General Chemistry Module 1: Properties of Matter and Its Various Forms

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER - are properties that are observed without changing the
composition of the substance, though their form may change.
1. Color
2. Density
3. Hardness
4. Atomic and molecular properties
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – observed when matter is involved in a chemical change. The property is
related to the composition of the material.
1. Burning process
2. Electrolysis
3. Chemical changes

OTHER PROPERTIES
EXTENSIVE PROPERTY - is a property that changes when the amount of material changes.
1. Length
2. Mass
3. Volume
INTENSIVE PROPERTY – does not depend on the size of the materials.
1. Temperature
2. Color
3. Odor
4. Molecular weights
EXTRINSIC PROPERTY – a characteristics of a substance which pertain only its appearance.
1. Shape
2. Length
3. Mass
4. Temperature
INTRINSIC PROPERTY- characteristics of a substance, regardless of its size.
1. Color
2. Viscosity
3. Taste

ADVANCE SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

DISTILLATION- use to separate a mixture containing volatile components. This involves
evaporation followed by condensation.
CHROMATOGRAPHY- used to separate components from a mixture based on differences of
substances in attraction of these components for a stationary phase and mobile phase.
 Physical properties are properties not responsible for any changes in the composition of a
substances, though it forms may change.
  Chemical properties involve chemical changes which form two completely different
substances.
 Extensive property is that which changes when the amount of material undergoes
change.
 Intensive property does not depend on the size or amount of the substance.
 Chromatography involves solvent separation on a solid medium.
 Distillation takes advantage of difference in boiling points.

General Chemistry Module 2: Atomic Structures – Chemical Formula and Names of Compound

According to John Dalton’s atomic theory, an atom is the smallest unit of matter that can combine
with another to form molecules. “ALL LIVING AND
NON-LIVING THINGS, AND ALL PHASES OF MATTER
ALL CONSIST OF ATOM”.

Dalton’s theory was accepted until revoked by

a series of investigation between 18th and 20th
century. Experimental investigations shows that
atoms are made up of even smaller particles called
subatomic particles.
1. Protons
2. Electrons
3. Neutrons

In 1910, Ernets Rutherford found out that a different

structures of an atom through his scattering
experiment and proved that most of an atom is
an empty space with very dense central core
called nucleus.

John Dalton’s atomic theory states that all atoms of an element are identical in mass and size and
are different from the atoms of another element. Through modern science and techniques,
ISOTOPES have been discovered.

ISOTOPES – atoms of the same element with different mass

The difference in mass is a result of the difference in the number of neutrons.
To get the average atomic mass, multiply each of the atomic mass of each isotope by its
abundance

ATOMS – the smallest particle of a substance that can exist by itself or be combined with other atoms.
MOLECULE- composed of 2 or more atoms.

ION- an atom having a positive or negative

charge.
1. Positive ion Cation (+)
2. Negative ion Anion (-)
MONOATOMIC - one atom
POLYATOMIC - more than one of atom

There are also two types of

There are also two types of chemical

formulas. Molecular Formula and Empirical
Formula.

Molecular Formula – gives the composition

of the molecule, in terms of the actual
number of atoms present

Empirical Formula – gives the composition

of the molecule, in terms of the smallest
ratio of the number of atoms present

COMPOUNDS are substances formed when

two or more elements combined through a
chemical change.

1. Binary compounds – are made up

of two elements
2. Ionic compounds – made up of
cation and an anion
 Molecular compounds – made up of two
non-metals that are usually gases.

TERNARY COMPOUNDS- is made up of three

elements. Follows the same rule as a
binary ionic compound.
ACIDS are substances that yield or
produce hydrogen ion (H+) when
dissolved in water.
BINARY ACIDS - composed of hydrogen
and other elements, usually non-metal.
TERNARY ACIDS - composed of hydrogen
and an ion, usually containing oxygen.

General Chemistry Module 3: Chemical Bonding and Structural Formula

CHEMICAL BONDING
Each atom or element has its own number of
electrons that orbit around its nucleus in
different shell orbitals. The number of electrons
on the outermost shell of the atom depends on
its element’s electron configuration.

The non-noble gas elements like N, O, F do not

have a complete set of electrons as shown
by the lack of electrons occupying the 2p orbital,
whereas neon a noble gas has a complete set of electrons in all its orbital, making neon a more
stable among those with incomplete set of electrons.
OCTET RULE - this rule states that an atom would try to possess the electron configuration of a noble
gas or “complete its octet” by forming bonds.

IONIC BONDING - a type of bond typically occurs between a metal and non-metal. (Helium and
fluorine)

All ionic bonds follow the same process as our example here. The bonds are produced due to the
attraction of the charged particles, hence, if an ionic substance is dissolved in solvent these ions can
separate as separate ions.

COVALENT BONDING - to create a covalent bond, the atoms involved will overlap their orbitals to
share an electron. The bond for when this happens can either sigma bond or a pi bond.
1. Sigma bonds are formed when the s-orbital overlaps.
2. The p-orbitals overlapping forms a pi-bond
This type of bonding is commonly found between
non-metals. Covalent bonds can reach up to triple
bonds. Single bonded covalent bond has one
sigma bond. Doubly bonded covalent bonds
have one sigma bond and one pi bond. Triple
bonded covalent bond has one sigma bond
and two pi bonds.

LEDS also known as electron dot structures named after the American chemist GILBERT NEWTON
LEWIS, are diagrams that describe the chemical bonding between atoms in a molecule. They also
display the total lone pairs present in each of the atoms that constitute the molecule.
In these structures, only the valence electron is seen as well as the bonds between atoms. So, to use
LEDS one must know the valence electrons of the atoms they are going to write.

1. Where the elements belong is also the number of valence electron around in the element
which also corresponds to the number of dots around the elements.

HOW TO WRITE LEDS

1. Arrange the atoms to show specific connections.
2. Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion.
3. Place a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of adjacent atoms to give a single
bond.
4. Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough electron to each atom to give each atom an
octet.
5. If any are left over, place them on the central atom.
6. If the central atoms have fewer electrons than an octet, use lone pairs from terminal atoms to
form multiple bonds to the central atom to achieve an octet.
7. If the molecule is an ion, out them all in a bracket and put its charged outside the brackets.
For neutral molecules, let us write the LEDS for formaldehyde (CH2O):

There are times where LEDS may not violate the octet rule but not all structures that can be made are
stable. This is often noticeable in molecular ions where extra electrons are added into the mixture. To
determine the most stable structure, we must determine the formal charge of each atom.

To test this, let us write the LEDS of the dichromate ion (Cr2O72-)
Each chromium atom in the current structure is the same, therefore the calculations are the
same for each:

this kind of instances brought about the exemptions in the octet rule.
1. When there is an odd number of valence electrons.
2. When there are too few valence electron.
3. When there are too many valence electrons.

To stabilize this structure, we must convert some of lone pairs into bonding pairs.

VSEPR MODEL
The valence shell electron pair repulsion model is widely used to illustrate the molecular compound
based on the bonds that existed in the molecule. The VSEPR provides a simple method of predicting
the geometries of the main group compounds.

HOW TO USE VSEPR CHART

1. Total domains
2. A generic formula
3. A picture of the electron-group shape
4. Bonded atoms
5. Lone pairs
6. Molecular shape
7. Electron geometry
8. An example of the compound
9. Hybridization
10. Bond angles
VSEPR THEORY (MOLECULAR SHAPES)

General Chemistry Module 4: Determining Molar Mass and Chemical Formulas

Defining a mole
- mole (mol) is the SI unit for the amount of substance. It is defined as the amount of a substance that
contains the same number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12. This number called the Avogadro’s number,
is enormous:

One mole 1(mol) contains 6.022x10^23 entities.

Knowing the amount (in moles), the mass (in grams), and the number of entities becomes very
important as we mix different substances to run a reaction. The central relationship between masses
on the atomic scale and on the macroscopic scale is the same for elements.

The mass in atomic mass unit (amu) of one atom an element is the same numerically as the mass in
grams (g) of 1 mole of atoms of the element.

CALCULATING THE MOLECULAR MASS OF A COMPOUND

the flowchart below will help us in the conversion.

PERCENT BY COMPOSITION BY MASS

The percent by composition by mass is the ration of the mass of each element to the total mass
of different elements present in the compound multiplied by 100.

Computation of the actual mass of each element given amount of substance.

Example:
there is 320 kg of NaCl, the molar mass of Na is 22.99 g/mol, Cl is 35.45 g/mol And NaCl is 58.44 g/mol.
The percent composition on Na is:

EMPIRICAL FORMULA AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

The word empirical literally mean experimental hence, only the identify of the elements in the
substance is determined and not the exact number. Gives the composition of the molecule, in terms
of the smallest ratio of the number of atoms present.

The molecular formula, in the other hand, shows the correct number of each element in the
compound.

STEPS IN DETERMING THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA:

1. Percent by mass
2. Mass to mole
3. Divide by small
4. Multiply ‘till whole
The molecular formula of a compound can be obtained from the empirical formula and the
molecular mass of the compound.

STEPS TO FIND THE MOLECULAR FORMULA

1. Calculate the mass of the empirical formula
2. Divide the given molar mass by the molecular mass computed from the empirical formula.
3. Multiply the number by the subscript of the empirical formula to get the subscript of the
molecular formula.

General Chemistry Module 5: Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

There are conventions and simple rules to follow in writing chemical equations
1. The starting material or substance called reactants are written on the left side and the resulting
substances called products on the right sight.
2. An arrow is used to represent the conversion of the reactants to products.
This may literally mean “to yield or “to form”. The plus sign (+) means “to react with” or “to
combine with”
3. It is recommended that the states of the substances be in indicated by placing the ff. symbols
after the formula of the substance such as solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g), and aqueous (aq).
BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Balancing chemical equations is done in two steps:

1. Write the correct chemical formula and the state or phase of the reactants and the product.
2. Balance the number of atoms of each kind by using coefficients. Write the coefficients on the
left side of the substances.
General Chemistry Module 6: Mass Relationship in Chemical Reactions
DETERMINING THE AMOUNT OF REACTANT AND PRODUCT IN A CHEMICAL REACTION

STOICHIOMETRY
One of the requirements of a balanced equation is that it follows the law of conservation of mass by
ANTOINE LAVOISIER in 1785, which states that in an isolated system, matter is neither created nor
destroyed.

A stoichiometry coefficient is then added before each element. Ion or molecule to make the number
of each element on the left side equal to the number of the element on the right side of the
equation.

This stoichiometry coefficient is denoted by a number can be interpreted as the number of moles of
each substance. The mole method approach makes stoichiometry more understandable.
LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENT

When a chemical reaction is carried out in flask, the amount of reactant is not always present in the
exact proportion stoichiometry, determine from the balance equation.

The reagent that has completely reacted and used up in a reaction is called the limiting reagent. The
excess reagent is the reactant that is present in quantity higher than what is required to react with
the limiting agent.
If the amount of the initial reactant is expressed in grams (mass) instead of moles, then the number of
moles must first be converted into grams using the molar mass of the reactant as you have learned in
the previous lesson. In the same manner, if the problem asks to determine the mass (in grams) of the
product produced by the reaction, the number of moles of the product must be converted into
grams using the molar mass of the product.

Summary
The law of conservation of mass provides that the number of substances formed (product) in a
chemical reaction must be equal to the amount of the initial material (reactants)

The stoichiometry coefficient balances the number of elements present on the left and right side of
the equation.

This coefficient can be used to determine the mole-to-mole factor or ratio between and among
substances involved.

The mole method approach makes stoichiometry calculation easier by expressing the known and
unknown quantities in moles then converting them into grams using the molar mass of the
substances.

CALCULATING THERORICAL YIELD AND PERCENT YIELD IN A REACTION

YIELD OF THE REACTION

A chemical reaction is a process in which substance/s interact chemically to produce a new

substance with different compositions. It is represented by a chemical equation. Substances at the
left side on the side of equations is/are called the products. Chemical properties of the element or
compound as reactant dictate the process in which an element or compound undergoes changes
during reaction.

Evaluation of percent yield is important to measure the success of a chemical reaction.

Percent yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percentage.