Digital Electronics

Course Instructor: Engr. Linta Khalil

 Combinational circuits & Sequential circuits

• Combinational circuits are defined as

the time independent circuits which
do not depends upon previous inputs
to generate any output are termed
as combinational circuits.
• Sequential circuits are those which
are dependent on clock cycles and
depends on present as well as past
inputs to generate any output.
 Synchronous and asynchronous logic
circuits

• Digital sequential logic circuits are divided

into synchronous and asynchronous types
. In synchronous sequential circuits, the
state of the device changes only at
discrete times in response to a clock
signal.
• In asynchronous circuits the state of the
device can change at any time in response
to changing inputs.
 Multivibrator

• A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to

implement a variety of simple two-state
devices such as relaxation oscillators, timers
and flip-flops. It consists of two amplifying
devices (transistors, vacuum tubes or other
devices) cross-coupled by resistors or
capacitors.
• Multivibrators are sequential logic circuits that
operate continuously between two distinct
states of HIGH and LOW
Continue…… • A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a
“HIGH” state and a “LOW” state producing a
continuous output.
• Astable multivibrators generally have an even
50% duty cycle, that is that 50% of the cycle time
the output is “HIGH” and the remaining 50% of
the cycle time the output is “OFF”.
• In other words, the duty cycle for an astable
timing pulse is 1:1.
Continue……
• Sequential logic circuits which use a clock signal for
synchronization are dependent upon the frequency and
therefore the clock pulse width to activate their switching
action.
• Sequential circuits can also change their switching state
using either the rising edge, falling edge, or both edges of
the clock signal as we have seen previously with the basic
flip-flop circuits.
• The following list are terms commonly associated with a
timing pulse or waveform.
Continue……
• Active HIGH – if the state change occurs from a “LOW” to a
“HIGH” on the clock’s pulse rising edge or during the clock width.
• Active LOW – if the state change occurs from a “HIGH” to a
“LOW” on the clock’s pulses falling edge.
• Clock Width – this is the time during which the value of the clock
signal is equal to a logic “1”, or HIGH.
• Clock Period – this is the time between successive transitions in
the same direction, ie, between two rising or two falling edges.
• Duty Cycle – this is the ratio of the clock width to the clock
period.
• Clock Frequency – the clock frequency is the reciprocal of the
clock period, frequency = 1/clock period. ( ƒ = 1/T )
Continue…..

•Clock Signal Waveform

Types of clock pulse generation circuits

• There are basically three types of clock pulse generation circuits:

• Astable – A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but
switches continuously between two states this action produces a train of
square wave pulses at a fixed known frequency.
• Monostable – A one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state as
once externally triggered it returns back to its first stable state.
• Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states producing a single pulse
either HIGH or LOW in value.
Continue…..
• Astable – A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but switches
continuously between two states this action produces a train of square wave
pulses at a fixed known frequency. ...
• Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states producing a single pulse either
HIGH or LOW in value.
Why astable multivibrator is called astable?

• In electronic circuits, astable multivibrators are also known as

Free-running Multivibrator as they do not require any additional inputs or
external assistance to oscillate. ... The basic transistor circuit for an Astable
Multivibrator produces a square wave output from a pair of grounded emitter
cross-coupled transistors.
Monostable Multivibrator Circuits

• Monostable Multivibrators or “one-shot” pulse generators are generally used to convert

short sharp pulses into much wider ones for timing applications. Monostable
multivibrators generate a single output pulse, either “HIGH” or “LOW”, when a suitable
external trigger signal or start pulse T is applied.
• This trigger pulse signal initiates a timing cycle which causes the output of the
monostable to change state at the start of the timing cycle, ( t1 ). The ouput remains in
this second state until the end of the timing period, ( t2 ) which is determined by the time
constant of the timing capacitor, CT and the resistor, RT.
• The monostable multivibrator now stays in this second timing state until the end of the
RC time constant and automatically “resets” or returns itself back to its original (stable)
state.
Astable Multivibrator Circuits

• Astable Multivibrators are the most commonly used type of multivibrator circuit. An
astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator that have no permanent “meta” or
“steady” state but is continually changing its output from one state (LOW) to another
state (HIGH) and then back again.
• This continual switching action from “HIGH” to “LOW” and “LOW” to “HIGH” produces a
continuous and stable square wave output which switches abruptly between the two
logic levels making it ideal for timing and clock pulse applications.
• As with the previous monostable multivibrator circuit above, the timing cycle is
determined by the RC time constant of the resistor-capacitor, RC Network. Then the
output frequency can be varied by simply changing the value(s) of the resistors and
capacitor in the circuit.
• ƒ = 1/T.
Bistable Multivibrator Circuits

• The Bistable Multivibrators circuit is basically a SR flip-flop that we look at in the

previous tutorials with the addition of an inverter or NOT gate to provide the
necessary switching function.
• As with flip-flops, both states of a bistable multivibrator are stable, and the
circuit will remain in either stable state indefinitely.
• This type of multivibrator circuit passes from one state to the other “only” when
a suitable external trigger pulse T is applied and therefore to switch through a full
“SET-RESET” cycle two triggering pulses are required. This type of circuit is also
known as a “Bistable Latch”, “Toggle Latch” or simply “T-latch”.
Applications
• Bistable Multivibrators have many applications such as frequency dividers,
counters or as a storage device in computer memories but they are best used in
circuits such as Latches and Counters.
• The monostable multivibrator is used as delay and timing circuits. It is also used
for temporary memories. It is often used to trigger another pulse generator. It is
used for regenerating old and worn out pulses.
• The applications of Astable multivibrators involve in radio gears to transmit and
receive radio signals and also in time, morse code generators and some systems
which require a square wave like analog integrated circuits and TV broadcasts.
How is duty cycle calculated?

• In electronics, duty cycle is the percentage of the ratio of pulse duration, or

pulse width (PW) to the total period (T) of the waveform. ... For example, if a
motor runs for one out of 100 seconds, or 1/100 of the time, then, its duty
cycle is 1/100, or 1 percent.
How is duty cycle of astable multivibrator calculated?

• Now the previous charging time of t1 = 0.693(R1 + R2)C is modified to take

account of this new charging circuit and is given as: 0.693(R1 x C). The duty
cycle is therefore given as D = R1/(R1 + R2). Then to generate a duty cycle of
less than 50%, resistor R1 needs to be less than resistor R2.