 The scientific study of psychological disorders.

MODULE 1:

INTRODUCTION TO ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
NORMAL
 Typical for the social context
 Not distressing to the individual
 Not interfering with social life or work/school
 Not dangerous
 “College students who are self-confident and happy,
perform to their capacity in school, and have good
friends”
Conducted by:
 Clinical and counseling psychologists (PhD,
PsyD)/Registered Psychologists (RPsy)
 Psychiatrists (MD)
 Psychiatric social workers (MSW)
 Psychiatric nurses (MN, MSN, PhD)
 Marriage and family therapists (MA, MS, MFT)
 Mental health counselors (MA, MS)
SCIENTIST- PRACTITIONER

SOCIALLY ESTABLISHED DIVISION BETWEEN Mental Health Practitioner

NORMAL AND ABNORMAL
 Consumer of Science - Enhancing the practice
 Somewhat unusual for the social context  Evaluator of Science - Determining the effectiveness of
 Distressing to the individual the practice
 Interfering with social or occupational functioning  Creator of Science - Conducting research that leads to
 Dangerous new procedures useful in practice
 “College students who are often unsure and self-critical,
occasionally abuse prescription drugs, fail some courses, 3 BASIC THINGS FROM CONDUCTING RESEARCH
and avoid friends who disapprove of drug use”  To describe psychological disorders
ABNORMAL  To determine their causes
 To treat them
 Highly unusual for the social context
 The source of significant individual distress 3 CATEGORIES THAT MAKE UP THE STUDY OF
 Significantly interfering with social occupational PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
functioning Studying Psychological Disorders
 Highly dangerous to the individual or others
 “College students who are hopeless about the future, are Focus:
self-loathing, chronically abuse drugs, fail courses, and
have alienate all their friends”  Clinical Description
 Causation (Etiology)
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER  Treatment and Outcome

 Describes behavioral, psychological, or biological CLINICAL DESCRIPTION

dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context
and associated with present distress and impairment in COURSE – pattern of behavior
functioning, or increased risk of suffering, death, pain, or  Chronic – last a long time
impairment.  Episodic – likely to recover within a few months only to a
4Ds of ABNORMALITY suffer a recurrence
 Time-limited – to improve in a short period
 DYSFUNCTION - Refers to the breakdown in cognitive,
emotional, or behavioral functioning ONSET – first phase or beginning of the symptoms of the
 DISTRESS - The behavior must be associated with disorder
distress to be classified as a disorder adds an important
 Acute – begins suddenly
component: the criterion is satisfied if the individual is
 Insidious – develops gradually over an extended period
extremely upset.
 DEVIANCE - It deviates from the average. The greater PROGNOSIS – predicted future development of a disorder
the deviation, the more abnormal it is over time
 DANGER - Inflicts danger to self or to another person
 Good
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  Bad
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
 study of changes in behavior over time
 study of changes in abnormal behavior
CAUSATION, TREATMENT & ETIOLOGY OUTCOMES
 ETIOLOGY - Cause of development of psychopathology
 TREATMENT - Drugs and/or psychosocial
OTHER CLINICAL TERMINOLOGIES
 Presenting Problem – medical way of identifying the
reason why the patient came to the clinic or hospital.
Presents is a traditional shorthand way of indicating why
the person came to the clinic.
 Prevalence – a statistical term referring to the number of
cases present in a particular population.
 Incidence – refers to the number of new cases during a
given period of time.
 Diagnosis – process of determining whether a presenting
problem meets the established criteria for a specific
disorder
II. INDIGENOUS CONCEPTS OF ABNORMALITY
 Consider these behaviors: Crucifixions during Holy Week
A man barking like a dog and crawling on the floor on his
hands and knees A woman building a shrine to her dead
husband in her living room and leaving food and gifts for
him at the altar
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
 Cultural relativism is the view that there are no universal
standards or rules for labeling a behavior abnormal;
instead, behaviors can be labeled abnormal only relative
to cultural norms (Snowden & Yamada, 2005)
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
 Culture and gender can influence the ways people express
symptoms.
 Culture and gender can influence people’s willingness to
admit certain types of behaviors or feelings (Snowden &
Yamada, 2005)
 Culture and gender can influence the types of treatments
deemed acceptable or helpful for people exhibiting
abnormal behaviors.
 Cultural universality, on the other hand, refers to the
perspective that symptoms of mental disorders are the
same in all cultures and societies (Eshun & Gurung,
2009).
MODULE 2:
APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
MENTAL DISORDER
BIOLOGICAL DIMENSION
 Genetics, Brain Anatomy, Biochemical Imbalances,
Central Nervous System Functioning, Autonomic
Nervous System Reactivity, etc.
SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSION
 Race, Gender, Sexual Orientation, Religion,
Socioeconomic Status, Ethnicity, Culture, etc.
SOCIAL DIMENSION
 Family, Relationship, Social Support, Belonging,
Love, Marital Status, Community, etc.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIMENSION
 Personality, Cognition, Emotions, Learning, Stress-
Coping, Self-Esteem, Self-Efficacy, Values,
Developmental History.
4 CATEGORIES OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS TO THE
DEVELOPMENT OF MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR
 Genetic vulnerabilities
 Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
 Neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities
 Temperament
THE ROLE OF GENES
WHAT ARE GENES?
 Long molecules of DNA
 Double helix structure
 Located on chromosomes
 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs
 Pairs 1 – 22 = body and brain development
 Pair 23 = gender
COMMON TERMINOLOGIES
 Sex Chromosomes – determines an individual’s sex.
In females, both chromosomes in the 23rd pair are
called X chromosomes. In males, the mother
contributes an X chromosome, but the father
contributes a Y chromosome. This one difference is
responsible for the variance in biological sex.
 Dominant Gene - one of a pair of genes that strongly
influences a particular trait, and we need only one of
them to determine, for example, our eye color or hair
color.
 Recessive Gene – must be paired with another
(recessive) gene to determine a trait.
 Polygenic – influenced by many genes, each
contributing only a tiny effect, all of which, in turn,
may be influenced by the environment.
 Genome – an individual’s complete set of genes
DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL
  Individuals are assumed to inherit certain
vulnerabilities that make them susceptible to a
disorder when the right kind of stressor comes along
DIATHESIS
 A predisposition or vulnerability
 Inherited predisposition to develop the disorder +
STRESS
 Environmental stressors
 Prenatal trauma or childhood sexual or physical
abuse, family confuse, significant life changes —
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DISORDER
 The stronger the diathesis, the less stress is necessary
to produce the disorder
 Psychological disorder
GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION MODEL
 Also called as reciprocal gene-environment model;
the individual’s genetic vulnerability toward a certain
disorder may make it more likely that the person will
experience the stressor that, in turn, triggers the
genetic vulnerability and thus the disorder
o The child’s genotype may have what has
been termed a passive effect on the
environment, resulting from the genetic
similarity of parents and children.
o The child’s genotype may evoke kinds of
reactions from the social and physical
environment— a so-called evocative effect.
o The child’s genotype may play a more
active role in shaping the environment—a
so-called active effect.
EXAMPLE OF GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION
MODEL
 If you and your spouse each have an identical twin,
and both identical twins have been divorced, the
chance that you will also divorce increases greatly.
 Furthermore, if your identical twin and your parents
and your spouse’s parents have been divorced, the
chance that you will divorce is 77.5%.
 Conversely, if none of your family members on either
side has been divorced, the probability that you will
divorce is only 5.3%.
EPIGENETICS
 the immediate effects of the environment (such as
early stressful experiences) impact cells that turn
certain genes on or off. This effect may be passed
down through several generations.
 Your brain + your environment and lifestyle = you!
NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS CONTRIBUTIONS TO
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
 processes all information received from our sense organs
and reacts, as necessary.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
 coordinates with the brain stem to make sure the body is
working properly.
MAJOR NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine
 Influences attention and memory, dream and sleep states,
and muscle activation; has excitatory and inhibitory
effects
 Alzheimer’s Disease (low)
Dopamine*
 Influences motivation and reward-seeking behaviors;
regulates movement, emotional responses, attention, and
planning; has excitatory and inhibitory effects
 Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (high);
schizophrenia (low)
Epinephrine (adrenaline)* and norepinephrine*
(noradrenaline)
 Excitatory functions including regulating attention,
arousal and concentration, dreaming, and moods; as a
hormone, influences physiological reactions related to
stress response (constricted attention, blood flow, heart
rate, etc.)
 Anxiety and stress disorders; sleep disorders (high/low)
Glutamate
 Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in cognition,
memory, and learning
 Alzheimer’s disease: autism; depression; obsessive-
compulsive disorder; schizophrenia (high/low)
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
 Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; calms the nerves;
regulates mood and muscle tone
 Anxiety disorders; attention-deficit/ hyperactivity  Treatment of psychological disorder, from this
disorder; bipolar disorder; depression; schizophrenia perspective, involves an attempt to restructure the
(low) individual’s personality
 Early life experiences play a formative role in
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT)
personality
 Inhibitory effects regulate temperature, mood, appetite,  In order to understand Freud’s view in
and sleep; reduced serotonin can increase impulsive psychopathology, it is necessary to understand how
behavior and aggression he conceived the personality structure
 Depression, suicide, obsessive-compulsive and anxiety  In Freud’s view, a psychological disorder results
disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, eating disorders from serious imbalance between the id’s needs and
(low) the superego’s restrictions
 Psychological disturbance can also result from
MAJOR HORMONES defects in the ego. In normally functioning
Cortisol individuals, the ego attempts to protect itself from the
id (Defense Mechanisms)
 Steroid hormone released in response to stress
 Anorexia nervosa: depression; stress-related NARCISSISTIC DEFENSES
disorders  Denial, Distortion, Projection
Ghrelin NEUROTIC DEFENSES
 Stimulates hunger and boosts the appeal of food  Controlling ,Isolation, Displacement, Rationalization,
 Eating disorders; obesity Externalization, Reaction, Formation, Inhibition,
Leptin Dissociation, Intellectualization, Repression,
Sexualization
 Suppresses appetite
 Anorexia nervosa; schizophrenia IMMATURE DEFENSES

Melatonin  Acting Out, Blocking,Hypochondriasis, Introjection,

Passive-Aggressive behavior, Regression, Schizoid
 Regulates circadian sleep and wake cycles Fantasy, Somatization
 Bipolar disorder; depression,
particularly seasonal depression; MATURE DEFENSES
schizophrenia; obsessive-
compulsive disorder  Altruism, Anticipation, Asceticism, Humor,
Oxytocin Sublimation, Suppression
 Neuropeptide hormone influencing lactation and POST-FREUDIAN PSYCHODYNAMIC VIEWS
complex social behavior (including nurturing and
bonding)  C.G. Jung believed that the goal of the healthy
 Autism; anxiety; schizophrenia personality development was an integration of the
 unconscious life with conscious thoughts, and that
THE PURPOSE OF THEORIES IN ABNORMAL psychological disorders result from an imbalance
PSYCHOLOGY between these two parts of the personality.
 Offers contrasting perspectives from which to  Alfred Adler placed more emphasis on the
approach the possible causes of psychological individual’s relationship to society, and saw the basis
functioning for psychological disorder as loss of social interest, or
 Provides framework for collecting and analyzing a turning-away from fellow humans
research data  Karen Horney focused more on the inner world of the
 Psychologists of different orientations are likely to individual as the basis for psychological disorder.
examine different aspects of the person She proposed that people with psychological
disorders have become distanced from their true
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE needs and desires
 Erik Erikson focuses on unconscious roots of
 Theoretical orientation that emphasizes unconscious personality and psychological disorder and
determinants of behavior development proceeds throughout the life span in a
series of eight “crises”
OBJECT-RELATIONS THEORIES
 Object-relation theorists placed far greater emphasis
on the early mother-child relationship
 Propose that various forms of psychological disorder
arise from defects in the individual’s sense of self.
Some disorders are caused by failure to form an
integrated self early in life
 Other disorders may occur when parent’s lack of
empathy, or sharing of the child’s perspective, and
failure to mirror back or take pride in the child’s
achievements cause the individual to develop
unhealthy needs for attention
 Melanie Klein’s contribution was the idea that the
infant has an active fantasy life built around parents
 In Heinz Kohut’s view, a disturbed sense of self
accounts for most forms of psychological disorder
 According to Margaret Mahler, psychological
disturbances can result from problems arising at any
of the phases of development
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
 The core of the humanistic perspective is the belief
that human motivation is based on an inherent
tendency to strive for self-fulfillment and meaning in
life
 Psychological disorders is the result of blocking of
one’s potential for living to full capacity, resulting in
a state of incongruence – a mismatch between a
person’s self-perception and reality (Person-centered
approach)
 According to Carl Rogers, a psychological disorder
develops in an individual who, as a child, was
subjected to parents who were too critical and
demanding
 On Abraham Maslow’s notion of self-actualization,
the maximum realization of the individual’s potential
for psychological growth
 Maslow defined psychological disorder in terms of
the degree of deviation from the ideal state of being
 Another source of psychological problems is the
suppression of the higher-level needs required to
achieve actualization
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
 According to classical conditioning principles, many
emotions and behaviors are acquired through the
pairing of neutral and emotion-provoking stimuli
 The classical conditioning paradigm accounts for the
acquisition or learning through conditioning, of
emotional reactions that interfere with a person’s
ability to carry out everyday tasks
 Shaping is an important method in the treatment of
certain behavioral problems (operant conditioning)
 When it comes to social learning or social cognition,
it is not only direct reinforcements that influence
behavior, but indirect reinforcements that people
acquire. It can also be shown that maladaptive
behaviors are learned through observing other people
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
 Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and Donald Meichenbaum
emphasized the role of disturbed thinking processes
in causing maladaptive behavior
 Beck – “dysfunctional attitudes”; Ellis – “irrational
beliefs”; Meichenbaum – people create their own
unhappiness by having unduly negative thoughts
about their situations
 Psychological disorder, as George Kelly proposed,
occurs when these constructs fail to organize the
individual’s world
CULTURAL, SOCIAL & INTERPERSONAL FACTORS
 Social factors are environmental influences—
often unpredictable and uncontrollable negative
events—that can negatively affect a person
psychologically, making him or her less
resourceful in coping with events.
 The sociocultural perspective looks at the various
circles of influence on the individual, ranging from
close friends and family to the institutions and
policies of a country or the world as a whole. These
influences interact in important ways with biological
processes and with the psychological contributions
that occur through exposure to particular experiences.
 One important and unique sociocultural contribution
to psychological disorders is discrimination,
whether based on social class, income, race and
ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, or gender.
OTHER TYPES OF SOCIAL FACTORS Early deprivation or
trauma
 Problems in parenting style
 Marital discord and divorce
 Low socioeconomic status and unemployment
 Maladaptive peer relationships
 Prejudice and discrimination
CULTURAL, SOCIAL & INTERPERSONAL FACTORS
 Everyone experiences anxiety and fear, and phobias
are found all over the world. But phobias have a
peculiar characteristic: The likelihood of your having
a particular phobia is powerfully influenced by your
gender.
 Many major psychological disorders, such as
schizophrenia and major depressive disorder, seem to
occur in all cultures, but they may look different from
one culture to another because individual symptoms
 are strongly influenced by social and interpersonal
context (Cheung, 2012; Cheung, van de Vijver, &
Leong, 2011).
MODULE 3
CLINICAL ASSESSMENT
- refers to a systematic evaluation and measurement of
psychological, biological, and social factors in people with
psychiatric disorders to provide idiographic information that
may be helpful in treatment planning.
 Reliability is the degree to which a measurement is
consistent.
 Validity is whether something measures what it is
designed to measure—in this case, whether a technique
assesses what it is supposed to.
 Standardization is the process by which a certain set of
standards or norms is determined for a technique to make
its use consistent across different measurements. (Value
Assessment depends on these 3)
CLINICAL INTERVIEW
Time-honored means of psychological assessment
 Flexible interview (unstructured)
 Consists of open-ended questions on various
topics such as reasons for being in treatment,
symptoms, health status, family background, etc.
 Standardized interview (structured)
 Contains fixed questions with fixed scoring
categories
INTERVIEWING DIFFICULT PATIENTS
PATIENTS WITH PSYCHOSIS
 Often frightened or guarded; have difficulty with
reasoning and thinking clearly.
 Can be actively hallucinating during the interview,
causing them to be inattentive and distracted
 May need to alter the usual format and adapt the interview
to match the capacity and tolerance of the patient
 Ask patient about a specific instance or repeat verbatim
 Should be alert for cues
 For patients with paranoid thoughts and behaviors,
maintain a respectful distance. It is also helpful to avoid
sustained eye contact
DEPRESSED AND POTENTIALLY SUICIDAL PATIENTS
 Feelings of hopelessness may contribute to lack of
engagement
 May have difficulty during the interview
 May have impaired motivation and not report their
symptoms
 Depending on the severity of symptoms, may need more
direct questioning rather than an open-ended format
 A suicide assessment should be performed
 Should be asked about any current thoughts of suicide and
if thoughts are present, ask the intention.
 Presence of psychotic symptoms should be assessed
 Although the intent of interview is to build rapport, the
patient’s safety is the first priority. If he/she is viewed to
be at imminent risk, the interview may need to be
terminated and action must be taken
HOSTILE, AGITATED & POTENTIALLY VIOLENT
PATIENTS
 Safety of the patient and psychologist/psychiatrist is the
priority
 Hostile patients are often interviewed in emergency
settings
 Angry, agitated patients can present in any setting
 Interviewers should be aware of any available safety
features
 They should be aware of his or her own body position and
avoid postures that could be seen as threatening
 Interview approach should be calm, direct manner and not
to bargain or promise to elicit cooperation
 If patient makes threats, further assessment is necessary
DECEPTIVE PATIENTS
 Patients lie or deceive for many reasons (secondary gain,
psychological benefits of assuming a sick role)
 There are no biological markers to definitively validate a
patient’s symptoms
 Gather collateral information regarding the patient
 Psychological tests which can help in further evaluating
the reliability of the client
DEALING WITH PSYCHIATRIC PATIENTS
 WITHDRAWN PATIENTS
 Active-Friendliness Attitude
 TLC
 Supportive gestures, should be non-threatening
 Assurance of safety
 Attend to basic needs as possible
 PARANOID PATIENTS
 Passive-friendliness
 Maintain your distance
 Do not stare
 He/She must be part of decision-making
 Do not laugh/smile unless he/she started to
 Do not whisper with others in front of the patient
 Do not make unnecessary movements/gestures
 MANIPULATIVE PATIENTS
 Matter-of-Fact approach
 Stick to the rules
 No negotiations/bargaining
 Do not react to his/her manipulations
 Do not give in to his/her request at once
 Rule implementation must be consistently followed by all
staff
THE MENTAL STATUS EXAMINATION (MSE)
 To organize information obtained during an interview,
many clinicians use a mental status exam.
 Often a 1-2 paragraph statement which is an assessment
of the client’s JOIMAT.
J-O-I-M-A-T
 J – udgment/Insight (Inquired/Observed)
 O – rientation x3 (Person, place, time) (Inquired)
 I – ntellectual Functioning (Inquired/Observed)
 M – emory (Inquired)
 A – ppearance; Affect (Both Observed)
 T – hought Process (Inquired/Observed)
Topic Sample Questions Comments and Clinical Hints
General appearance
 Introduce yourself and direct patient to take a seat. In the
hospital, bring your chair to bedside; do not sit on the bed.
 Unkempt and disheveled in cognitive disorder, pinpoint
pupils in narcotic addiction, withdrawal and stooped
posture in depression.
Attitude during interview
 You may comment about attitude: “You seem irritated
about something; is that an accurate observation?”
 Suspiciousness in paranoia; seductive in hysteria;
apathetic in conversion disorder (la belle indifference);
punning (witzelsucht) in frontal lobe syndromes.
Judgment
 What is the thing to do if you find an envelope in the
street that is sealed, stamped, and addressed?
 Impaired in brain disease, schizophrenia, borderline
intellectual functioning, intoxication.
Insight level
 Do you think you have a problem? Do you need
treatment? What are your plans for the future?
 Impaired in delirium, dementia, frontal lobe syndrome,
psychosis, borderline intellectual functioning.
Orientation x3 (Person, Place, Time)
 What place is this? What is today’s date? Do youknow
who I am?
 Delirium or dementia shows clouded or wandering
sensorium. Orientation to person remains intact longer
than orientation to time or place.
Remote memory (long-term memory)
 Where were you born? Where did you go to school? Date
of marriage? Birthdays of children?
 Patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type retain
remote memory longer than recent memory. Gaps in
memory may be localized or filled in with confabulatory
details. Hypermnesia is seen in paranoid personality.
Immediate memory (very short-term)
 Ask patient to repeat six digits forward, then backward
(normal responses). Ask patient to try to remember three
nonrelated items; test patient after 5 min.
 Loss of memory occurs with cognitive, dissociative, or
conversion disorder. Anxiety can impair immediate
retention and recent memory.
Thought process
 Ask similarity between bird and butterfly (both alive),
bread and cake (both food).
 Loose associations point to schizophrenia; flight of ideas
to mania; inability to abstract to schizophrenia, brain
damage.
Mood
 *Trigger Warning*
How do you feel? How are your spirits? Do you have
thoughts that life is not worth living or that you want to
harm yourself? Do you have plans to take your own life?
Do you want to die? Has there been a change in your
sleep habits?
 Suicidal ideas in 25% of depressives; elation in mania.
Early morning awakening in depression; decreased need
for sleep in mania.
CAGE & RAPS4
 Have you ever Cut down on your drinking?
 Have people Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?
 Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about your drinking?
 Have you ever had a drink the first thing in the morning,
as an Eye-opener, to steady your nerves or get rid of a
hangover?
 Have you ever felt guilty after drinking (Remorse),
 Could not remember things said or did after drinking
(Amnesia),
 Failed to do what was normally expected after drinking
(Perform),
 Or had a morning drink (Starter)?
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE
PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT
I. Identifying Data (Demographic Data)
II. Reason for Referral/Source
III. Presenting Problem/Chief Complaint
IV. History of Present Illness
a. Background
 b. Personal
c. Family
d. Medical
e. Educational
V. Mental Status Examination
VI. Assessment Used (Tools and other methods)
VII. Test Results
VIII. Diagnosis (if applicable)
IX. Summary & Recommendations
Identifying data
 Be direct in obtaining identifying data. Request
specificanswers.
 If patient cannot cooperate, get information from family
member or friend; if referred by a physician, obtain
medical record.
Chief complaint (CC)
 Why are you going to see a psychiatrist? What brought
you to the hospital? What seems to be the problem?
 Records answers verbatim; a bizarre complaint points to
psychotic process.
History of present illness (HPI)
 When did you first notice something happening to you?
Were you upset about anything when symptoms began?
Did they begin suddenly or gradually?
 Record in patient’s own words as much as possible. Get
history of previous hospitalizations and treatment. Sudden
onset of symptoms may indicate drug-induced disorder.
Previous psychiatric and medical disorders
 Did you ever lose consciousness? Have a seizure?
 Ascertain extent of illness, treatment, medications,
outcomes, hospitals, doctors. Determine whether illness
serves some additional purpose (secondary gain).
Personal history
 Do you know anything about your birth? If so, from
whom? How old was your mother when you were born?
Your father?
 Older mothers (>35) have high risk for Down syndrome
babies; older fathers (>45) may contribute damaged
sperm, producing deficits including schizophrenia.
Family history
 Have any members in your family been depressed?
Alcoholic? In a mental hospital? Describe your living
conditions. Did you have your own room?
 Genetic loading in anxiety, depression, schizophrenia. Get
medication history of family (medications effective in
family members for similar disorders may be effective in
patient).
PURPOSE OF ASSESSMENT REPORTS
 To respond to the referral questions being asked.
 To provide insight to clients for therapy.
 To assist in the case-conceptualization process.
 To develop treatment options in counseling (e.g., type of
counseling, use of medications, etc.)
 To suggest educational services for students with special
needs (e.g., for students who are mentally retarded,
learning disabled, or gifted)
 To offer direction when providing vocational
rehabilitation services.
 To offer insight about and treatment options for
individuals who have incurred a cognitive impairment
(e.g., brain injury, senility).
 To assist the courts in making difficult decisions (e.g.,
custody decisions, sanity defenses, determination of guilt
or innocence).
 To providence evidence for placement into schools and
jobs.
 To challenge decisions made by institutions and agencies
(social security disability, school IEPs
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
Diagnose or rule out physical etiologies
 Toxicities
 Medication side effects
 Allergic reactions
 Metabolic conditions
BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
 Uses direct observation to formally assess an individual’s
thoughts, feelings, and behavior in specific situations or
contexts
 May be more appropriate than an interview in terms of
assessing individuals who are not old enough or skilled
enough to report their problems and experiences.
 Observation
 Self-Monitoring
OSERVATIONAL ASSESSMENT FOCUSES ON:
ANTECEDENTS, BEHAVIOR, CONSEQUENCES
EXAMPLE OF A-B-C SEQUENCE
 Mother asking his son to put his glass in the sink
(Antecedent)
 The boy throwing the glass (Behavior)
 Mother’s lack of response (Consequence)
 This antecedent–behavior–consequence sequence (the
ABCs) might suggest that the boy was being reinforced
for his violent outburst by not having to clean up his
mess. And because there was no negative consequence for
his behavior (his mother didn’t scold or reprimand him),
he will probably act violently the next time he doesn’t
want to do something
SELF-MONITORING

 People can also observe their own behavior to find

patterns, a technique known as self-monitoring or self-
observation (Haynes et al., 2011).
 The goal here is to help clients monitor their behavior
more conveniently. When behaviors occur only in private
(such as purging by people with bulimia nervosa), self-
monitoring is essential.

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

 Interviews and behavioral observation are relatively direct

attempts to determine a person’s beliefs, attitudes, and THOUGHT DISORDERS
problems. Psychological tests are a more indirect means  Incoherence
of assessing psychological characteristics.  Loosening of Associations
 Two general categories of psychological tests for use in  Illogical Thinking
clinical practice are intelligence tests and personality tests  Neologisms
(projective and objective).  Poverty of content of speech
 Projective Personality Tests/Projective Techniques  Blocking
o Rorschach Inkblot Test, TAT, H-T-P  Circumstantiality
 Personality Inventories  Tangentiality
o MMPI-2, MMPI-RF, PAI, MCMI  Clanging
 Intelligence Testing  Confabulation
o SB-5, WAIS-IV, WISC-V  Echolalia
 Neuropsychological Testing  Flight of Ideas
o Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt II  Pressure of Speech
NEUROLOGICAL TESTING/ NEUROIMAGING  Perseveration

STRUCTURAL IMAGING TYPICAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PSYCHIATRIC

ILLNESSES DELUSIONS
Computerized axial tomography (CT)
 Grandeur
 X-rays of brain  Control
 Pictures in slices  Nihilism
 Reference
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRi)  Persecution
 Strong magnetic field  Self-Blame
 Improved resolution  Somatic
 Poverty
FUNCTIONAL IMAGING  Infidelity
 Thought Broadcasting
 Electroencephalograph (eeG)  Thought Insertion
 Magnetoencephalography (MeG)  Thought Withdrawal
 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRi)
 Diffusion tensor imaging (DTi) MODULE 3.1

 Positron emission tomography (PeT)

 Single photon emission computed tomography
(SPeCT) TYPICAL SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF
PSYCHIATRIC ILLNESSES
DIAGNOSIS
 is the process of determining whether a problem that
distresses a person meets criteria for a psychological
disorder.
 International Classification of Diseases 10th Edition (ICD-
10) and 11th Edition (ICD-11)
 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 th
Edition-Text Revised (DSM-5 TR)

ELEMENTS OF DIAGNOSIS
 Subtypes – mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive  DSM IV (1988)

phenomenological subgroupings within a diagnosis and  DSM IV-TR (2000)

are indicated by the instruction “specify whether” in the  DSM 5 (2013)

criteria set  DSM 5-TR (2022)

 Specifiers – as opposed to subtypes, they are indicated by

the instruction “specify” or “specify if” in the criteria set
 Other specified – is provided to allow the clinician to
communicate the specific reason that the presentation
does not meet the criteria for any specific category within
a diagnostic class.
 Unspecified – if clinician chooses not to specify the
reason that the criteria are met for a specific disorder
TERMINOLOGIES
APPROACHES
ASSUMPTIONS OF DSM IV
 Definition of “mental disorder”; The disorder is clinically
significant
 Syndrome – collection of symptoms that together form a
definable pattern
NEUROSIS - Not part of the nomenclature; in reference to
behavior that involves some symptoms that are distressing to
an individual and are recognized by that person as
unacceptable

 Idiographic - determination of individual, unique features
or attributes
 Nomothetic - determination of general classes and
common attributes
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 Taxonomy - Classification in a scientific context
 Nosology - Taxonomy in psychological / medical
contexts
 Nomenclature - Nosological labels (e.g., panic disorder)
DIAGNOSTIC PROCESS
PSYCHOSIS - Refers to various forms of behavior involving
loss of contact with reality; grossly disturbed
FIVE AXES OF DSM IV
 Major disorders (All diagnostic categories except
personality disorders and mental retardation)
 Stable, enduring problems (Personality disorders and
mental retardation)
 General medical conditions (related)
 Psychosocial and environmental problems
 Rating of adaptive functioning (Global assessment of
functioning)

 Client’s Reported Symptoms — DSM 5 (2013)

 Diagnostic Criteria—
 Differential Diagnosis—  ICD 10
 Final Diagnosis—  The general consensus is that DSM-5 is largely unchanged
 Case Formulation from DSM-IV although some new disorders are
introduced, and other disorders have been reclassified
HOW DO WE CLASSIFY DISORDERS? o Divided into three main sections
o How to use the manual
 The DSM-5 and ICD-11 are two of the most respected o Disorders
medvcal manuals in the world for classifying disease and o Description of disorders
disorder.  Most notable change is the removal of the multiaxial
WHY DO WE CLASSIFY DISORDERS? system
 DSM-5 introduces cross-cutting dimensional symptom
 Communication measures
 Prognosis o Evaluating a global sense important symptoms
 Treatment Planning that are often present across disorders in almost
all patients such as anxiety, depression, and
HISTORY DSM problems with sleep
Emil Kraeplin 1856-1926  Social and cultural considerations in the DSM-5

 Pioneered classification of mental illness based on DSM IV-TR to DSM 5 Changes Terminology
biological causes  Neurodevelopmental Disorders
 Mental illness as syndrome
 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
 Proposed two syndromes: Dementia Praecox, Manic-
 Bipolar and Related Disorders
Depressive Psychosis
 DSM-I (1952) and DSM-II (1968)  Depressive Disorders
 DSM-III (1980) and DSM-III-R (1987)  Anxiety Disorders
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
 Trauma and Stressor-related Disorders
 Dissociative Disorders
 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
 Feeding and Eating Disorders
 Sleep-Wake Disorders
 Sexual Dysfunctions
 Gender Dysphoria
 Disruptive, Impulse-Control and Conduct Disorders
 Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
 Neurocognitive Disorders
 Paraphilic Disorders
DSM 5-TR (2022)
 Fully revised text for each disorder with updated sections
on associated features, prevalence, development and
course, risk and prognostic factors, culture, diagnostic
markers, suicide, differential diagnosis, and more.
 Addition of Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) to Section II
—a new disorder for diagnosis
 Over 70 modified criteria sets with helpful clarifications
since publication of DSM-5
 Fully updated Introduction and Use of the Manual to
guide usage and provide context for important
terminology
 Considerations of the impact of racism and discrimination
on mental disorders integrated into the text
 New codes to flag and monitor suicidal behavior,
available to all clinicians of any discipline and without the
requirement of any other diagnosis
 Fully updated ICD-10-CM codes implemented since
2013, including over 50 coding updates new to DSM-5-
TR for substance intoxication and withdrawal and other
disorders
 Updated and redesigned Diagnostic Classification
CULTURE-BOUND SYNDROME
NAME GROUP DESCRIPTION
ATAQUE DE NERVIOS
 Hispanics
 Out-of-consciousness state resulting from evil spirits.
Symptoms include attacks of crying, trembling,
uncontrollable shouting, physical or verbal aggression,
and intense heat in the chest moving to the head. These
ataques are often associated with stressful events (e.g.,
death of a loved one, divorce or separation, or witnessing
an accident including a family member).
AMOK, MAL DE PELEA
 Malaysians, Laotians, Filipinos, Polynesians, Papua New
Guineans, Puerto Ricans
 A dissociative disorder involving outburst of violence and
aggression or homicidal behavior at people and objects. A
minor insult would precipitate this condition. Amnesia,
exhaustion, and persecutory ideas are often associated
with this syndrome.
DHAT
 East Indians, Chinese, Sri Lankans
 Extreme anxiety associated with sense of weakness,
exhaustion, and the discharge of semen.
TAIJIN KYOFUSHO
 Asians
 Guilt about embarrassing others, timidity resulting from
the feeling that the appearance, odor, facial expressions
are offensive to other people.
AMURAKH, LATAH (LATTAH), JUMPING
FRENCHMEN OF MAINE SYNDROME, MYRIACHIT
 Siberians, Malaysian, Indonesian, French Canadians
 The condition primarily affects middle-aged women and
is characterized by an exaggerated startle reaction. Its
major symptoms, besides fearfulness, are imitative
behavior in speech (see echolalia) and body movements
(see echopraxia), a compulsion to utter profanities and
obscenities (see coprolalia), command obedience, and
disorganization.
WINDIGO PSYCHOSIS
 Algonquin Indians in Canada and Northeastern US
 The syndrome is characterized by delusions of becoming
possessed by a flesh-eating monster (the windigo) and is
manifested in symptoms including depression, violence, a
compulsive desire for human flesh, and sometimes actual
cannibalism. The psychosis is also known by numerous
variant names and spellings, among them whitiko,
wihtigo, wihtiko, witigo, witiko, and wittigo.
SUSTO
 Latinos in the US, Mexico, Central America, South
America
 After experiencing a frightening event, individuals fear
that their soul has left their body. Symptoms include
weight loss, fatigue, muscle pains, headache, diarrhea,
unhappiness, troubled sleep, lack of motivation, and low
self-esteem.
PIBLOKTO
 Inuit and other Arctic populations
 Individuals experience a sudden dissociative period of
extreme excitement in which they often tear off clothes,
run naked through the snow, scream, throw things, and
perform other wild behaviors. This typically ends with
 convulsive seizures, followed by an acute coma and  #NoToSelfDiagnosis!
amnesia for the event.
MODULE 4:
INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES ETHICAL ISSUES IN ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

 The international classification of diseases (ICD) was also PERSPECTIVES ON MENTAL HEALTH LAW
used in classifying mental and behavioral disorders.
 During the post-World War II, the World Health  Mental health professionals face such questions daily.
Organization (WHO) published the sixth edition of ICD, They must both diagnose and treat people and consider
which, for the first time, included a section for mental individual and societal rights and responsibilities.
disorders.  Republic Act 11036 – Mental Health Act
 ICD–6 was heavily influenced by the Veterans
Administration classification and included 10 categories
for psychoses and psychoneuroses and seven categories
for disorders of character, behavior, and intelligence.

Mental & Behavioral Disorders (Chapter V-F00-F99) of

ICD-10
 F00-F09 Organic, including symptomatic, mental
disorders
 F10-F19 Mental and behavioural disorders due to
psychoactive substance use
 F20-F29 Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional
disorders
 F30-F39 Mood [affective] disorders
 F40-F48 Neurotic, stress-related and somatoform
disorders
 F50-F59 Behavioural syndromes associated with
physiological disturbances and physical factors
 F60-F69 Disorders of adult personality and behaviour
 F70-F79 Mental retardation
 F80-F89 Disorders of psychological development
 F90-F98 Behavioural and emotional disorders with onset
usually occurring in childhood and adolescence
 F99-F99 Unspecified mental disorder
A CAUTION ABOUT LABELING AND STIGMA
 Problems and pitfalls with labels
o Negative connotations
o Stigmas
o Reification (perceiving something other than for
what it is)
MENTAL ILLNESS
 MENTAL ILLNESS is a legal concept, typically meaning
“severe emotional or thought disturbances that negatively
affect an individual’s health and safety.” Each state has its
own definition.
 Not synonymous with psychological disorder
 Different definitions of mental illness/health in various
countries and states
List of definition of terms is included in the IRR of RA 11036
CIVIL COMMITMENT
 Individuals with psychological problems or behaviors that
are so extreme and severe as to pose a threat to
themselves or others may require protective confinement.
 Civil commitment is defined as involuntary confinement
of a person judged to be a danger to the self or to others,
even though the person has not committed a crime.
o Police power
o Parens Patriae (Latin, Parent of the country)

PSYCHOLOGY STUDENT SYNDROME

 A constellation of signs and symptoms which a

medical student believes he or she has while
learning about a particular disease in medical school;
a collection of psychosomatic symptoms resulting
from the study of a disorder as a medical student
 Many psychology students find that various disorders
apply to them
 Not a true syndrome CRITERIA FOR COMMITMENT
 Diagnosing friends and romantic partners may lead to
conflict
 Individuals present a clear and imminent danger to
themselves or others
 Individuals are unable to care for themselves or do not
have the social network to provide for such care
 Individuals are unable to make responsible decisions
about appropriate treatments and hospitalization
 Individuals are in an unmanageable state of fright or panic
DANGEROUSNESS
 Mental health professionals have difficulty predicting
whether someone, even a person they know well such as a
client, will commit dangerous acts. The fact that civil
commitments are often based on a determination of
dangerousness
o The rarer something is, the more difficult it is to
predict
o Violence is as much a function of the context in
which it occurs as of the person’s characteristics
o The best predictor of dangerousness is often past
criminal conduct or a history of violence or
aggression
o The definition of dangerousness is itself unclear
CRIMINAL COMMITMENT
 Incarceration of an individual for having committed a
crime.
 Although the field of psychology accepts different
perspectives on free will, criminal law does not.
LEGAL TERMS
 Due Process - constitutional guarantee of fair treatment
within the judicial system
 M’Naghten Rule - a cognitive test of legal insanity that
inquires whether the accused knew right from wrong
when the crime was committed
 Durham Rule - a test of legal insanity also known as the
product test—an accused person is not responsible if the
unlawful act was the product of a mental disease or defect
 Irresistible impulse test - a doctrine that contends that a
defendant is not criminally responsible if he or she lacked
the willpower to control his or her behavior
 Diminished capacity - law standard allowing defendant to
be convicted of a lesser offense due to mental impairment
 mens rea – guilty mind
 actus rea – physical act; guilty ones
 
COMPETENCY TO STAND TRIAL
 There is, in English common law, a principle that a person
charged with a crime must be competent to stand trial
(Fogel et al., 2013; Stafford & Sadoff, 2011).
 Several factors can influence a court decision that the
defendant in a case is not competent to stand trial.
o The defendant must have a factual
understanding of the proceedings
o The defendant must have a rational
understanding of the proceedings.
o The defendant must be able to rationally consult
with counsel in presenting his or her own
defense.
INSANITY DEFENSE
 legal argument used by defendants who admit they have
committed a crime but plead not guilty because they were
mentally disturbed at the time of the crime. The insanity
plea recognizes that under specific circumstances, people
may not be held accountable for their behavior.
 Article 12, No. 1 of the Revised Penal Code of the
Philippines (Circumstances which exempt criminal
liability)
O When the imbecile or an insane person has
committed an act which the law defines as a
felony (delito), the court shall order his
confinement in one of the hospitals or asylums
established for persons thus afflicted, which he
shall not be permitted to leave without first
obtaining the permission of the same court.
MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS AS EXPERT WITNESS
 Judges and juries often must rely on expert witnesses,
individuals who have specialized knowledge, to assist
them in making decisions (Mullen, 2010). This is also one
conflict between mental health and the law
 Mental health professionals appear to have expertise in
identifying malingering and in assessing competence.
o Malingering – fake or grossly exaggeration of
symptoms, usually to be absolved from blame
 A second area in which mental health professionals are
often asked to provide consultation is in assigning a
diagnosis.
 Recent revisions of diagnostic criteria, most notably
DSM-IV-TR and DSM-5, have addressed this issue
directly, thus helping clinicians make diagnoses that are
generally reliable. Remember, however, that the legal
definition of mental illness is not matched by a
comparable disorder in DSM-5
MALINGERING (Z76.5)
The essential feature of malingering is the intentional
production of false or grossly exaggerated physical or
psychological symptoms, motivated by external
incentives such as avoiding military duty, avoiding work,
obtaining financial compensation, evading criminal
prosecution, or obtaining drugs.

Malingering should be strongly considered if any combination
of the following is noted:
1. Medicolegal context of presentation (e.g., the individual
is referred by an attorney to the clinician for examination,
or the individual self-refers while litigation or criminal
charges are pending).
2. Marked discrepancy between the individual’s claimed
stress or disability and the objective findings and
observations.
3. Lack of cooperation during the diagnostic evaluation and
in complying with the prescribed treatment regimen.
4. The presence of antisocial personality disorder.
DUTY TO WARN (TARASOFF CASE)
 Respect for the Dignity of Persons and People
 Competent Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and
People
 Integrity
 Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society
 How we resolve ethical issues in our professional lives
and communities;
 How we adhere to the highest standards of professional
competence;
 How we respect for the rights and dignity of our clients,
our peers, our students, and our other stakeholders in the
profession and scientific discipline;
 How we maintain confidentiality in the important aspects
of our professional and scholarly functions;
 How we ensure truthfulness and accuracy in all our public
statement;
 How we observe professionalism in our records and fees.
SOME EXAMPLES UNDER THE PHILIPPINE CODE OF ETHICS

 Boundaries of Competence
 Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California  Providing Services in Emergencies
(1974,1976)  Multiple Relationships
 It is a standard for therapists concerning their duty to  Confidentiality
warn a client’s potential victims.  Disclosures
 It is difficult for therapists to know their exact  Documentation and Maintenance of Records
responsibilities for protecting third parties from their  Withholding Client Records
clients. Good clinical practice dictates that any time they
are in doubt they should consult with colleagues. A MODULE 5:
second opinion can be just as helpful to a therapist as to a
client. ANXIETY, TRAUMA AND OCD-RELATED
DISORDERS
RIGHTS OF MENTAL PATIENTS

ANXIETY FEAR PANIC

 Right to Treatment Both characterizes a negative affect, but Fear occurring during
 Right to Refuse Treatment both can also be adaptive (Fear – fight an inappropriate time
 Deinstitutionalization or flight; Anxiety – increases
 Rights of Research Participants preparedness)
o The right to be informed about the purpose of the
Future-oriented Instantaneous alarm Two types of panic
research study
reaction attack:
o The right to privacy
Both involve the physiological arousal Cued (Expected)
o The right to be treated with respect and dignity
through the sympathetic nervous system Uncued (Unexpected)
o The right to be protected from physical and
mental harm
o The right to choose to participate or to refuse to
participate without prejudice or reprisals FEAR AND ANXIETY
o The right to anonymity in the reporting of results
o The right to the safeguarding of their records
CODE OF ETHICS

 RA 11036 – Mental Health Act

 RA 10029 – Psychology Act of 2009
 Code of Ethics of Philippine Psychologists
 The PAP shall take steps to ensure that all members of the ANXIETY, FEAR & PANIC
PAP and the larger community of Philippine
psychologists will know, understand, and be properly Anxiety in General
guided by this Code.
 The adaptive value of anxiety may be that it helps us  At least 4 weeks in children and adolescents; 6 months or
plan and prepare for a possible threat. In mild to moderate more in adults
degrees, anxiety actually enhances learning and performance.
 For example, a mild amount of anxiety about how Selective Mutism
you are going to do on your next exam, or in your next sport  Failure to speak in specific social situations
match, can actually be helpful.  At least 1 month (but not limited to the first month of
 But, although anxiety is often adaptive in mild or school)
moderate degrees, it is maladaptive when it becomes chronic
and severe, as we see in people diagnosed with anxiety Specific Phobia
disorders.
 Marked fear or anxiety on a specific subject or situation
ETIOLOGY OF ANXIETY, TRAUMA AND OCD- (e.g. heights, blood-injection-injury, animals)
RELATED DISORDERS  Lasting for 6 months or more (causes clinically significant
distress)
Biological, Psychological, Social
Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)
 Genetically predisposed
 Unconscious feelings and sensitivity to situations which  Fear or anxiety in one or more social situations wherein
may posed as threats (neurotic disorders) the individual is exposed to possible scrutiny to others;
 Lack of social support most common anxiety disorder
 Associated with specific brain circuits, hormonal  Lasting for 6 months or more (causes clinically significant
systems and neurotransmitters distress)
 Avoidance in situations which can associate fear, panic
and anxiety Panic Disorder
 Other environmental factors can be connected (e.g.  Recurrent un-cued panic attacks
family, career, etc.)  Attacks has been followed by 1 month with additional
criteria (pg. 208)
POSSIBLE TREATMENTS Agoraphobia
Drug treatment Cognitive-Behavioral -Stress  Excessive fear about two (or more) of the five situations
Antidepressants Therapy (majority) management (e.g. using public transportation, being in open spaces,
 Anxiolytics  Trauma-informed Care through healthy etc.)
(Benzodiazep  Exposure lifestyle  Lasting for 6 months or more (causes clinically significant
ines) therapy/Panic control -Meditational distress)
 Anti- treatment and
depressants  Systematic Mindfulness Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
(SNRIs) Desensitization approaches
 Cognitive  Anxiety that focuses on minor everyday events, not one
Restructuring major worry or concern; the individual finds it difficult to
 Modeling Therapy control.
 Occurs more days than not for at least 6 months

AN INTEGRATED MODEL ANXIETY DISORDERS

 High rates of comorbidity (55% - 76%)

 Links with physical disorders (chronic pain, headache,
hypertension, heart diseases, etc.)
 Comorbidity with depression? Yes. It is possible.
 Suicide attempt rates is also similar as depression (20%)

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

ANXIETY DISORDERS
 GAD in children = needs only one symptom
Separation Anxiety Disorder  Insidious onset (early adulthood)
 Chronic course
 Excessive fear from experiencing separation from home  Associated with muscle tension
or from major attachment figures  Inherited tendency to become anxious
 55%-60% of those with GAD are women

 The key feature of generalized anxiety disorder is
that, unlike the disorders you have learned about so far, it does
not have a particular focus.
 People with generalized anxiety disorder feel anxious
for much of the time, even though they may not be able to say
exactly why they feel this way.
PANIC ATTACK VS. ANXIETY ATTACK
Sudden & extreme - Gradually builds up
AGORAPHOBIA
Typical Situations Avoided by People Agoraphobia
 Shopping malls, Being far from home, Cars (as driver or
passenger), Staying at home alone Buses, Waiting in line,
Trains Supermarkets, Subways, Stores, Wide
streets, Crowds Tunnels, Planes Restaurants, Elevators
Theaters, Escalators
Interoceptive Daily Activities Typically Avoided by People
with Agoraphobia
 Running up flights of stairs, Walking outside in intense
heat, Having showers with the doorsand windows closed,
Hot stuffy stores or shopping malls, Walking outside in
very cold weather, Aerobics, Lifting heavy objects,
Dancing, Eating chocolate, Standing quickly from a
sitting position, Watching exciting movies or sports
events, Getting involved in "heated" debates, Hot stuffy
rooms, Hot stuffy cars, Having a sauna, Hiking Sports,
Drinking coffee or any caffeinated beverages, Sexual
relations, Watching horror movies, Eating heavy meals,
Getting angry
NOCTURNAL PANIC
 60% with panic disorder experience nocturnal attacks
 Caused by deep relaxation,
o Sensations of “letting go” are anxiety provoking to
people with panic attacks
 Sleep terrors (occurs in children)
 Isolated sleep paralysis (occurs during transitional phase)
SPECIFIC PHOBIA
 A PHOBIA is an irrational fear associated with a
particular object or situation. It is common to have some
fear of or at least a desire to avoid such objects as spiders
or situations with enclosed spaces or heights. In a
SPECIFIC PHOBIA, however, the fear or anxiety is so
intense that it becomes incapacitating.
 People with specific phobia go to great lengths to avoid
the feared object or situation. If they can’t get away, they
endure the situation but only with marked anxiety and
discomfort. Like all anxiety disorders, a specific phobia
induces significant distress.
Term - Fear of:
 Acarophobia - Insects, mites
 Achluophobia – Darkness, night
 Acousticophobia - Sounds
 Acrophobia - Heights
 Aerophobia - Air currents, drafts, wind
 Agoraphobia - Open spaces
4 TYPES OF SPECIFIC PHOBIA
 Animal
 Natural Environment (heights, storm, water)
 Blood-injection-injury
 Situational (planes, enclosed spaces, elevators)
 Other (phobic avoidance of situations that may lead
to choking, vomiting, or contracting an illness, etc.)
TRAUMA AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDER
Reactive Attachment Disorder
 Pattern of emotionally withdrawn behavior toward adult
caregivers; or had experienced extremes of insufficient
care
 Present for more than 12 months; occurs during infancy
or early childhood
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder
 Pattern of behavior in which a child actively approaches
and interacts with unfamiliar adults and experienced a
pattern of extremes of insufficient care
 Present for more than 12 months; occurs during infancy
or early childhood
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
 Exposure to a traumatic event that involves actual or
threatened injury; see page 301-305 of DSM-5-TR
 Applicable to adults, adolescents and children older than
6 years old. Separate criteria for children 6 years and
below. Duration varies from the first 3 months, 12 months
or 50 years
Acute Stress Disorder
 Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury or
sexual violation; presence of 9 (or more) symptoms from
the 5 categories namely intrusion symptoms, negative
mood, dissociative symptoms, avoidance symptoms and
arousal symptoms
 Duration of disturbance is 3 days to at least 1 month after
trauma exposure; may progress to PTSD after 1 month
Adjustment Disorder
 The presence of emotional or behavioral symptoms in
response to an identifiable stressor is the essential feature
of adjustment disorders
 The disturbance begins within 3 months of onset of a
stressor; If the stressor is an acute event, the onset of the
disturbance is usually immediate (i.e., within a few days)
and the duration is relatively brief
Prolonged Grief Disorder
 Represents a prolonged maladaptive grief reaction that
can be diagnosed only after at least 12 months (6 months
in children and adolescents) have elapsed since the death
of someone with whom the bereaved had a close
relationship
 Symptoms usually begin within the initial months after
the death, although there may be a delay before the full
syndrome appears.
TRAUMA-RELATED DISORDERS
Major symptom clusters:
 Intrusion symptoms
 Avoidance
 Negative alteration in mood or cognition
 Arousal and changes in reactivity
POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
 An anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences
several distressing symptoms for more than a month
following a traumatic event, such as a reexperiencing of
the traumatic event, an avoidance of reminders of the
trauma, a numbing of general responsiveness, and
increased arousal.
3 FACTORS OF PTSD
 Pre-traumatic
 Peri-traumatic
 Posttraumatic
Most common traumas:
 Sexual
 Accidents
 Combat

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS
Obsession - Persistent thoughts
Compulsion - Repetitive behaviors
OBSESSION
60% have multiple obsessions
 Need for symmetry
 Forbidden thoughts or actions
 Cleaning and contamination
 Hoarding
COMPULSION
Four major categories
 Checking
 Ordering
 Arranging
 Washing/cleaning
Association with obsessions
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE AND RELATED DISORDERS
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
 Presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both, which are
time-consuming
 Mean age at onset is 19.5 years;
 Has the tendency to begin before 10 years old;
 Compulsions are easily diagnosed in children than
obsessions
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
 Preoccupation with one or more perceived defects or
flaws in physical appearance that are not observable;
 Also possessed repetitive behaviors
 Typically begins in late adolescence
Hoarding Disorder
 Persistent difficulty in discarding or parting with
possessions, regardless of value
 Usually begins in childhood or early adolescence
Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling)
 Frequent pulling of one’s hair, which results to hair loss
 Can be triggered by feelings of anxiety, which gives a
satisfying feeling of pulling hair or picking the skin or
scab
Excoriation (Skin-Picking)
 Repeated picking of skin, resulting in skin lesions
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER  Triggering events including intense interpersonal conflicts
and feelings of depression, hopelessness, guilt, anger, or
 Female = Male shame.
 Chronic course  Perceived inability to make progress toward goals or to
 Onset = childhood to 30s solve problems; related feelings of failure, worthlessness,
 Tic Disorder – characterized by involuntary and hopelessness.
movement (sudden jerking of limbs, for example), to co-occur  Ambivalence about suicide; there is a strong underlying
in patients with OCD desire to live.
OCD VS. OCPD  Suicidal intent is communicated directly or indirectly
through verbal or behavioral cues.
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)
RISK FACTORS
 form of anxiety disorder
 can accept condition and seek help Biological Psychological Social Sociocultural
 ritualistic
 ego-dystonic behavior Low serotonin Childhood Isolation Financial
abuse decline
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE PERSONALITY DISORDER Genetic and Mental illness Relationship Male gender
(OCPD) epigenetic conflict
effects
 form of personality disorder
Alcohol effects Hopelessness Loss of Suicide
 reluctant to seek medical help
partner contagion
 perfectionism
Sleep difficulties Psych-ache Bullying Access to
 ego-syntonic behavior
firearms
MODULE 6: Physical Impulsivity Cultural
illness/disability alienation
MOOD DISORDERS AND SUICIDE Prior attempts
SUICIDE JOINER’S INTERPERSONAL-PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL
OF SUICIDE
 Intentional, direct, and conscious taking of one’s own life
 Not only a tragic act, but it is also difficult to comprehend

SEMICOLON PROJECT; Assess risk of suicide

 A semicolon is used when an author could have chosen to
end their sentence but chose not to.
 The author is you, and the sentence is your life.
 Founder Amy Bleuel took her own life at the age of 31
last 2017.
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
 Belief that things will never change, and that suicide is
the only solution.
 Desire to escape from psychological pain and distressing
thoughts and feelings.
 “Have you had thoughts about death, or about killing
yourself?” If yes, ask:
o “Do you have a plan for how you would do
this?”
o “Are there means available (e.g., a gun and
bullets or poison)?”
o “Have you actually rehearsed or practiced how
you would kill yourself?”
o “Do you tend to be impulsive?”
o “How strong is your intent to do this?”
o “Can you resist the impulse to do this?”
o “Have you heard voices telling you to hurt or kill
yourself?”
 Ask about previous attempts, especially the degree of
intent.
 Ask about suicide of family members.
 Preventing suicide is extremely difficult. Most people
who are depressed and contemplating suicide do not
realize that their thinking is restricted and their decision
making impaired and that they are in need of assistance.
 Indeed, only about 40 percent of people with suicidal
thoughts or attempts around the world receive treatment
(Bruffaerts et al., 2011).
3 MAIN THRUST OF PREVENTIVE EFFORTS
 Treatment of person’s current mental disorder(s)
 Crisis Intervention
 Working with High-Risk Groups
MOOD DISORDERS
What is mood?
 Emotional state or our prevailing frame of mind
 Can significantly affect our perceptions of the world,
sense of well-being, and interactions with others
Most of you experience minor mood changes throughout the
day but can stay emotionally balanced and on an even keel.
You may also have times where you feel depressed or times
when you experience an emotional high—normal reactions to
the events going on around you.
You may have occasional, brief episodes of more significant
mood changes— experiencing overwhelming sadness over the
loss of a friendship or feeling extremely energized or even
ecstatic when you hear great news.
Unlike these temporary, normal emotional reactions, the mood
symptoms in depressive and bipolar disorders:
 affect the person’s well-being and school, work, or social
functioning;
 continue for days, weeks, or months;
 often occur for no apparent reason; and
 involve extreme reactions that cannot be easily explained
by what is happening in the person’s life.
CAUSE OF MOOD DISORDERS AND SUICIDE
 Biological vulnerabilities/early predispositions:
Genetic contributions, neurochemical and hormonal
changes, brain changes
 Early family problems: Poor attachment,
disengaged parents,
expressed emotion, modeling of parental depression
 Stressful life events: Family conflict, alienation from
others, academic and other challenges
 Cognitive-stress and behavioral vulnerabilities:
Sense of learned helplessness and hopelessness,
intense negative emotions and arousal, escape-
oriented behavior, lack of social support Possible
mood disorder
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Depressive Episode - a person is markedly depressed or
loses interest in formerly pleasurable activities (or both)
for at least 2 weeks, as well as other symptoms such as
changes in sleep or appetite, or feelings of worthlessness
 Mania - mental state characterized by very exaggerated
activity and emotions including euphoria, excessive
excitement, or irritability that result in impairment in
social or occupational functioning
 Manic Episode/Elevated Mood - a person shows a
markedly elevated, euphoric, or expansive mood, often
interrupted by occasional outbursts of intense irritability
or even violence— particularly when others refuse to go
along with the manic person’s wishes and schemes.
 Hypomania - a milder form of mania involving increased
levels of activity and goal-directed behaviors combined
with an elevated, expansive, or irritable mood
 Expansive Mood - person may feel extremely confident
or self-important and behave impulsively
 Euphoria - exceptionally elevated mood; exaggerated
feeling of well-being
DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
TYPES OF DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS [ADAPTED FROM
THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF
MENTAL DISORDERS – 5TH - TEXT REVISION (DSM-5-
TR), 2022]*
Major Depressive Disorder
 5 or more symptoms listed in the DSM-5-TR should be
present during the same 2-week period and represents a
change in previous functioning; at least one of the
symptoms is either (1) depressed mood, or (2) loss of
interest or pleasure
 May first appear in any age but likelihood onset increases
markedly in puberty stage
Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)
 Depressed mood that occurs most of the day, for more
days than not, at least 2 years; at least 1 year for children
and adolescents
 Often has an early and insidious onset
Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder
 Expression of mood lability, irritability, dysphoria and,
anxiety symptoms that occur repeatedly during the
menstrual phase of the cycle and remit around the onset of
menses
 Onset can occur anytime at any point after menarche
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
 Coming home to slump into bed without eating dinner.
Tossing and turning in bed, unable to sleep. Some
difficulty concentrating.
 Inability to rise from bed many days, skipping classes at
school, and withdrawing from contact with others.
 Complete inability to interact with others or even leave
the house. Great changes in appetite and weight. Suicide
attempt or completion.
CYCLE OF PERSISTENT DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
(DYSTHYMIA)
CYCLE OF MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

 Chronic, severe persistent irritability manifested by

frequent temper outbursts and angry mood present SPECIFIERS OF MDD
between tantrums
 Onset is before 10 years old and should not be applied to  Anxious Distress
children with a developmental age of less than 6 years  Mixed features
 Melancholic features
CYCLE OF MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER  Atypical features
 Mood-congruent psychotic features
Depression – More Severe  Mood-incongruent psychotic features
EMOTION  Catatonia
 Peripartum onset
 Good mood.  Seasonal pattern
 Feeling upset and sad, perhaps becoming a bit teary-eyed.
 Mild discomfort about the day, feeling a bit irritable or ETIOLOGY
down. ETIOLOGY OF DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS
 Intense sadness and frequent crying. Daily feelings of
“heaviness” and emptiness. Biological
 Extreme sadness, very frequent crying, and feelings of
emptiness and loss. Strong sense of hopelessness.  Predisposing – short allele 5-HTTLPR gene
 HPA reactivity and excess cortisol
COGNITIONS  Female hormones after puberty
 Shrinkage of hippocampus
 Thoughts about what one has to do that day. Thoughts
about how to plan and organize the day. Psychological
 Thoughts about the difficulties of the day. Concern that
something will go wrong.  Negative thoughts
 Dwelling on the negative aspects of the day, such as a  Learned helplessness
couple of mistakes on a test or a cold shoulder from a  Rumination
coworker.  Self-contempt, blame, guilt
 Thoughts about one’s personal deficiencies, strong Social
pessimism about the future, and thoughts about harming
oneself (with little intent to do so).  Early life neglect, maltreatment, etc.
 Thoughts about suicide, funerals, and instructions to
others in case of one’s death. Sociocultural
 Strong intent to harm oneself.  Discrimination
BEHAVIORS  Female gender roles
 LGBT orientation*
 Rising from bed, getting ready for the day, and going to
school or work.
 Taking a little longer than usual to rise from bed. Slightly
less concentration at school or work.
TREATMENT

 Behavioral
Psychopharmacology
Activation Therapy
 Anti-depressants -Support
 Interpersonal
 Tricyclics from
Psychotherapy
 MAOIs family
 Cognitive-
 SNRIs and loved
Behavioral Therapy
 SSRIs ones
 Mindfulness-based
cognitive therapy
Brain stimulation
therapies (e.g.
Electroconvulsive
Therapy, Vagus
Nerve Stimulation)
OTHER FORMS OF DEPRESSION

SPECIFIER OF BD

 Anxious Distress
 Loss and the grieving process  Mixed features
 Postpartum “blues”(Postnatal/Antenatal Depression)  Depressive Episode with Mixed Features
 Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)  Rapid cycling
 Psychotic Depression (MDD with psychotic features)  Melancholic Features
 Psychotic Features
BIPOLAR DISORDER
 Catatonia
Symptoms of a Manic Episode  Peripartum onset
 Seasonal pattern
 Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
 Decreased need for sleep, such as feeling rested after only ETIOLOGY OF BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS
3 hours of sleep More talkative than usual or pressure to
BIOLOGICAL
keep talking
 Subjective experience that one’s thoughts are racing, or  Genetic Predisposition
flight of ideas  Neurochemical factors (norepinephrine and serotonin
 Distractibility deficiency)
 Distractibility  Abnormalities of hormonal regulatory systems (HPA)
 Distractibility  Circadian rhythm abnormalities
PSYCHOLOGICAL
 Stressful life events
 Rumination
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
(BIPOLAR AND UNIPOLAR)
 In some cultures, the concept of depression as we know it
simply does not exist.
 For example, Australian aborigines who are “depressed”
show none of the guilt and self-abnegation commonly
seen in more developed countries.
 They also do not show suicidal tendencies but instead are
more likely to vent their hostilities onto others rather than
onto themselves.
TREATMENTS/INTERVENTIONS
 Anti-depressants
 Mood stabilizers (e.g. Lithium)
 Anti-psychotic drugs
 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
 Bright Light Therapy
 Behavioral Activation Treatment
 Interpersonal Therapy
 Family and Marital Therapy
 Brain stimulation therapies (e.g. Electroconvulsive
Therapy, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Deep Brain
Stimulation)
l 
QUIZZES
 Mahasal Bador caught her fiance cheating on her a month
before their wedding. Her fiance decided to cancel the
wedding to think things through. She is often seen staring
at a blank wall and started to cry for days. Which of the
following best defines Mahasal's situation? Distress
 A client says, "I honestly don't remember this event" You
identify this as: Distress
 What neurotransmitters are considered to be "chemical
brothers""? GABA & Glutamate
 The Hippocratic-Galenic approach's intervention is to
___________________; Ancient Chinese is to
____________________. Bloodletting; Acupuncture
 Mothers' alcohol habits during pregnancy is partially
genetically influenced, and those genes may be passed
down to her offspring is an example of
_________________ Passive effect
 Behavioral explanation of anxiety disorders, particularly
in panic attacks states that; A stimulus-response pattern
previously conditioned was triggered
 Which of the following maldevelopment tendencies is the
core pathology under Ego Integrity vs. Dispair stage?
Disdain
 A man with shattered self-esteem reverts to childlike
“showing off” and exhibits his genitals to young
girls. This is an example of what defense mechanism?
Regression
 Which of the following shows an example of an active
effect?
 Highly intelligent parents may provide a
highly stimulating environment for their child, thus
creating an environment that will interact in a positive
way with the child’s genetic endowment for high
intelligence.
 According to Freudian theory, which behavior would
suggest fixation at the oral stage? Being talkative.
 The diathesis-stress model of vulnerability to
schizophrenia proposes that: Some people have a
predisposition that places them at risk for developing
a disorder if exposed to certain stressful life
experiences
 A object-relation therapist would treat an individual with
generalized anxiety disorder by: urging the client to
develop an enhanced sense of self.
 Protective factors always lead to resilience. False
 A psychological disorder is described as having a
insidious onset if the symptoms develop __________,
while it has an acute onset if the symptoms develop
_______ gradually; suddenly
 Which of the following types of specific phobia is most
likely to be associated with vasovagal fainting? blood-
injection-injury
A ___________________ represents the combination of
behaviors that make up a disorder; A
__________________ is what first brought the patient to
the clinic or assessment. clinical description; presenting
problem
 Racism and discrimination at work falls under which risk
factor? Cultural
 When Larry was admitted in the hospital for his peculiar
behavior, his family wanted to know the all the factors
that affected his illness. In medical terms, they wanted to
know Larry's ___
Etiology
 Mass hysteria may simply demonstrate the phenomenon
of _________________, in which the experience of an
emotion seems to spread to those around us Emotion
contagion
 Which hormone is activated when an individual is placed
under extreme craving for food? Ghrelin
 The largest part of the forebrain is the cerebral cortex,
which contains more than _____ of all neurons in the
central nervous system 80%
 The following are under the limbic system, except?
Medulla Oblongata
 The cognitive approach attributes the cause of cause of
abnormal behavior to Irrational and illogical
perceptions of reality
 An intense fear of the dark in a 3- to 5-year-old child may
not be considered abnormal, given that most children
have at least one specific fear that they bring into early
adolescence. However, an intense fear of the dark that
causes considerable distress and avoidance behavior in a
high school or college-age student would be considered a
phobia. This situation is the focus of what field?
Developmental psychopathology
 An increase of which of the following neurotransmitter is
greatly responsible for the overexcitement of nerve cells
that can lead to brain damage? GABA
 Chris feels anger toward his sister for getting all the
attention. Because of this, he started to enroll in a boxing
class. Which of the following defense mechanisms best
describes this behavior? Sublimation
 Dorothea Dix began spent much of her life campaigning
for ____________ in the treatment of the mentally ill and
started the ____________ reform; mental hygiene
movement
 Minor tranquilizers are also called as _______?
Benzodiazepines
 The belief of homophobic people that the "sin" of
homosexuality has resulted in HIV/AIDS is related to the
historical concept of ______________ as a cause of
madness Divine punishment
 Shouting at your subordinates after your boss shouted at
you is an example of Displacement
 Within the multidimensional integrative approach to
understanding psychopathology, neural plasticity is
considered a(n) ______ dimension. Biological
 The technical name of serotonin. 5-hydroxytryptamine  assignments. A physical examination and laboratory
 John has a history of depression in the family. By the time
he was 16, he was abused by his partner. As a result, he
spends a lot of time alone and no longer sees pleasure in
any of his usual activities. If John were to develop
depression, the model that would probably best explain
this situation and the cause of his depression is
_____________ diathesis-stress
 Which of the following situations is an example of a
client using displacement as defense mechanism? A client
yells at people in the ward after receiving a call from
his wife about divorce,
 The dominant figure in the 19th century that also coined
the term "dementia praecox" is ______________ Emil
Kraeplin
 Which of the following is categorized as structural
imaging? Magnetic resonance imaging
 The phrase "I think I have pepsiddiction" is an example of
what type of thought disorder? Neologism
 What is the correct order of the diagnostic process?
Client's reported symptoms, diagnostic criteria,
differential diagnosis, final diagnosis, case formulation
 What is the modern term for "dementia praecox"
Schizophrenia
 How do you best deal with your manipulative patient? 
 [Control]Deal with him/her on a straightforward
manner
 A withdrawn patient was being referred to you. How do
you initially deal with him? Attend to basic needs as
possible
 Four-year-old Pancho is very aggressive toward his peers,
which results in poor peer relationships. A
psychologist has been asked to assess Pancho’s
aggressiveness and determine if he needs intervention.
The psychologist would probably do what type of
assessment? Behavioral
 Which of the following neuroimaging techniques below is
used to detect patterns of brain activation that are
associated with various mental processes fMRI
 Which of the following parts of the mental status
examination needs to be observed? Behavior
 A patient with a history of bipolar disorder reports
experiencing 1 week of elevated and expansive mood.
Evidence of which of the following would suggest that
the patient is experiencing a hypomanic, rather than
manic, episode? Increased productivity at work
 Also known as "Cerea flexibilitas" Waxy flexibility
 A 32-year old man reports 1 week of feeling unusually
irritable. During this time, he has increased energy and
activity, sleeps less, and finds it difficult to sit still. He is
also more talkative than usual and is easily distractable, to
the point of finding it difficult to complete his work
workup are negative for any medical cause of his
symptoms and he takes no medications. What diagnosis
best fits this clinical picture?
 [Control]Manic episode
 "A remark heard on television is believed to be directed
specifically to the patient" is considered as what kind of
delusion?
 [Control]Delusion of reference
 In which of the following aspects does cyclothymic
disorder mostly differ from bipolar I disorder? Severity
 A 14 year-old boy describes himself as feeling "down" all
of the time for the past year. He remembers feeling better
while he was at camp for 4 weeks during the summer;
however, the depressed mood returned when he came
home. He reports poor concentration, feelings of
hopelessness, and low self-esteem but denies suicidal
ideation or changes in his appetite or sleep. What is the
most likely diagnosis?
 Persistent depressive disorder
 A 23-year old woman reports that during every menstrual of the following is not a diagnostic possibility for this
cycle she experiences breast swelling, bloating, patient?
hypersomnia, an increased craving for sweets, poor  [Control]Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
concentration, and a feeling that she cannot handle her  A 29 year-old woman complains of sad mood every
normal responsibilities. She notes that she also feels month in anticipation of her very painful menses. The
somewhat more sensitive emotionally and may become pain begins with the start of her flow and continues for
tearful when hearing a sad story. She takes no oral several days. She does not experience pain during other
medication but does use a drospirenone patch. What times of the month. She has tried a variety of treatments,
diagnosis best fits this clinical picture? Premenstrual
none of which have given her relief. What is the
syndrome
appropriate diagnosis? Dysmenorrhea
 A man shows up at the emergency room at a hospital.  Which of the following test is not a type of Projective
You are called to consult on this case. The man does not Test? 16-PF
know his own name. He is unable to identify what city he
lives in, and is not sure how he got to the hospital. What
tests and methods of assessment would you want to
administer at this point?
 [Control]Physical examination and MSE
 Also known as Clerambault-Kadinsky complex
Erotomania
 What is the possible question that you would ask in
assessing the patient's insight?
 “What do you think is causing your problems?”
 Which of the following is considered to be a new
disorder?
 [Control]Prolonged Grief Disorder
 What could be the possible question when we will assess
a person's judgment?
 [Control]"If you were in a movie theater and smelled
smoke, what will you do?"
 What is under F30-F39 of the ICD-10? Mood disorders
 Spark Knight Klee is presented with a series of cards that
has different situational pictures on it. He is asked to state
a story based on what she sees on these cards. Klee is
probably taking a(n) Projective Test
 Jennie was hospitalized 12 times by the time she was 40.
When interviewed, she just kept repeating that she had
been "eating wires and lighting fires". What type of
symptom is portrayed in this scenario?
 Word Salad
 Which of the following features confers a worse
prognosis for a patient with bipolar II disorder? Rapid
cycling pattern
 "I own BDO bank and my people are going to put up
50,000,000php from my release from here." is what type
of delusion? Grandeur
 "They’re destroying too many cattle and oil just to make
soap. If we need soap when you can jump into a pool of
water, and then when you go to buy your gasoline, my
folks always thought they should, get pop but the best
thing to get, is motor oil, and, money..."
This statement shows what type of thought disorder?
 [Control]Word salad
 A 12-year old boy begins to have new episodes of temper
outbursts that are out of proportion to the situation. Which

MODULE 1:
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT
THE NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT AND THE LIFE SPAN
PERSPECTIVE
Life Span Development
 Is understanding the growth and change that occur during
life.
 How both the biological inheritance from our parents and
the environment in which we live jointly affect our
behavior.
 Explains how our genetic background can determine not
only how we look but also how we behave and relate to
others in a consistent manner—that is, matters of
personality. They explore ways to identify how much of
our potential as human beings is provided—or limited—
by heredity.
 Looks to the environment, exploring ways in which our
lives are shaped by the world that we encounter. They
investigate the extent to which we are shaped by our early
environments, and how our current circumstances
influence our behavior in both subtle and evident ways.
(Feldman, 2018)
Human Development
The field of human development is the scientific study of age-
related changes in behavior, thinking, emotion, and
personality (Boyd and Bee, 2015)
Philosophical Beginnings
Original Sin
 St. Augustine of Hippo taught that all humans are born
with a selfish nature. To reduce the influence of this
inborn tendency toward selfishness, humans must seek
spiritual rebirth and submit themselves to religious
training.
 Thus, from this perspective, developmental outcomes,
both good and bad, result from each individual’s struggle
to overcome an inborn tendency to act immorally when
doing so somehow benefits the self (Boyd and Bee, 2015)
The Blank Slate
 John Locke drew upon a broad philosophical approach
known as empiricism when he claimed that the mind of a
child is a blank slate.
 Empiricism is the view that humans possess no innate
tendencies and that all differences among humans are
attributable to experience. The blank-slate view suggests
that adults can mold children into whatever they want
them to be. (Boyd and Bee, 2015)
Innate Goodness
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau claimed that all human beings are
naturally good and seek out experiences that help them
grow (Crain, 2011). Rousseau believed that children need
only nurturing and protection to reach their full potential.
 Developmental outcomes are good when a child’s
environment refrains from interfering in her attempts to
nurture her own development. (Boyd and Bee, 2015)
 Development is the pattern of change that begins at
conception and continues through the life span. Most
development involves growth, although it also includes
decline brought on by aging and dying.
THE COMPONENTS OF THE LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE:
Development Is Lifelong.
 In the life-span perspective, early adulthood is not the
endpoint of development; rather, no age period dominates
development (Santrock, 2017). Every age period has its
own agenda, its unique demands and opportunities that
 yield certain similarities in development across many
individuals. Nevertheless, throughout life, the challenges
people face and the adjustments they make are highly
diverse in timing and pattern, as the remaining
assumptions make clear (Berk, 2018).
Development Is Multidimensional.
 No matter what your age might be, your body, mind,
emotions, and relationships are changing and affecting
each other (Santrock, 2017). Lifespan development is also
multidirectional, in at least two ways:
o First, development is not limited to improved
performance. Rather, at every period, it is a joint
expression of growth and decline.
o Second, besides being multidirectional over time,
change is multidirectional within each domain of
development. The lifespan perspective includes
both continuous and discontinuous change (Berk,
2018).
Development is Plastic.
 Plasticity is the capacity for change and there has been
several debates if our capacity is fixed at a certain period
or if it is possible to change as we get older (Santrock,
2017). The term plasticity denotes two complementary
aspects of development: Human traits can be molded (as
plastic can be), yet people maintain a certain durability of
identity (as plastic does). The concept of plasticity in
development provides both hope and realism — hope
because change is possible, and realism because
development builds on what has come before (Stassen
Berger, 2020).
Development is Multidirectional.
 Throughout life, some dimensions or components of a
dimension expand, and others shrink (Santrock, 2017).
The study of life-span development highlights how and
why people change over time. But a crucial realization
regarding any life stage is that gains and losses are
continual. Even in old age, gains are apparent. A
simplistic understanding of the direction of development
from birth to death — up, steady, and down — is
imprecise and sometimes flat-out wrong (Stassen Berger,
2020).
 Critical period. A crucial time when certain events (either
biological or social) must occur in order for development
to proceed normally.
 Sensitive period. A time when a certain development is
most likely to occur. For example, early childhood is
considered a sensitive period for language learning
(Stassen Berger, 2020).
Development is Contextual.
 All development occurs within a context or setting.
Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches,
cities, neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries,
and so on. Contexts exercise three types of influences:
 Normative age-graded influences are similar for
individuals in a particular age group. These influences
include biological processes such as puberty and
menopause, socio cultural factors and environmental
processes.
 Normative history-graded influences are common to
people of a particular generation because of historical
circumstances, economic, political and social upheavals,
integration of computers and cellphones in our everyday
lives among others.
o Cohort effects provide an example of history-
graded influences, which are biological and
environmental influences associated with a
particular historical moment. Cohorts are a group
of people born at around the same time in the
same place. (Feldman, 2018)
 Non-normative life events are unusual occurrences that
have a major impact on the lives of individual people.
These events do not happen to everyone, and when they
do occur, they can influence people in different ways such
as early pregnancy, tragedy in the home, etc.
Development is Multi Cultural.
 For social scientists, culture is “the system of shared
beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectations and
symbolic representations that persist over time and
prescribe social rules of conduct” (Bornstein et al., 2011,
p. 30) (Stassen Berger, 2020). Each group of people
creates a culture, which means there are ethnic cultures,
national cultures, family cultures, college cultures,
economic cultures, and so on. Thus, everyone is
multicultural, and everyone sometimes experiences a
clash between their cultures (Stassen Berger, 2020).
Developmental Science is Multidisciplinary.
 Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists,
neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an
interest in unlocking the mysteries of development
through the lifespan (Santrock, 2017). In order to examine
each aspect of human growth, development is often
considered in three domains — biosocial, cognitive, and
psychosocial. Each domain is the focus of several
academic disciplines:
o Biosocial includes biology, neuroscience, and
medicine.
o Cognitive includes psychology, linguistics, and
education.
o Psychosocial includes economics, sociology, and
history (Stassen Berger, 2020)
Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation
of Loss.
 Baltes and his colleagues (2006) assert that the mastery of
life often involves conflicts and competition among three
goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and
regulation of loss. As individuals age into middle and late
adulthood, the maintenance and regulation of loss in their
capacities takes center stage. • Development Is a Co-
construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual. For
example, the brain shapes culture, but it is also shaped by
culture and the experiences that individuals have or
pursue. In terms of individual factors, we can go beyond
what our genetic inheritance and our environment give us.
Three broad domains of development:
 Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s
physical nature
 Cognitive processes refer to changes in the individual’s
thought, intelligence, and language
 Socioemotional processes involve changes in the
individual’s relationships with other people, changes in
emotions, and changes in personality.
THE PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT (Santrock, 2019)
 Prenatal Period: Conception to birth
 Infancy: Birth to 18 to 24 months
 Early Childhood: 3 to 5 years
 Middle and Late childhood: 6–10/11 years
 Adolescence: 10–12 to 18–21 years
 Early Adulthood: 20s and 30s
 Middle Adulthood: 40s and 50s
 Late Adulthood: 60s – 70s to death
 The prenatal period is the time from conception to birth. It
involves tremendous growth— from a single cell to an
organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities
—and takes place in approximately a 9-month period.
Infancy is the developmental period from birth to 18 or 24
months. Infancy is a time of extreme dependence upon
adults. During this period, many psychological activities
— language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor
coordination, and social learning, for example— are just
beginning.
 The term toddler is often used to describe a child from
about 1 ½ to 3 years of age. Toddlers are in a transitional
period between infancy and the next period, early
childhood.
 Early childhood is the developmental period from 3
through 5 years of age. This period is sometimes called
the “preschool years.” During this time, young children
learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for
themselves, develop school readiness skills (following
instructions, identifying letters), and spend many hours
playing with peers. First grade typically marks the end of
early childhood.
 Middle and late childhood is the developmental period
from about 6 to 10 or 11 years of age, approximately
corresponding to the elementary school years. During this
period, children master the fundamental skills of reading,
writing, and arithmetic, and they are formally exposed to
the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a
more central theme of the child’s world, and self-control
increases.
 Adolescence is the developmental period of transition
from childhood to early adulthood, entered at
approximately 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to
21 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid physical
changes—dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in
body contour, and the development of sexual
characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts, growth
of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. At
this point in development, the pursuit of independence
and an identity are preeminent. Thought is more logical,
abstract, and idealistic. More time is spent outside the
family. There has been a substantial increase in interest in
the transition between adolescence and early adulthood, a
transition that can be a long one as individuals develop
more effective skills to become full members of society.
Recently, the transition from adolescence to adulthood
has been referred to as emerging adulthood, the period
from approximately 18 to 25 years of age (Arnett, 2015,
2016a, b). Experimentation and exploration characterize
the emerging adult. At this point in their development,
many individuals are still exploring which career path
they want to follow, what they want their identity to be,
and which lifestyle they want to adopt (for example,
single, cohabiting, or married) (Jensen, 2018; Padilla-
Walker & Nelson, 2017).
 Early adulthood is the developmental period that begins in
the early twenties and lasts through the thirties. It is a time
of establishing personal and economic independence,
advancing in a career, and for many, selecting a mate,
learning to live with that person in an intimate way,
starting a family, and rearing children.
 Middle adulthood is the developmental period from
approximately 40 to about 60 years of age. It is a time of
expanding personal and social involvement and
responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching
and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
 Late adulthood is the developmental period that begins
during the sixties or seventies and lasts until death. It is a
time of life review, retirement, and adjustment to new
social roles and diminishing strength and health
CONCEPTS OF AGE
 Chronological Age The number of years that have elapsed
since birth. But time is a crude index of experience, and it
does not cause anything. (MacDonald & Stawski, 2016).
 Biological age is a person’s age in terms of biological
health. Determining biological age involves knowing the
functional capacities of a person’s vital organs. One
person’s vital capacities may be better or worse than those
of other people of comparable age (Richards & others,
2015)
 Psychological age is an individual’s adaptive capacities
compared with those of other individuals of the same
chronological age. (Rakoczy & others, 2018; Thomas &
others, 2018).
 Social age refers to connectedness with others and the
social roles individuals adopt. Individuals who have better
social relationships with others are happier and more
likely to live longer than individuals who are lonely
(Carstensen & others, 2015; Reed & Carstensen, 2015)
KEY DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES:
1. NATURE-NURTURE ISSUE involves the extent to
which development is influenced by nature and by
nurture. Nature refers to an organism’s biological
inheritance, nurture to its environmental experiences.
2. STABILITY AND CHANGE ISSUE. Involves the degree
to which early traits and characteristics persist through
life or change. Many developmentalists who emphasize
stability in development argue that stability is the result of
heredity and possibly early experiences in life, while
others emphasize change which take the more optimistic
view that later experiences can produce change.
3. CONTINUITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY ISSUE
focuses on the degree to which development involves
either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct
stages (discontinuity). (Santrock, 2019)
Contemporary Concerns (Santrock, 2019)
 Health and Well-Being, Parenting and Education, Culture,
Socio Economic Status (SES), Gender, Ethnicity, Social
Policy and Technology
MODULE 2:
THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPEMENT
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
 place great importance on the early experiences of a child
with his parents. Development is primarily unconscious,
and psychoanalysts believe that behavior is a result of the
inner workings of the mind. (Santrock, 2015)
Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious
forces act to determine personality and behavior. To
Freud, the unconscious is a part of the personality about
which a person is unaware. It contains infantile wishes,
desires, demands, and needs that, because of their
disturbing nature, are hidden from conscious awareness.
Freud suggested that the unconscious is responsible for a
good part of our everyday behavior. According to Freud,
everyone’s personality has three aspects: id, ego, and
superego.
 The id is the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality
that is present at birth. It represents primitive drives
related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses.
The id operates according to the pleasure principle, in
which the goal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce
tension.
 The ego is the part of personality that is rational and
reasonable. The ego acts as a buffer between the real
world outside of us and the primitive id. The ego operates
on the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is
restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual
and help integrate the person into society.
 Finally, Freud proposed that the superego represents a
person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between
right and wrong. It begins to develop around age five or
six and is learned from an individual’s parents, teachers,
and other significant figures. (Feldman, 2018)
 According to Freud, development in the first six years of
life occurs in three stages. His theory is sometimes called
a theory of psychosexual development because each stage
is characterized by sexual interest and pleasure arising
from a particular part of the body. Freud did not believe
that new stages occurred after puberty; rather, he believed
that adult personalities and habits were influenced by
unconscious memories of childhood experiences (Stassen
Berger, 2020).
 As Freud listened to, probed, and analyzed his patients, he
became convinced that their problems were the result of
experiences early in life. He thought that as children grow
up, their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts from
the mouth to the anus and eventually to the genitals. As a
result, we go through five stages of psychosexual
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Our
adult personality, Freud (1917) claimed, is determined by
the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure
at each stage and the demands of reality. Unconscious
thought remains a central theme, but conscious thought
plays a greater role than Freud envisioned. His theory is
divided into five stages (Santrock, 2019; Boyd and Bee,
2015).
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
 Erik Erikson (1902–1994) recognized Freud’s
contributions but believed that Freud misjudged some
important dimensions of human development. For one
thing, Erikson (1950, 1968) said we develop in
psychosocial stages, rather than in psychosexual stages as
Freud maintained. According to Erikson, it is social and
reflects a desire to affiliate with other people (Santrock,
2017).
 Erikson emphasized the social contexts of development;
his theory is called psychosocial. He understood that the
people — family, friends, and the larger community —
who nurture each person are crucial for that person’s
development. Those people follow the norms of their
culture in raising their children. In two crucial aspects,
Erikson’s theory diverges from Freud’s:
o Erikson’s stages emphasized family and culture,
not sexual urges.
o Erikson recognized that development continues
lifelong, with three stages after adolescence.
(Stassen Berger, 2020).
 In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold as
we go through life. At each stage, a unique developmental
task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be
resolved. According to Erikson, this crisis is not a
catastrophe, but a turning point marked by both increased
vulnerability and enhanced potential. The more
successfully an individual resolves each crisis, the
healthier development will be. developmental change
occurs throughout the life span. (Santrock, 2019)
 Unlike Freud, who regarded development as relatively
complete by adolescence, Erikson suggested that growth
and change continue throughout the life span. (Feldman,
2018) Psychosocial theory is divided into 8 stages: (Boyd
and Bee,2015)
 Trust versus mistrust is Erikson’s first psychosocial stage,
which is experienced in the first year of life. The
development of trust during infancy sets the stage for a
lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and
pleasant place to live.
 Autonomy versus shame and doubt is Erikson’s second
stage. This stage occurs in late infancy and toddlerhood (1
to 3 years). After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants
begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They
start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy.
They realize their will. If infants and toddlers are
restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are
likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
 Initiative versus guilt, Erikson’s third stage of
development, occurs during the preschool years. As
preschool children encounter a widening social world,
they face new challenges that require active, purposeful,
responsible behavior. Feelings of guilt may arise, though,
if the child is irresponsible and is made to feel too
anxious.
 Industry versus inferiority is Erikson’s fourth
developmental stage, occurring approximately during the
elementary school years. Children now need to direct
their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual
skills. The negative outcome is that the child may develop
a sense of inferiority— feeling incompetent and
unproductive.
 During the adolescent years, individuals need to find out
who they are, what they are all about, and where they are
going in life. This is Erikson’s fifth developmental stage,
identity versus identity confusion. If adolescents explore
roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to
follow in life, then they achieve a positive identity; if they
do not, identity confusion reigns.
 Intimacy versus isolation is Erikson’s sixth developmental
stage, which individuals experience during early
adulthood. At this time, individuals face the
developmental task of forming intimate relationships. If
young adults form healthy friendships and an intimate
relationship with another, intimacy will be achieved; if
not, isolation will result.
 Generativity versus stagnation, Erikson’s seventh
developmental stage, occurs during middle adulthood. By
generativity Erikson means primarily a concern for
helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful
lives. The feeling of having done nothing to help the next
generation is stagnation.
 Integrity versus despair is Erikson’s eighth and final stage
of development, which individuals experience in late
adulthood. During this stage, a person reflects on the past.
If the person’s life review reveals a life well spent,
integrity will be achieved; if not, the retrospective glances
likely will yield doubt or gloom—the despair Erikson
described. (Santrock, 2019)
COGNITIVE THEORIES emphasize the mental aspects of
development such as logic and memory and conscious
thoughts(Boyd and Bee, 2015)
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development
 Theory Piaget’s theory states that children go through
four stages of cognitive development as they actively
construct their understanding of the world. Two processes
underlie this cognitive construction of the world:
organization and adaptation. To make sense of our world,
we organize our experiences. For example, we separate
important ideas from less important ideas, and we connect
one idea to another. In addition to organizing our
observations and experiences, we adapt, adjusting to new
 environmental demands (Miller, 2015). The theory has
four stages: (Santrock, 2019)
 The sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2
years of age, is the first Piagetian stage. In this stage,
infants construct an understanding of the world by
coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and
hearing) with physical, motoric actions—hence the term
sensorimotor.
 The preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately
2 to 7 years of age, is Piaget’s second stage. In this stage,
children begin to go beyond simply connecting sensory
information with physical action and represent the world
with words, images, and drawings. However, according to
Piaget, preschool children still lack the ability to perform
what he calls operations, which are internalized mental
actions that allow children to do mentally what they
previously could only do physically. For example, if you
imagine putting two sticks together to see whether they
would be as long as another stick, without actually
moving the sticks, you are performing a concrete
operation.
 The concrete operational stage, which lasts from
approximately 7 to 11 years of age, is the third Piagetian
stage. In this stage, children can perform operations that
involve objects, and they can reason logically when the
reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
For instance, concrete operational thinkers cannot
imagine the steps necessary to complete an algebraic
equation, a task that is too abstract for individuals at this
stage of development.
 The formal operational stage, which appears between the
ages of 11 and 15 and continues through adulthood, is
Piaget’s fourth and final stage. In this stage, individuals
move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think in
abstract and more logical terms. As part of thinking more
abstractly, adolescents develop images of ideal
circumstances. They might think about what an ideal
parent would be like and compare their parents to this
ideal standard. They begin to entertain possibilities for the
future and are fascinated with what they can be. In
solving problems, they become more systematic,
developing hypotheses about why something is happening
the way it is and then testing these hypotheses. (Santrock,
2019)
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Cognitive Theory
 Like Piaget, the Russian developmentalist Lev Vygotsky
(1896– 1934) argued that children actively construct their
knowledge. However, Vygotsky (1962) gave social
interaction and culture far more important roles in
cognitive development than Piaget did.
 Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that
emphasizes how culture and social interaction serve as
guide to cognitive development and it involves learning to
use the inventions of society. (Santrock, 2019)
 According to sociocultural theory, all learning is social,
whether people are learning a manual skill, a social
custom, or a language. As part of the apprenticeship of
thinking, a mentor (parent, peer, or professional) finds the
learner’s zone of proximal development, an imaginary
area surrounding the learner that contains the skills,
knowledge, and concepts that are close (proximal) to
being grasped but not yet reached.
 Through sensitive assessment of each learner, mentors
engage mentees within their zone. Together, in a “process
of joint construction,” new knowledge is attained
(Valsiner, 2006). The mentor must avoid two opposite
dangers: boredom and failure. Some frustration is
permitted, but the learner must be actively engaged, never
passive or overwhelmed (Stassen Berger, 2020).
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES
emphasize continuity in development and argue that
development does not occur in stage-like fashion. (Santrock,
2019)
Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
 In the first years of the twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov
performed hundreds of experiments to examine the link
between something that affected a living creature (such as
a sight, a sound, a touch) and the reaction of that creature.
Technically, he was interested in how a stimulus effects a
response.
 Pavlov began by sounding a tone just before presenting
food. After a number of repetitions of the tone-then-food
sequence, dogs began salivating at the sound even when
there was no food. This simple experiment demonstrated
classical conditioning (also called respondent
conditioning).
 In classical conditioning, a person or animal learns to
associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one,
gradually responding to the neutral stimulus in the same
way as to the meaningful one. In Pavlov’s original
experiment, the dog associated the tone (the neutral
stimulus) with food (the meaningful stimulus) and
 eventually responded to the tone as if it were the food
itself. The conditioned response to the tone (no longer
neutral but now a conditioned stimulus) was evidence that
learning had occurred (Stassen Berger, 2020).
John B. Watson
 He argued that if psychology was to be a true science,
psychologists should examine only what they could see
and measure, not invisible impulses. In his words: Why
don’t we make what we can observe the real field of
psychology?
 “ Let us limit ourselves to things that can be observed,
and formulate laws concerning only those things…. We
can observe behavior — what the organism does or says.”
[Watson, 1924/1998, p. 6]
 Other North American psychologists agreed. They
developed behaviorism to study observable behavior,
objectively and scientifically. For living creatures at every
age, they believe that behavior follows natural laws.
 They seek to uncover those laws, experimenting with
mice, dogs, and birds, because they believe that all
learning follows the same laws. For behaviorists,
everything that people do, and feel is learned, step by
step, via conditioning. Behaviorists believe that
development occurs not in stages but bit by bit. A person
learns to talk, read, socialize, and even love — one tiny
step at a time (Stassen Berger, 2020)
B F Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
 places importance on the consequences of a behavior
produce changes in the probability of the behavior’s
occurrence. The key aspect of development is behavior,
not thoughts and feelings. Rewards and punishments
shape development. (Santrock,2015)
 Skinner agreed with Watson that psychology should focus
on observable behavior. He did not dispute Pavlov’s
classical conditioning, but, as a good scientist, he built on
Pavlov’s conclusions. Skinner’s most famous contribution
was to recognize another type of conditioning — operant
conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) — in
which animals (including people) act and then something
follows that action.
 In other words, Skinner went beyond learning by
association, in which one stimulus is paired with another
stimulus (in Pavlov’s experiment, the tone with the food).
He focused instead on what happens after the response. If
the consequence that follows is enjoyable, the creature
(any living thing — a bird, a mouse, a child) tends to
repeat the behavior; if the consequence is unpleasant, the
creature does not do that action again.
 Pleasant consequences are reinforcers. Behaviorists do
not like to call them rewards because what some people
consider a reward may actually be a punishment, an
unpleasant consequence. For instance, a teacher might
reward good behavior by giving the class extra recess
time, but some children hate recess. Then recess is not a
reinforcer.
 The opposite is true as well: Something thought to be a
punishment may actually be a reinforcement. For
example, parents “punish” their children by withholding
dessert. But a particular child might dislike the dessert, so
being deprived of it is no punishment. The crucial
question is “what works as a reinforcement or punishment
for that individual?”
 Remember, behaviorists focus on the effect that a
consequence has on future behavior, not whether it is
intended to be a reward or a punishment. Children who
misbehave again and again have been reinforced, not
punished, for their actions, perhaps by their parents or
teachers, perhaps by their friends, perhaps by themselves
(Stassen Berger, 2020).
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
 focuses on your environment, and cognition which are the
key factors in development. Observational learning (also
called imitation or modeling), learning that occurs
through observing what others do. People cognitively
represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt
this behavior themselves. (Santrock, 2019)
 That social interplay is the foundation of social learning
theory, which holds that humans sometimes learn without
personal reinforcement. This learning often occurs
through modeling, when people copy what they see others
do (also called observational learning) (Bandura, 1986,
1997).
 Modeling is not simple imitation: People copy only some
actions, of some individuals, in some contexts. They may
do the opposite of what they observed. All that is social
learning
 Generally, modeling is most likely when the observer is
uncertain or inexperienced (modeling is especially
powerful in childhood) and when the model is admirable,
powerful, nurturing, or similar to the observer. Social
learning occurs not only for behavior (why do teenagers
style their hair as they do?) but also for morals, which
people may think they decided for themselves but instead
have been powerfully affected by other people (Bandura,
2016).
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
 Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by
biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by
critical or sensitive periods. Ethologists emphasize
genetically determined survival behaviors that are
assumed to have evolved through natural selection. For
example, nests are necessary for the survival of young
birds. Therefore, ethologists say, evolution has equipped
birds with nest-building genes (Boyd & Bee, 2015).
Konrad Lorenz’s theory
 focuses on imprinting is the rapid, innate learning that
involves attachment to the first moving object seen.
Imprinting needs to take place at a certain, very early time
in the life of the animal, or else it will not take place. This
point in time is called a critical period. (Santrock, 2019).
Lorenz studied imprinting among animals extensively
(Lorenz, 1935). He learned that young ducklings and
geese, for example, imprint on any moving object to
which they are exposed during the critical period for
imprinting (24 to 48 hours after hatching). In fact, one of
the best-known images in the field of ethology is that of
Lorenz himself being followed by several goslings who
had imprinted on him (Boyd & Bee, 2015).
John Bowlby
 applied ethological theory to the understanding of the
human infant–caregiver relationship. He argued that
infant smiling, babbling, grasping, and crying are built-in
social signals that encourage the caregiver to approach,
care for, and interact with the baby. By keeping the parent
near, these behaviors help ensure that the infant will be
fed, protected from danger, and provided with stimulation
and affection necessary for healthy growth. The
development of attachment in humans is a lengthy process
involving psychological changes that lead the baby to
form a deep affectionate tie with the caregiver
(Thompson, 2006). Bowlby believed that this bond has
lifelong consequences for human relationships. In later
chapters, we will consider research that evaluates this
assumption (Boyd & Bee, 2015).
ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Urie Bronfenbrenner states that, development reflects the
influence of several environmental systems:
 Microsystem the setting in which the individual lives;
these contexts include the person’s family, peers, school,
and neighborhood. It is in the microsystem that the most
direct interactions with social agents take place—with
parents, peers, and teachers.
 Mesosystem involves relations between microsystems or
connections between contexts. Examples are the relation
of family experiences to school experiences, school
experiences to religious experiences, and family
experiences to peer experience.
 Exosystem consists of links between a social setting in
which the individual does not have an active role and the
individual’s immediate context.
 Macrosystem involves the culture in which individuals
live. Culture refers to the behavior patterns, beliefs, and
all other products of a group of people that are passed on
from generation to generation.
 Chronosystem consists of the patterning of environmental
events and transitions over the life course, as well as
sociohistorical circumstances. (Santrock, 2019)
MODULE 3:
RESEARCH ON LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
The Scientific method is an approach that can be used to
obtain accurate information. It includes the following steps:
1. conceptualize the problem,
2. collect data,
3. draw conclusions, and
4. revise research conclusions and theory.
Developmental psychology uses the scientific method to
achieve four goals:
 to describe
 to explain
 to predict
 to influence human development from conception to
death
Generally, research on life-span development is designed to
test hypotheses, which in some cases are derived from the
theories just described. Through research, theories are
modified to reflect new data, and occasionally new theories
arise.
METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA
Observation. Scientific observation requires an important set
of skills. For observations to be effective, they have to be
systematic. Observations are made wither in a laboratory or in
the outside world.
 Naturalistic observation provides insights that sometimes
cannot be attained in the laboratory (Babbie, 2017).
Naturalistic observation means observing behavior in
real-world settings, making no effort to manipulate or
control the situation. Life-span researchers conduct
naturalistic observations at sporting events, child-care
centers, work settings, malls, and other places people live
in and frequent.
 Naturalistic observation sometimes employs ethnography
a researcher’s goal is to understand a culture’s values and
attitudes through careful, extended examination.
Typically, researchers using ethnography act as
participant observers, living for a period of weeks,
months, or even years in another culture.
 Structured observations can also be made in a laboratory,
in which the investigator sets up a laboratory situation
that evokes the behavior of interest so that every
participant has equal opportunity to display the response.
Survey and Interviews can be used to study topics ranging
from religious beliefs to sexual habits to attitudes about gun
control to beliefs about how to improve schools. Surveys and
interviews may be conducted in person, over the telephone,
and over the Internet.
 A related method is the survey (sometimes referred to as a
questionnaire), which is especially useful when
information from many people is needed. A standard set
of questions is used to obtain peoples’ self-reported
attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic.
Standardized tests have uniform procedures for administration
and scoring. Many standardized tests allow a person’s
performance to be compared with that of other individuals;
thus, they provide information about individual differences
among people (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2018; Santrock 2019)
Case Study is an in-depth look at a single individual. Case
studies are performed mainly by mental health professionals
when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects
of an individual’s life cannot be duplicated and tested in other
individuals.
Physiological Measures such as hormone levels, neuro
imaging, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
electroencephalography (EEG) are some of the examples used
in studying development at different periods in the life span.
(Santrock, 2019)
RESEARCH DESIGNS
Descriptive method aims to observe and record and reveal
behavior. By itself, descriptive research cannot prove what
causes some phenomenon, but it can reveal important
information about people’s behavior (Gravetter & Forzano,
2017)
Correlational method describes the strength of the relationship
between two or more events or characteristics. The more
strongly the two events are correlated (or related or
associated), the more accurately we can predict one event
from the other (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2017; Santrock, 2019).
 The Correlation Coefficient is a number based on
statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of
association between two variables. The higher the
correlation coefficient (whether positive or negative), the
stronger the association between the two variables. A
correlation of 0 means that there is no association
between the variables. A correlation of −.40 is stronger
than a correlation of +.20 because we disregard whether
the correlation is positive or negative in determining the
strength of the correlation.
Experimental method is a carefully regulated procedure in
which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior
being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held
constant. If the behavior under study changes when a factor is
manipulated, we say that the manipulated factor has caused
the behavior to change. In other words, the experiment has
demonstrated cause and effect. The cause is the factor that was
manipulated. The effect is the behavior that changed because
of the manipulation.
 An independent variable is a manipulated, influential,
experimental factor. It is a potential cause. The label
“independent” is used because this variable can be
manipulated independently of other factors to determine
its effect. An experiment may include one independent
variable or several of them.
 A dependent variable is a factor that can change in an
experiment, in response to changes in the independent
variable. As researchers manipulate the independent
variable, they measure the dependent variable for any
resulting effect.
 An experimental group is a group whose experience is
manipulated. A control group is a comparison group that
is as similar to the experimental group as possible and that
is treated in every way like the experimental group except
for the manipulated factor (independent variable). The
control group serves as a baseline against which the
effects of the manipulated condition can be compared.
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
Cross Sectional Approach is a research strategy that
simultaneously compares individuals of different ages. In
some studies, data are collected in a single day. Even in large-
scale crosssectional studies with hundreds of subjects, data
collection does not usually take longer than several months to
complete. The main advantage of the cross-sectional study is
that the researcher does not have to wait for the individuals to
grow up or become older. Despite its efficiency, though, the
cross-sectional approach has its drawbacks. It gives no
information about how individuals change or about the
stability of their characteristics.
Longitudinal Approach is a research strategy in which the
same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually
several years or more. Longitudinal studies provide a wealth
of information about vital issues such as stability and change
in development and the influence of early experience on later
development, but they do have drawbacks (Almy & Cicchetti,
2018). They are expensive and time-consuming. The longer
the study lasts, the more participants drop out—they move, get
sick, lose interest, and so forth.
Cohort Effects. Characteristics determined by a person’s time
of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age.
A cohort is a group of people who are born at a similar point
in history and share similar experiences as a result. These
shared experiences may produce a range of differences among
cohorts (Ganguli, 2017; Messerlian & Basso, 2018; Schaie,
2016a, b).
 Cross-sectional studies can show how different cohorts
respond, but they can confuse age changes and cohort
effects. Longitudinal studies are effective in studying age
changes but only within one cohort.
SELF REPORTS
Self-reports ask research participants to provide information
on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, attitudes,
beliefs, and past experiences. They range from relatively
unstructured interviews to highly structured interviews,
questionnaires, and tests. Some participants, wishing to please
the interviewer, may make up answers that do not represent
their actual thinking. When asked about past events, some may
have trouble recalling exactly what happened. And because
the clinical interview depends on verbal ability and
expressiveness, it may underestimate the capacities of
individuals who have difficulty putting their thoughts into
words.
CLINICAL INTERVIEW
Flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator
obtains a complete account of the participant’s thoughts. The
primary goals are:
 assessment and
 helping
Stages of a Clinical Interview:
 Introduction
 Opening – The opening question could be “what concerns
bring you to counseling today?”
 Body. If the purpose is to collect information pertaining to
psychiatric diagnosis, the body includes diagnostic-
focused questions. In contrast, if the purpose is to initiate
psychotherapy, the focus could quickly turn toward the
history of the problem and what specific behaviors,
people, and experiences (including previous therapy)
clients have found more or less helpful.
 Closing- Tasks and activities linked to the closing include
o providing support and reassurance for clients
o returning to role induction and client
expectations
o summarizing crucial themes and issues
o providing an early case formulation or mental
disorder diagnosis
o instilling hope, and, as needed
o focusing on future homework, future sessions,
and scheduling (SommersFlanagan & Sommers-
Flanagan, 2017).
 Termination involves ending the session and parting
ways. The termination stage requires excellent time
management skills; it also requires intentional sensitivity
and responsiveness to how clients might react to endings
in general or leaving the therapy office in particular.
CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH
Ethics in research may affect you personally if you ever serve
as a participant in a study. In that event, you need to know
your rights as a participant and the responsibilities of
researchers to assure that these rights are safeguarded. he
participants’ best interests need to be kept foremost in the
researcher’s mind. APA’s guidelines address four important
issues:
Informed Consent. Participants must know what their research
participation will involve and what risks might develop. Even
after informed consent is given, participants must retain the
right to withdraw from the study at any time and for any
reason.
 Confidentiality. Researchers are responsible for keeping
all of the data they gather on individuals completely
confidential and, when possible, completely anonymous.
 Debriefing. After the study has been completed,
participants should be informed of its purpose and the
methods that were use
 Deception. In all cases of deception, however, the
psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm
the participants and that the participants will be debriefed
(told the complete nature of the study) as soon as possible
after the study is completed.
MINIMIZING BIAS:
Researchers need to guard against gender, cultural, and ethnic
bias in research. Every effort should be made to make research
equitable for both females and males. Individuals from varied
ethnic backgrounds need to be included as participants in life-
span research, and overgeneralization about diverse members
within a group must be avoided. (Santrock, 2019)
MODULE 4:
 BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
Every person is a unique individual and it is true that you are
“one in a million!” Scientists have been trying to duplicate the
genetic makeup of humans and animals for the longest time.
However, even if science is so advanced, still there are things
that man may not be able to recreate.
 Every cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, or strings of genetic material. However,
sperm and ovum, collectively called gametes, contain 23
single (unpaired) chromosomes. At conception,
chromosomes in the ovum and the sperm combine to form
23 pairs in an entirely new cell called a zygote. (Boyd
&Bee, 2015)
 Chromosomes are found in every nucleus of the human
cell which are threadlike structures with one member of
each pair coming from each parent. The contain a
substance called DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
 DNA is a complex molecule that has a double helix
shape, like a spiral staircase and contains genetic
information.
 Genes, the units of hereditary information, are short
segments of DNA. They help cells to reproduce
themselves and to assemble proteins.
 There are three major processes involved in the
transmission of genes:
 Mitosis - Cellular reproduction in which the cell’s nucleus
duplicates itself with two new cells being formed, each
containing the same DNA as the parent cell, arranged in
the same 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 Meiosis - A specialized form of cell division that occurs
to form eggs and sperm (also known as gametes).
 Fertilization - A stage in reproduction when an egg and a
sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote.
 Genetic variability is caused by a unique combination of
genes from each parent or mutated genes as a result of
chance events during conception. First, the chromosomes
in the zygote are not exact copies of those in the mother’s
ovaries or the father’s testes. During the formation of the
sperm and egg in meiosis, the members of each pair of
chromosomes are separated, but which chromosome in
the pair goes to the gamete is a matter of chance. In
addition, before the pairs separate, pieces of the two
chromosomes in each pair are exchanged, creating a new
combination of genes on each chromosome (Mader &
Windelspecht, 2018). Thus, when chromosomes from the
mother’s egg and the father’s sperm are brought together
in the zygote, the result is a truly unique combination of
genes (Brooker & others, 2018).
 Another source of variability comes from DNA. Chance
events, a mistake by cellular machinery, or damage from
an environmental agent such as radiation may produce a
mutated gene, which is a permanently altered segment of
DNA (Freeman & others, 2017; Mason & others, 2018).
 There is increasing interest in studying susceptibility
genes, those that make the individual more vulnerable to
specific diseases or accelerated aging (Hartiala & others,
2017; Park & others, 2018; Patel & others, 2018), and
longevity genes, those that make the individual less
vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to an
older age (Blankenburg, Pramstaller, & Dominguez,
2018; Dato & others, 2017). These are aspects of the
individual’s genotype.
 Identical twins (also called monozygotic twins) develop
from a single zygote that splits into two genetically
identical replicas, each of which becomes a person.
Fraternal twins (called dizygotic twins) develop when two
eggs are fertilized by different sperm, creating two
zygotes that are genetically no more similar than ordinary
siblings.
 A genotype is a person’s genetic heritage or his actual
genetic material, while a phenotype is the way an
individual’s genotype is expressed in observed and
measurable characteristics.
 A phenotype consists of observable characteristics, and
these include physical characteristics (such as height,
weight, and hair color) and psychological characteristics
(such as personality and intelligence).
 The difference between genotypes and phenotypes helps
us to understand this source of variability. For a genotype
to be expressed to create a phenotype, the following
genetic principles may provide answers to this
phenomenon:
 Dominant- Recessive Genes. In some cases, one gene of a
pair always exerts its effects; it is dominant and overrides
the potential influence of the other gene, called the
recessive gene. This is the dominantrecessive genes
principle. A recessive gene exerts its influence only if the
two genes of a pair are both recessive
 Sex Linked Genes. Most mutated genes are recessive.
When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome,
the result is called X-linked inheritance. (Freeman &
others, 2017; Mader & Windelspecht, 2018). Males only
have one X gene and may develop an x-linked gene while
females have 2 x genes and therefore are not likely to
have an X-linked disease. (Santrock, 2019)
 Genetic Imprinting. Genetic imprinting occurs when the
expression of a gene has different effects depending on
whether the mother or the father passed on the gene
(Brooker & others, 2018; Simon, 2017). A chemical
 process “silences” one member of the gene pair. For
example, as result of imprinting, only the maternally
derived copy of the expressed gene might be active, while
the paternally derived copy of the same expressed gene is
silenced—or vice versa (John, 2017). (Santrock, 2019)
 Poly genetic Inheritance. The term polygenic inheritance
means that many different genes determine a
characteristic (Hill & others, 2018; Oreland & others,
2017). Even a simple characteristic such as height, for
example, reflects the interaction of many genes as well as
the influence of the environment. (Santrock, 2019)
CHROMOSOMAL AND GENE LINKED
ABNORMALITIES
 Chromosome abnormalities can be numerical or
structural.
 A numerical abnormality means an individual is either
missing one of the chromosomes from a pair or has more
than two chromosomes instead of a pair.
 A structural abnormality means the chromosome's
structure has been altered in one of several ways.
(National Human Genome Research Institute, 2019)
 Gene Linked abnormalities are caused by absent,
nonfunctional, or mutated genes which can contribute to
disorders. (Santrock, 2019)
 A genetic disorder is a disease caused in whole or in part
by a change in the DNA sequence away from the normal
sequence. Genetic disorders can be caused by a mutation
in one gene (monogenic disorder), by mutations in
multiple genes (multifactorial inheritance disorder), by a
combination of gene mutations and environmental factors,
or by damage to chromosomes (changes in the number or
structure of entire chromosomes, the structures that carry
genes). (National Human Genome Research Institute,
2019)
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT: Heredity -Environment
Correlations View
Research results from the study of twins provided insight as to
how genes are related to the types of environments that they
were exposed (Jaffee, 2016). In a sense, individuals “inherit,”
seek out, or “construct” environments that may be related or
linked to genetic “propensities.” Three ways that heredity and
environment may be correlated:
 Passive genotype-environment correlations exist when the
natural parents, who are genetically related to the child,
provide a rearing environment for the child.
 Evocative genotype-environment correlations exist when
the child’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit
certain types of environments.
 Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations
exist when children seek out environments, they find
compatible and stimulating. (Scarr, 1993)
THE EPIGENETIC VIEW
Gilbert Gottlieb (2007) emphasizes the epigenetic view, which
states that development reflects an ongoing, bidirectional
interchange between heredity and the environment. (Gottlieb,
2017)
 The inherited genes of the baby at conception are
influenced by prenatal environments such as the mother’s
nutrition, exposure to toxins, stress. These may cause
some genes to stop functioning, or cause others to become
more active or less active.
 Environmental influences such as nutrition, stress,
learning and encouragement continue to play a role in the
development of the infant and all throughout his lifetime.
The interchange continues and will manifest in our
temperaments, height, weight, hobbies, abilities and many
more. (Moore, 2017; Santrock, 2019)
MODULE 5:
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
THE MOTHER’S EXPERIENCE
THE FIRST TRIMESTER
 Zygote implants itself in the lining of the woman’s uterus
(also called the womb). The zygote then sends out
chemical messages that cause the woman’s menstrual
periods to stop. Some of these chemicals are excreted in
her urine, making it possible to diagnose pregnancy
within a few days after conception. Other chemicals cause
physical changes, such as breast enlargement.
 The cervix (the narrow, lower portion of the uterus, which
extends into the vagina) thickens and secretes mucus that
serves as a barrier to protect the developing embryo from
harmful organisms that might enter the womb through the
vagina. • The uterus begins to shift position and put
pressure on the woman’s bladder, causing her to urinate
more often. This and other symptoms, like fatigue and
breast tenderness, may interfere with sleep.
 Another common early symptom of pregnancy is morning
sickness—feelings of nausea, often accompanied by
vomiting, that usually occur in the morning. Prenatal care
during the first trimester is critical to prevent birth
defects, because all of the baby’s organs form during the
first 8 weeks.
 Early prenatal care can identify maternal conditions, such
as sexually transmitted diseases, that may threaten
prenatal development. Doctors and nurses can also urge
women to abstain from using drugs and alcohol early in
prenatal development, when such behavior changes may
prevent birth defects.
 Early prenatal care can also be important to the pregnant
woman’s health. For example, a small number of zygotes
implant in one of the fallopian tubes instead of in the
uterus, a condition called ectopic pregnancy. Early
surgical removal of the zygote is critical to the woman’s
future ability to have children.
 About 15% of pregnancies end in miscarriage, or
spontaneous abortion. From the woman’s point of view,
an early miscarriage is similar to a menstrual period,
although feelings of discomfort and blood loss are usually
greater. Medical care is always necessary after a
miscarriage because the woman’s body may fail to
completely expel the embryo. (Boyd & Bee, 2015)
SECOND TRIMESTER
 During the second trimester of pregnancy, from the end of
week 12 through week 24, morning sickness usually
disappears, resulting in increases in appetite. The
pregnant woman gains weight, and the uterus expands to
accommodate a fetus that is growing rapidly.
Consequently, the woman begins to “show” sometime
during the second trimester.
 She also begins to feel the fetus’s movements, usually at
some point between the 16th and 18th weeks. At monthly
clinic visits, doctors monitor both the mother’s and the
baby’s vital functions and keep track of the growth of the
baby in the womb. Ultrasound tests are usually
performed, and the sex of the baby can be determined by
the 12th week.
 Monthly urine tests check for gestational diabetes, a kind
of diabetes that happens only during pregnancy. Women
who have any kind of diabetes, including gestational
diabetes, have to be carefully monitored during the
second trimester because their babies may grow too
rapidly, leading to premature labor or a baby that is too
large for vaginal delivery. The risk of miscarriage drops
in the second trimester. However, a few fetuses die
between the 13th and 20th weeks of pregnancy. (Boyd &
Bee, 2015)
THIRD TRIMESTER
 At 25 weeks, the pregnant woman enters her third
trimester. Weight gain and abdominal enlargement are the
main experiences of this period. In addition, the woman’s
breasts may begin to secrete a substance called colostrum
in preparation for nursing.
 Most women begin to feel more emotionally connected to
the fetus during the third trimester (DiPietro, 2010).
Individual differences in fetal behavior, such as
hiccupping or thumb sucking, sometimes become obvious
during the last weeks of pregnancy. These behaviors may
be observed during ultrasound tests that produce
increasingly clear images of the fetus.
 In addition, most women notice that the fetus has regular
periods of activity and rest. Monthly prenatal doctor visits
continue in the third trimester until week 32, when most
women begin visiting the doctor’s office or clinic once a
week.
 Monitoring of blood pressure is especially important, as
some women develop a life-threatening condition called
toxemia of pregnancy during the third trimester. This
condition is signaled by a sudden increase in blood
 pressure and can cause a pregnant woman to have a
stroke. (Boyd & Bee, 2015)
THE BIRTH PROCESS
After spending the first 9 months of life inside the mother’s
womb, it is now time for birth – a difficult but rewarding
journey for both the mother and the child.
Key Concepts:
1. The physical process of childbirth is divided in three
stages as follows:
Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement
 During early labor, a woman might experience any of the
following labor signs:
 Backache (constant or with each contraction)
 Menstrual-like cramps
 Lower abdominal pressure
 Indigestion
 Diarrhea
 A sensation of warmth in the abdomen
 Blood-tinged mucous discharge (also known as bloody
show)
 Rupture of the amniotic membranes (i.e. your water will
break), though it's more likely to happen sometime during
active labor
o During Transitional labor:
 Strong pressure in the lower back and/or perineum
 Rectal pressure, with or without an urge to push
 An increase in bloody show as capillaries in the cervix
rupture
 Feeling very warm and sweaty or chilled and shaky
 Crampy legs that may tremble uncontrollably
 Nausea and/or vomiting
 Drowsiness between contractions
 A tightening sensation in your throat or chest
 Fatigue or exhaustion
Stage 2: Pushing and Delivery Baby’s head moves past
stretched cervix, into birth canal and out of mother’s body
Common in the second stage:
 Pain with the contractions, though possibly not as much
 An overwhelming urge to push (though not every woman
feels it, especially if she’s had an epidural)
 Tremendous rectal pressure (ditto)
 A burst of renewed energy (a second wind) or fatigue
 Very visible contractions, with your uterus rising
noticeably with each
 An increase in bloody show
 A tingling, stretching, burning or stinging sensation at the
vagina as your baby’s head emerges
 A slippery wet feeling as your baby emerges
Stage 3: Delivering the Placenta
 Delivery of placenta and other uterine materials
 This last stage of childbirth usually lasts anywhere from
five to 20 minutes or more. It may seem a little
anticlimactic ("it's a placenta!"), but this last stage of
childbirth is actually a very important one — and a very
symbolic one.
 The placenta, also known as afterbirth, provided bed and
board for your baby for most of his or her stay in your
uterus, and its delivery represents the end of that era, and
the beginning of a new one (life on the outside)
2. Natural childbirth provides information about
childbirth to the mother to reduce her fear and
anxiety. An example is the Bradley Method which
involves the husband or a coach, relaxation
techniques for easier childbirth, and prenatal nutrition
and exercise. (Santrock, 2019)
3. Prepared childbirth or the Lamaze method includes
special breathing techniques to control pushing in the
final stages of labor as well as a detailed education
about anatomy and physiology. (Santrock, 2019)
4. The Caesarian Section or C Section is the delivery of
the infant by surgery or incisions made in the
abdominal and uterine walls. This is done if one of
the following situations may aggravate the safety of
both the child and the mother: breech presentation,
fetal distress during labor, failure of labor to
progress, fetal size and maternal health conditions.
(Boyd & Bee, 2015)
5. A breech presentation, in which an infant’s feet or
bottom is delivered first, represents one of the most
compelling reasons for a c-section because it is
associated with collapse of the umbilical cord
(ACOG, 2001).
6. Birth Complications may include fetal distress,
anoxia and dislocation of shoulders and hips during
birth (Boyd & Bee, 2015)
Prenatal development
 Begins at the moment of fertilization and ends with the
birth of the child
 Lasts for 9 months or 38 to 40 weeks
 Divided into three periods: the germinal period, the
embryonic period and the fetal period. (Santrock, 2019)
 The Germinal Period and its major milestones
 Begins on first 2 weeks after conception
 Includes: the creation of the fertilized egg or the zygote
 Rapid cell division which occurs through a process called
mitosis
 Attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall which takes
place about 11 to 15 days after conception
 Differentiation occurs one week after conception
 Blastocyst group of cells consisting of an inner mass of
cells which develop into the embryo
 Trophoblast the outer layer of cell that will provide
The Fetal Period and its major milestones
nutrition and support for the embryo. (Santrock, 2019)
 Lasts for about 7 months
 Timeline:
The Embryonic Period and its major milestones
 Happens from 2 to 8 weeks after conception
 The three layers of cells are formed: o The Endodermis
the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the
digestive and respiratory systems
o The Mesoderm is the middle layer, which will
become the circulatory system, bones, muscles,
excretory system, and reproductive system.
o The Ectoderm develops is the outermost layer,
which will become the nervous system and brain,
sensory receptors (ears, nose, and eyes, for
example), and skin parts (hair and nails, for
example).
 Life support systems also develop rapidly
o Amnion. The part of the prenatal life-support
system that consists of a sac containing a clear
fluid in which the developing embryo floats.
o Umbilical cord. Part of the prenatal life-support
system that contains two arteries and one vein
that connect the baby to the placenta.
o Placenta. A prenatal life-support system that
consists of a disk-shaped group of tissues in
which small blood vessels from the mother and
offspring intertwine.
 Organ formation or Organogenesis happens during
the first two months
 Timeline: o 3 rd week - formation of the neural tube
which eventually becomes the spinal cord
o 21 days - eyes begin to appear
o 24 days - cells for heart begin to
differentiate
o 4 week – urogenital system becomes
apparent, arm and leg buds appear, four
chambers of heart take shape and blood
vessels appear
o 5 th to 8th week – arms and legs
differentiate further, face start to form,
intestinal tract develops, facial features fuse
o 3rd month (13 weeks) –fetal length 3 inches,
weight four-fifths of an ounce, spontaneous or
random movements of arms, legs and head,
mouth opens and closes, facial features,
extremities are distinguishable, genitals can be
identified
o 4th month (17 weeks) – fetal length 5.5 inches,
weight 5 ounces, growth spurt in lower body
parts, mother feels fetal movements
o 5 th month (22 weeks) – fetal length 1 foot,
weight close to a pound, formation of skin
structures, more active and preference for a
particular position in womb
o 6th month (26 weeks)– fetal length 14 inches,
weight gain half pound to a pound, eyes and
eyelids completely formed, fine layer of hair is
evident, presence of grasping reflex, irregular
breathing movements occur, 24 to 25 weeks
fetus may have a chance of survival outside of
womb
o 7 th month (25 to 28 weeks) – fetal length 16
inches, weight 3 pounds
o 8th and 9th month (28 weeks until birth) –
development of fatty tissues, functioning of
various organ systems, fetus grows longer and
gains substantial weight (Santrock, 2019)
Four important phases of brain development in prenatal
period involve:
 The Neural Tube. As the human embryo develops
inside its mother’s womb, the nervous system begins
forming as a long, hollow tube located on the
embryo’s back. This pear-shaped neural tube, which
forms at about 18 to 24 days after conception,
develops out of the ectoderm. The tube closes at the
top and bottom ends at about 27 days after
conception (Keunen, Counsell, & Bender, 2017).
 Neurogenesis. In a normal pregnancy, once the neural
tube has closed, a massive proliferation of new
immature neurons begins to take place at about the
 fifth prenatal week and continues throughout the
remainder of the prenatal period. The generation of
new neurons is called neurogenesis, a process that
continues through the remainder of the prenatal
period but is largely complete by the end of the fifth
month after conception (Keunen, Counsell, &
Benders, 2017). At the peak of neurogenesis, it is
estimated that as many as 200,000 neurons are
generated every minute.
 Neuronal migration. At approximately 6 to 24 weeks
after conception, neuronal migration occurs. This
involves cells moving outward from their point of
origin to their appropriate locations and creating the
different levels, structures, and regions of the brain
(Keunen, Counsell, & Benders, 2017). Once a cell
has migrated to its target destination, it must mature
and develop a more complex structure.
o Neural connectivity. At about the 23rd
prenatal week, connections between neurons
begin to occur, a process that continues
postnatally (Miller, Huppi, & Mallard, 2016;
(Santrock, 2019).
TERATOGENS AND HAZARDS TO PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
HAZARDS TO FETAL DEVELOPMENT
 A teratogen is an agent that can possibly cause a birth
defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral
outcomes.
 The severity of damage to the embryo or fetus may be
influenced by the dose, genetic susceptibility, and the
time of exposure to a particular teratogen.
 Major teratogens
 Prescription or non-prescription drugs
 Psychoactive drugs act on the nervous system to alter
states of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change
moods.
o Alcohol. Heavy drinking by pregnant women
may cause Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
(FASD) and may include facial deformities and
defects of the limbs and heart (Santrock, 2019)
o Nicotine. Cigarette smoking by pregnant women
can lead to preterm births and low birth weights,
fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory problems,
and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS, also
known as crib death). (Santrock, 2019)
o Cocaine. Among the effects of the intake of
cocaine by pregnant mothers reduced birth
weight, length, and head circumference (Gouin
& others, 2011), impaired connectivity of the
thalamus and prefrontal cortex in newborns
(Salzwedel & others, 2016); impaired motor
development at 2 years of age and a slower rate
of growth through 10 years of age (Richardson,
Goldschmidt, & Willford, 2008); self-regulation
problems at age 12 (Minnes & others, 2016);
elevated blood pressure at 9 years of age
(Shankaran & others, 2010); impaired language
development and information processing
o Marijuana. Negative outcomes of the use of
marijuana are the following lower intelligence in
children (Goldschmidt & others, 2008),
alteration of brain functioning in the fetus
(Calvigioni & others, 2014; Jaques & others,
2014), low birth weight and greater likelihood of
being placed in a neonatal intensive care unit
(Gunn & others, 2016), stillbirth (Varner &
others, 2014) and many others.
o Heroin addicted mothers may have babies with
behavioral difficulties at birth (Angelotta &
Appelbaum, 2017), and these include withdrawal
symptoms, such as tremors, irritability, abnormal
crying, disturbed sleep, and impaired motor
control. Many still show behavioral problems at
their first birthday, and attention deficits may
appear later in development. (Lai & others,
2017)
 Incompatible blood types of the mother and the father
may result in problems including miscarriage or stillbirth,
anemia, jaundice, heart defects, brain damage, or death
soon after birth (Fasano, 2017).
 Environmental hazards. Some specific hazards to the
embryo or fetus include radiation, toxic wastes, and other
chemical pollutants (Jeong & others, 2018; Sreetharan &
others, 2017).
 Maternal diseases such as AIDS, syphilis, Rubella or
German measles, genital herpes and diabetes may cause a
host of abnormalities in babies. (Santrock, 2019)
 Maternal diet and nutrition. The nutritional status of the
embryo or fetus is determined by the mother’s total
caloric intake as well as her intake of proteins, vitamins,
and minerals. Children born to malnourished mothers are
more likely than other children to be malformed.
 Maternal age. Babies born to adolescent mothers have a
high risk or mortality and those that are born to mothers
35 years or older have an increase risk of children with
Down Syndrome.
 Emotional states and stress of mothers may increase the
chance of having babies with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), delay in language,
cognitive and emotional problems among others.
 Paternal factors include the father’s exposure to radiation,
lead, pesticides, smoking may lead to a number of
abnormalities and even miscarriage. (Santrock, 2019)

LECTURE 2
FIELD METHODS
HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE RESEARCH
PAPER INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION

 Introduction — Discussion/ Conclusion

ANSWER TWO MAJOR QUESTIONS

 “Why was this study needed to fill in the gap on scientific

knowledge?”
 “Why does this gap need filling?”
KNOWLEDGE GAP

 What is known
Flow of Objectives

 Identify the knowledge gap

 Explain why it needs to be filled
 Summarize how this study attempts to fill that gap
INTRODUCTION CONTENT

 Brief background information about research topic

 Rationale for undertaking this study (reason for “filling
the gap”)
 Key references to preliminary work or closely related
papers
 Clarifications of terms, definitions, or abbreviations
 Review of pertinent literature
INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE
 THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM
The identification and analysing a research problem is the first
and most crucial step of research process. A problem can not
be solved effectively unless a researcher possesses the intellect
and insight to isolate and understand the specific factors
giving rise to the difficulty.
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM & THE STATEMENT OF
THE PROBLEM
Step 1: Show what is already known (Background
Information) Research Problem — Statement of the Problem

1. Give A strong statement that reflects your research The following steps are to be followed in identifying a
subject area. research problem:
2. State the topic and the problems explored in your study.  Step 1 : Determining the field of research in which a
Ask questions to frame the aims of the study. researcher is keen to do the research work.
3. Use keywords from your title.
 Step 2 : The researcher should develop the mastery on the
4. Don't state obvious or broad facts about your topic –
area or it should be the field of his specialization.
highly relevant information is always more useful.
 Step 3 : He should review the researches conducted in
Here you should also: area to know the recent trend and studies in the area.
 Step 4 : On the basis of review, he should consider the
 Be sure to cite all of the sources referenced. priority field of the study.
 Only give useful background information.  Step 5 : He should draw an analogy and insight in
 Only reviewed relevant, up-to-date, primary literature that identifying a problem or employ his personal experience
supports your explanation of current base of knowledge. of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of
supervisor or expertee of the field.
Step 2: Show the gap in knowledge  Step 6 : He should pin-point specific aspect of the
1. Highlight areas of two little available information. problem which is to be investigated.
2. Explain why and how we should fill in that gap. SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
3. Explain what logical steps can be developed based on
existing research. 1. Personal experiences of the investigator
2. Extensive study of available literature-research
Here you should also: abstracts, journals, hand-books of research
 So you have examined current data and devised a plan. international abstracts etc.
 Show your peers your awareness of the direction of your 3. The new innovations, technological changes and
field. curricular developments are constantly bringing new
problems and new-opportunities for Social Studies
 Show confidence in pursuing your study.
Research.
Step 3: Show how your study fills in the knowledge gaps? 4. The most practical source of problem is to consult
(Purpose and hypothesis) supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced
person of the field.
1. State your purpose and give a clear hypothesis of
objective of the study. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM
2. Hypothesis should be one to two sentences.
The factors are to be considered in the selection of a research
3. Tell what useful knowledge will be gained.
problem both the criteria external and personal. Criteria for the
Introduction Writing Tips selection of the problem are as follows:

 Write in the active voice when possible. 1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications.
 Write concise sentences. 2. Importance for the field represented and implementation.
 Use stronger verbs when possible. 3. Availability of data and method.
 Don't overuse first person pronouns. 4. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.
5. Cost and returns.
 Organize your thoughts from broad to specific.
6. Time factor
LECTURE 3:
LECTURE 4
RESEARCH PLANNING AND SAMPLING
MEANING OF RESEARCH PLAN/DESIGN

 “research design is a mapping strategy. It is essentially a

statement of the object of the inquiry and the strategies for
collecting the evidences, analysing the evidences and
reporting the findings.”
The Research Type: Qualitative Approach
THE RESEARCH DESIGN
 Ethnography
 Research Philosophy  Grounded Theory
 Research Type  Case Study
 Research Strategy  Phenomenological Research
 Time Horizon  Narrative Research
 Sampling Strategy
 Data Collection Method Time Horizon
 Data Analysis Technique
 Cross Sectional: The Cross-sectional technique requires at
Design choice number one: The Research Philosophy least a single measurement for everyone within the groups
represented.
The research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs  Longitudinal: method is used in the repeated observations
regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered, or measurements of the same child or the same group of
analyzed and used. Your research philosophy will serve as the children over a period of years.
core of your study.

 Positivism
 Constructivist
 Transformative
 Pragmatists
Research Philosophy
This study will utilize Social Constructionism Philosophy
since the researcher believes that human experience and
perception is mediated historically, culturally, and Sampling Strategy
linguistically. The researcher holds the belief that the Probability sampling involves a random and therefore
respondents have different ways of perceiving and representative selection participants, whereas nonprobability
understanding their bereavement. sampling entails selecting participants in a non-randomized
Design choice number two: The Research Type and therefore non representative manner.

The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research Probability sampling Method of sampling which gives the
you conducted is inductive or deductive. You will also need to probability that our sample is representative of population
indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative or 1. Simple random sampling
quantitative or mixed methods methodology. 2. Systematic sampling
 Inductive moves forward from particular to the general. 3. Stratified Sampling
 Deductive is backward movement from general to 4. Cluster Sampling
particular. Design choice number two: Sampling Strategy
 Qualitative: word-based data
 Quantitative: number-based data Simple random sampling
 Mixed Methods: combination of qualitative and
 A simple random sample is one in which each element of
quantitative data
the population has an equal and independent chance of
being included in the sample.
 i.e. tossing a coin, throwing a dice, lottery method, blind
folded method
Systematic Sampling
 determine the members of your sample based on a
random starting point and a consistent sampling interval.
 Let sample size = n
 and population size = N
Stratified Sampling
 the researcher divides his population in strata on the basis
of some characteristics and from each of these smaller
homogeneous strata draws at random a predetermined
number of units.
Cluster Sampling
 In Cluster sampling the sample units contain groups of
elements (clusters) instead of individual members or
items in the population.
Non-Probability sampling
Nonprobability sampling- sampling techniques for which a
person’s likelihood of being selected for membership in the
sample is unknown
1. Purposive sample.
2. Quota sample.
3. Judgement sample.
Incidental or Accidental Assignment
 The term incidental or accidental applied to those samples
that are taken because they are most frequently available,
 i.e. this refers to groups which are used as samples of a
population because they are readily available or because
the researcher is unable to employ more acceptable
sampling methods.
Judgement Sampling
 This involves the selection of a group from the population
based on available information thought. It is to be
representative of the total population. Or the selection of a
group by intuition based on criterion deemed to be self-
evident
Purposive Sampling
 The purposive sampling is selected by some arbitrary
method because it is known to be representative of the
total population, or it is known that it will produce well
matched groups.
Quota Sampling
 This combined both judgement sampling and probability
sampling. The population is classified into several
categories: based on judgement or assumption or the
previous knowledge, the proportion of population falling
into each category is decided.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE
The following are the main characteristics of a good sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population
corresponding to its properties. The population is known
as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called
sub-aggregate of the universe.
2. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not
permit prejudices the learning and preconception,
imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
3. A good sample is an objective one, it refers objectivity in
selecting procedure or absence of subjective elements
from the situation.
4. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate
estimates or statistics and does not involve errors.
5. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature
of a sample is closely linked with true-representativeness.
Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is
controlled by specific purpose of the investigation. A
sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a
good representative of the population.
6. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and
money point of view.
7. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The
research tools can be administered on them, and data can
be collected easily.
8. The size of good sample is such that it yields an accurate
results. The probability of error can be estimated.
9. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
10. A good sample has the practicability for research situation
Data Analysis Methods and Techniques: Data Gathering
1. Qualitative Interview
2. Focus Group Discussion
3. Ethnography/Participant Observation
QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW
Interview can be broadly defined as a face-to-face verbal
interchange in which there are two persons, that is the
researcher or the interviewer and the other is the respondent or
the interviewee. It appears to be like a conversation, but this
conversation is more with a specific purpose.
Qualitative Interview involves the researcher or his
investigators interacting on a one- to-one level with a
respondent, who has been selected by the researcher as one of
the subjects for the study. The interviewer puts questions to
the respondent on a particular subject matter and the
respondent’s replies are noted down verbatim, where possible
or recorded as an audio report.
a. INFORMAL In the informal conversational interview, as
is implied, the respondents are identified and are involved
in a pleasant conversation. This conversation is with a
specific research purpose that has been already
determined.
b. GENERAL INTERVIEW GUIDE In this, every effort is
put in to ensure that no important points are left out and
the manner in which the questions should be asked and
the sequences are kept up.
c. STANDARD, OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS This type of
interviews gives considerable scope for the respondent to
answer fairly in detail his own ideas and opinions on the
particular topic instead of answering or tick marking the
answers only.
d. CLOSED, FIXED RESPONSE INTERVIEW In this the
answers are provided to all the questions, and the
respondents are required to select from within them, that
response which is most applicable to them.
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
a. Behavior
b. Opinions/Values
c. Feelings
d. Knowledge
e. Sensory f. Background
SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS
 The rule is that, the researcher should start with some
factual information such as the date of birth, where they
live etc. and move on to other more subjective questions.
PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED DURING INTERVIEW:
 Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.
 Ask one question at a time.
 Attempt to remain as neutral as possible.
 Encourage responses.
 Be careful about the appearance when note taking.
 Provide transition between major topics.
 Don’t lose control of the interview.
Interviewers need to know more than simply how to conduct
the interview itself. They should have background of the study
and why the study is important.
INTERVIEW TYPES
 Ethnographic interviews are informal conversational
interviews; they are emergent and spontaneous. They
usually occur in the field and sound as though they are a
casual exchange of remarks. Participants in such contexts
often welcome ethnographic interviews to pass the time
 Informant interviews. Despite the pejorative connotations
of the word, “informants” are not always snitches or
moles. Rather, the qualifier “informant” is used here to
characterize participants who are veterans, experienced
insiders, key connectors within the scene and/or mavens
who “hoard and dispense certain kinds of cultural capital
in a scene”
 Respondent interviews are those that take place among
social actors who all hold similar subject positions and
have experiences that directly attend to the research goals.
 Narrative interviews are open‐ended, relatively
unstructured interviews that encourage participants to tell
stories rather than just answer questions. Stories might
relate to the participants, their experiences, or the events
they have witnessed
 Life‐story interviews/Biographic interviews. life‐story
interviewees discuss their life as a whole, their memories,
and what they want others to know. Life‐story interviews
may be particularly interesting to conduct with members
of your own family or with famous personalities who
have caught the public imagination
 Discursive interview pays attention to large structures of
power that construct and constrain knowledge and truth –
and to how interviewees draw upon larger structural
discourses in creating their answer
INTERVIEW STANCES
 Deliberate naïveté. It asks interviewers to drop any
presuppositions and judgment while maintaining
openness to new and unexpected findings
 Collaborative/interactive interviewing interviews are
jointly created, so that the researcher and the participant
are on an even plane and can ask questions of each other
 Pedagogical interviews not only ask participants for their
viewpoints, but also encourage researchers to offer
expertise in the form of knowledge or emotional support
 Responsive interviewing suggests that researchers have
responsibilities for building a reciprocal relationship,
honoring interviewees with unfailingly respectful
behavior, reflecting on their own biases and openly
acknowledging their potential effect, and owning the
emotional effect of interviews
 Confrontational interviews. The interviewer may
contradict or challenge the interviewee and, in doing so,
highlight their differences of opinion
 Wording Good Questions. Research questions often
include conceptual theoretical constructs, whereas
interview questions must be simple, jargon‐free, and
attend directly to the interests and knowledge of
interviewees.
Wording Good Questions  In summary, interview guides can include a large range of
questions. I encourage you to experiment with different
 They are simple and clear. They avoid acronyms, types, as they all can work in different ways with each
abbreviations, jargon, and scholarly talk. interviewee
 They are not double‐barreled but rather inquire about one
thing at a time.
 They keep participants focused on concrete details.
FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
 In most cases, yes/no questions should be followed by “In
what ways?” or “How did that experience unfold?” • They Focus group is a sort of collective interview, directed by the
are straightforward, neutral, and non‐leading. researcher (moderator), which exploits the interactive potential
 They uphold rather than threaten the interviewees’ of the situation in order to generate rich data.
preferred identity.
 They are accompanied by appropriate follow‐ups and KEY FEATURES OF A FOCUS GROUP
probes
 organised discussion;
Interview Questions:  collective activity;
 social events;
 Types  interaction.
 Purpose
 Examples
 Sequencing
Opening the interview

 asking what and how about certain factual issues is a good

way to open an interview
 experience questions that prompt stories are also helpful
in the early part of an interview, in part, because
interviewers can relate back to them later in the interview.
Generative questions

 an umbrella category for non‐directive, non‐threatening

queries that serve to generate (rather than dictate) So, focus groups have their dynamic quality as a defining
frameworks for talk. feature.
Generative Questions Focus groups may be used in at least three different ways:
 Tour questions  As an early stage of research in order to explore and
 Timeline Questions identify what the significant issues are.
 Hypothetical questions  To generate broadly conversational data on a topic to be
 Behavior and action questions analyzed.
 Posing the ideal  To evaluate the findings of research in the eyes of the
 Compare-contrast question people that the research is about: that is, in discussions of
 Motives research conclusions.
 Future predictions
HOW TO CONDUCT FOCUS GROUP
Directive Questions

 Closed-ended questions
 Data-referencing questions
 Member reflection questions
 Potentially threatening questions
Closing the Interview

 Catch-all questions
 Identity enhancing questions
Interview Question Wrap-up FLOW OF A FOCUS GROUP
1. THE WELCOME ETHNOGRAPHIC/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
2. OVERVIEW OF THE TOPIC
3. THE GROUND RULES
4. OPENING QUESTIONS
5. INTRODUCTORY QUESTIONS
6. TRANSITION QUESTIONS
7. KEY QUESTIONS
8. ENDING QUESTIONS
THINGS THAT A MODERATOR DOES
There are a number of characteristics which researchers see as
important in a moderator (Gibbs, 1997): POSSIBLE ELEMENTS OF ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY/
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
 avoids expressing personal opinions;
 avoids appearing judgemental
ETHNOGRAPHY/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
ETHNOGRAPHY

 Detailed description of events + insights into their

meaning
 A method of discovery – the obscure – small samples. THE ROLE OF THE OBSERVER
 Comparative method – official/unofficial, formal/informal
• Naturalistic stance – natural setting – empathy
 Understand the symbolic world of the people studied.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
data collection technique that requires the researcher to be
present at, involved in and recording the routine daily
activities with people in the field setting.
ENTRY, FIELD, & BUILDING RAPPORT

 Participant observation refers to a wider set of methods

including intensive observation which are also known as
ethnographic methods.
 Ethnography is the better term to use as it is in keeping
with other disciplines.
 Participant observation specifically refers to observational
techniques by which researchers involve themselves
extensively and in depth with a group or community.
Ethnography/participant observation is one of the most
complex research methods and places both intellectual and
interpersonal demands on the researcher.
VARYING DIMENSIONS OF
ETHNOGRAPHIC/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION STAGES IN PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
STEP 1: Formulating the research question
Participant observation will be employed where the researcher
has a broad area of study to address, though it is unlikely that
at the initial stages they will have a focused research question
in mind.
STEP 2: Question whether a particular area of interest lends
itself to participant observation
There are many activities which are regarded as essentially  When one wishes to understand the operation of a
private, and these are unlikely to be amenable to investigation naturally occurring group, community or culture.
using participant observation.  When broad observations are appropriate rather than
narrowly focused ones.
STEP 3: Define what is to be addressed in the observation
process Data Analysis, Methods, and Techniques
The clear definition of the research question will be of use  Qualitative Content Analysis
here since it will help identify the aspects of the situation that  Narrative Analysis
the researcher will study
 Discourse Analysis
STEP 4: Defining the researcher’s role  Thematic Analysis
 Grounded Theory
A major consideration is for the researcher to define a viable  Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
role which permits him or her to participate in a setting or to
be sufficiently at its periphery to enable the observation to
take place.
STEP 5: Entry to the research location/entry to the community
The research locations for participant observation/ethnography
vary in the extent to which they are formal settings such as a
factory or informal settings in the community such as, say, a
foot- ball match.
STEP 6: Continuing access
Participant observation/ethnography involves maintaining
relations with the group studied and not just the entry process
to the research location.
STEP 7: The use of key informants
The key informant (a) may play a more central role in most
aspects of the group’s activities than others, (b) may have an
interest in the research which is greater than that of the others,
or (c) may have a special rapport with the researcher and so
forth.
STEP 8: Field notes/data logging
The objective of taking field notes is to have a comprehensive
database of one’s observations in the field setting.
STEP 9: How to sample
In ethnography/participant observation, the objective of the
researcher is to understand better the community or group
under observation.
STEP 10: When to stop fieldwork
The term ‘theoretical saturation’ is used to describe the
situation where additional data collection produces nothing
additional relevant to the concepts, ideas and theories which
are guiding the research.
STEP 11: Leaving the research site
Participants have trusted the researcher with information, and
so, he/she must provide reassurances about the future actions
of the researcher.
USING ETHNOGRAPHY/PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION