‫‪Sensors and Operational amplifier‬‬

‫سكشن ‪2 :‬‬ ‫عبدالوهاب توفيق احمد علي‬

‫سكشن ‪4 :‬‬ ‫محمود سعد عطية رضوان‬
‫سكشن ‪1 :‬‬ ‫احمد ابراهيم عبدالرحمن‬
‫سكشن ‪2 :‬‬ ‫عبدالكريم عباس‬

‫‪Porf: Sahar Elkhafif‬‬

 Introduction

An operational amplifier (often op amp or op amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage

amplifier with a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output.[1] In this configuration, an op
amp produces an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically 100,000 times larger than
the potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog
computers, where they were used to perform mathematical operations in linear, non-linear, and
frequency-dependent circuits. The popularity of the op amp as a building block in analog circuits is
due to its versatility. By using negative feedback, the characteristics of an op-amp circuit, its gain,
input and output impedance, bandwidth etc. are determined by external components and have little
dependence on temperature coefficients or engineering tolerance in the op amp itself. A sensor is a
device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing a physical phenomenon. In the
broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or subsystem that detects events or
changes in its environment and sends the information to other electronics, frequently a computer
processor. Sensors are always used with other electronics. Sensors are used in everyday objects
such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching
the base, and in innumerable applications of which most people are never aware. With advances in
micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded
beyond the traditional fields of temperature, pressure and flow measurement,[1] for example into
MARG sensors.

Operational Amplifier :

• Operational Amplifier, or Op-amp as it is most commonly called, can be an ideal amplifier with infinite Gain and
Bandwidth when used in the Open-loop mode with typical DC gains of well over 100,000 or 100dB.
• The basic Op-amp construction is of a 3-terminal device, with 2-inputs and 1-output, (excluding power connections).

The Two Basic Op-amp Circuits :

• For negative feedback, were the fed-back voltage is in “anti-phase” to the input the overall gain of the amplifier is
reduced.
• For positive feedback, were the fed-back voltage is in “Phase” with the input the overall gain of the amplifier is
increased.
• By connecting the output directly back to the negative input terminal, 100% feedback is achieved resulting in a
Voltage Follower (buffer) circuit with a constant gain of 1 (Unity).
Differentiator and Integrator Circuits :

• The Integrator Amplifier produces an output that is the mathematical operation of integration.
• The Differentiator Amplifier produces an output that is the mathematical operation of differentiation.
• Both the Integrator and Differentiator Amplifiers have a resistor and capacitor connected across the op-amp and
are affected by its RC time constant.
• In their basic form, Differentiator Amplifiers suffer from instability and noise but additional components can be
added to reduce the overall closed-loop gain.

Op-amp Comparator :

• The output is always at one of two states

(+Vsat or -Vsat).
o Operation Rules of Comparator:
1) If Vin > Vref Vout = +Vsat
2) If Vin < Vref Vout = -Vsat
• Zero-Level Detection
For Zero-Level Detection Vref = 0 (connected
to Ground)
✓ For sine wave input
(i) When the sine wave is positive, Vout = +Vsat
(ii) When the sine wave is negative, Vout = -Vsat
 Sensors
The Pyroelectric Sensor:
Pyroelectric detectors are thermal detectors that use temperature fluctuations to create a
charge change on the surface of pyroelectric crystals, which produces a corresponding
electrical signal. It means that it absorbs radiation and converts it into heats, which produces a
current proportional to the rate of change of temperature.

The Piezoelectric Sensor:

Piezoelectricity is the charge created across certain materials when a mechanical stress is
applied. Piezoelectric pressure sensors exploit this effect by measuring the voltage across a
piezoelectric element generated by the applied pressure. They are very robust and are used in
a wide range of industrial applications.

Proximity Sensor :
A proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the presence of an object
(often referred to as the “target”) when the target enters the sensor’s field.
Depending on the type of proximity sensor, sound, light, infrared radiation (IR), or
electromagnetic fields may be utilized by the sensor to detect a target.
Temperature Sensor :
A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or resistance
temperature detector, that provides temperature measurement in a readable
form through an electrical signal.
Application :
A thermometer is the most basic form of a temperature meter that is used to
measure the degree of hotness and coolness.

What is IR sensor :
IR technology is used in daily life and also in industries for diǣerent purposes.
For example, TVs use an IR sensor to understand the signals which are
transmitted from a remote control. The main benefits of IR sensors are low
power usage, their simple design & their convenient features. IR signals are not
noticeable by the human eye. The IR radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum
can be found in the regions of the visible & microwave.