance. The transformer, which is widely used in most
applications, is a special type of inductor.
Capacitor
● A capacitor is component designed to have a speci c
value of capacitance.
Capacitance
● Capacitance is the property of a device to store
electric energy in the form of an electrostatic eld.
● Capacitance is the property of a device to oppose
any change in voltage.
● The letter C represents capacitance or capacitor in
circuit diagrams.
● The unit of capacitance is Farad.
○ Sma er units are picofarad (pF),
nanofarad (nf) and microfarad (μF)
Types of Capacitors
● Capacitors can be xed or variable.
● Variable Capacitors are used for tuning.
● Trimmer Capacitors are sma variable capacitors
that are used for ne-tuning.
● They can be polarized or non-polarized.
○ Nonpolarized capacitors can be connected
either way in a circuit.
○ Polarized capacitors should be connected in
a circuit in the correct way observing
polarity.
Variable Capacitor
Capacitor
Capacitor Codes
- The rst and second numbers indicate the rst and
second digits respectively.
- The third number indicates the number of zeros to
be added.
- The total value is in picofarad (pF).
- The letter code indicates tolerance.
Solution
First Number: 4 = 4
Second Number: 7=7
Third Number: 3 = 000
Letter: K = ±10%
The capacitance value is 47000pF±10%
NOTE: In usual practice, the capacitance value is expressed
in microfarads ( µF). To do that, simply move the decimal
point six times to the left. So it wi become 0.047µF±10%.
INDUCTORS
Inductor
- An Electrical component designed to have a
particular value of inductance.
- Basica y a coil of copper wire.
Inductance
- The property of a device to store energy in the
form of an electromagnetic eld.
- The property of a device to oppose any chance in
current.
- L represents inductance or inductor in circuit
diagrams.
- Henry (H) is the unit of inductance. However,
sma er units, such as microhenry (µH) or
mi ihenry (mH) are used in electronics work
instead.
Types of inductors
TRANSFORMERS
- A transformer is an electrical device that is used to
step up or step down voltage or current.
Parts of Transformer
1. Primary Winding- The input side of the transformer.
It is where the power source is connected.
2. Secondary Winding- The output side of the
transformer. It is where the load is connected.
3. Core- A magnetic material placed inside the winding
of a transformer to intensify the induction process.
4. Bobbin– an insulating material that is used to
support the windings of the transformer. (Not shown
in the schematic Symbol)
5.
Types of Transformer
1. Auto Transformer- uses only one coil that acts as a
primary winding and a part of it acts as a secondary
winding (step down) or the whole coil as a secondary
winding, and a part of it acts as the primary winding
(Step up).
-Autotransformer
2. Isolation Transformer- uses a separate coil for the
primary winding a secondary winding.
Types of Diode
DIODES AND TRANSISTORS
- Diodes are the simplest active devices.
- Transistors are used when it is necessary to amplify
voltage, current, and power.
- With a sma signal applied to the transistor
ampli er, the transistor and its associated circuitry
can produce an enlarged version of the input signal.
- In computer circuits, the transistor can be used as
an electronic switch.
Diode
- A diode is a two-terminal electronic device that
a ows current to pass in only one direction.
- The positive terminal of the diode is ca ed the
anode, indicated by the letter A.
- The negative terminal of the diode, the cathode,
is indicated by the letter K.
Diode symbol
Diode Operation
- A diode passes current only when it is
forward-biased. It blocks the current when it is
reverse-biased.
- It is said to be forward-biased when its anode is
more positive with respect to the cathode.
- It is reversed biased when its anode is more
negative with respect to the cathode.
● Recti er Diode – a diode that converts alternating
current into direct current
● Zener Diode – a diode designed for limiting the
voltage across its terminals in reverse bias. This
diode is intended to operate at that voltage so it is
used as a voltage regulator.
● Varactor Diode - the junction capacitance varies
with the amount of reverse bias voltage. When the
reverse bias voltage increases, the junction
capacitance decreases; and vice versa.
● Light Emitting Diode – a diode that gives o visible
or invisible light when forward biased.
● LASER Diode – a diode that emits monochromatic
light. A monochromatic light consists of a single
color and not a mixture of colors.
 ● Photo Diode – a pn junction device that operates in - A transistor can be either NPN or PNP.
reverse bias
○ When there is no incident light, the reverse
current is negligible and is ca ed the dark
current.

● Tunnel Diode - exhibits a special characteristic

known as negative resistance.
○ Tunnel diodes are constructed with
germanium or ga ium arsenide by doping
the p and n regions much more heavily than
in a recti er diode.
- For a transistor to operate, the emitter to base
junction should be forward biased and the base to
co ector junction should be reverse biased.

● Schottky Diode – is formed by joining a doped

semiconductor region with metal such as gold,
silver, or platinum. It has no charge storage. It is
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS
used primarily in high-frequency and fast-switching
Common Emitter Ampli er
applications (300MHz).

● PIN Diode – consists of heavily doped p and n

regions separated by an intrinsic region.
○ When reverse biased, it acts like nearly
constant capacitance. When forward biased,
Input Resistance : Moderate
it acts like a current-contro ed variable
Output Resistance : Moderate
resistance
Voltage Gain : Moderate
○ It is used as a dc-contro ed microwave
Current Gain : Moderate
switch, as a modulator, or as an attenuator.
Power Gain : Moderate
Application : Most commonly used ampli er

Common Base Ampli er

TRANSISTORS
- A transistor is a three-terminal electronic device
that is used as an ampli er and as a switch.
- A transistor is a combination of two diodes—with the
anodes connected together (NPN) or with cathodes
Input Resistance : Low
connected together (PNP).
Output Resistance : Very High
- The transistor has three terminals: emitter, base
Voltage Gain : Very High
and co ector.
Current Gain : No current gain
- The emitter supplies electric charges. The base
Power Gain : Low
controls the ow of charges. And the co ector
Application : Used as voltage ampli er
co ects the charges.
Common Co ector Ampli er Formula

Input Resistance : Very High

Output Resistance : Low
Voltage Gain : No voltage gain
Current Gain : Very High
Power Gain : High
Application : Used as current or power ampli er

Operational Ampli er