GECMAT

FORMALITY
FORMALITY
A predicate (or open statement) is a
statement whose truth depends on the
value of one or more variables. Predicates
become propositions once every variable
is bound by assigning a universe of
discourse. Most of the propositions are
defined in terms of predicates.
For example,
"𝑥 is an even number” is a predicate
whose truth depends on the value of 𝑥.
The predicate is true for 𝑥 = 2 since
2 is an even number,
false for 𝑥 = 3 since 3 is an odd
number
We can denote the given predicate as:
𝑃(𝑥) = "𝑥 is an even number".
Now 𝑃(2) is true, and 𝑃(3) is false. If 𝑃 is a
predicate, then 𝑃(𝑥) is either true or false,
depending on the value of 𝑥.
• A propositional function is a sentence
𝑃(𝑥); it becomes a statement only when
variable 𝑥 is given particular value
 The independent variable of
propositional function must have a universe
of discourse, which is a set from which the
variable can take values.
Consider the sentence,
• “If 𝑥 is an odd number, then 𝑥 is not a
multiple of 2.”
We can denote the given predicate as:
𝑃(𝑥) = "𝑥 is an even number".
Now 𝑃(2) is true, and 𝑃(3) is false. If 𝑃 is a
predicate, then 𝑃(𝑥) is either true or false,
depending on the value of 𝑥.

• A propositional function is a sentence

𝑃(𝑥); it becomes a statement only when
variable 𝑥 is given particular value
The given sentence has the
logical form 𝑃(𝑥) → 𝑄(𝑥)
and its truth value can be
determined for a specific
value of 𝑥.
Example: Let 𝑃(𝑥) = “𝑥 2 > 𝑥” with the universe of
discourse be the set ℝ of all real numbers. Determine
𝟏 𝟏
𝑃(2), 𝑃 (𝟐), 𝑃(- 𝟐), and indicate which of these
statements are true and which are false.
Solution:
𝑃(2) = 2 2 > 2 = 4 > 2, hence, 𝑃(2) is TRUE.
𝟏 𝟏 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑃 ( ) = ( ) > = > , but ≯ , hence, 𝑃 ( ) is FALSE.
𝟐 𝟐 2 4 2 4 2 2
1 1 2 1 1 1 1
𝑃(− ) = (− ) > − = > − , hence 𝑃(− ) is TRUE.
2 2 2 4 2 2
 The set of all such elements that
make the predicate true is called the
TRUTH SET of the predicate.
Example:
Finding the truth set of a predicate
Let 𝑄(𝑛) = “𝑛 is a factor of 8.”
Find the truth set of 𝑄(𝑛) if
a) the domain of 𝑛 is ℤ + (the set of all positive
integers)
Solution: the truth set of 𝑄(𝑛) is {1, 2, 4, 8}
b) the domain of 𝑛 is ℤ (the set of all integers)
Solution: the truth set of 𝑄(𝑛) is
{−8, −4, −2, −1, 1, 2, 4, 8}
QUANTIFIERS are phrases that refer to given
quantities, such as "for some" or "for all" or "for every",
indicating how many objects have a certain property.
A) The symbol ∀ is called the universal quantifier. It is
read as “for every”, “for each”, “for any” “given any”
or “for all”
Example:
a) “Every human being is mortal.” or “All human
beings are mortal.” It is written as, “∀ human beings 𝑥,
𝑥 is mortal.”
b.) “For every human being 𝑥, 𝑥 is mortal.”
If you let 𝐻 be the set of all human beings,
then you can symbolize the statement more
formally by writing “∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥 is mortal.”

c) “For all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 +

𝑥.” It can be written as “∀ real numbers 𝑥
and 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥.”
Let 𝑄(𝑥) be a predicate and 𝐷 the domain of 𝑥.
A universal statement is a statement of the
form “∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑄(𝑥).” It is defined to be true if,
and only if, 𝑄(𝑥) is true for every 𝑥 in 𝐷.
It is defined to be false if, and only if, 𝑄(𝑥) is
false for at least one 𝑥 in 𝐷. A value for 𝑥 for
which 𝑄(𝑥) is false is called a
COUNTEREXAMPLE to the universal statement.
a) Let 𝐷 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and consider the
statement, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥2 ≥ 𝑥. Show that this
statement is true.
Solution: 12 ≥ 1 = 1 ≥ 1 is true
22 ≥ 2 = 4 ≥ 2 is true
32 ≥ 3 = 9 ≥ 3 is true
42 ≥ 4 = 16 ≥ 4 is true
52 ≥ 5 = 25 ≥ 5 is true
Since every element in the domain 𝐷 is true,
hence, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥2 ≥ 𝑥 is true
b) Consider the statement,
∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥.
2

Find a counterexample to show that

this statement is false.
Solution:
If 𝑥 = 0.5,
then 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥 0.5 ≥ 0.5 0.25 ≥ 0.5 is
2 2

false. Hence, 0.5 is a counterexample.

B.) The symbol ∃ denotes
“there exists” and is called the
existential quantifier. It also
reads as “for some” or “there
is at least one”.
Example: Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, 4, 6, 8}. Determine if each universal or
existential statement is TRUE OR FALSE.
a)∀𝑥 (1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9) Solution: It is true since every element in 𝑈
is true in 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 9.
b)∀𝑥 (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛)
Solution: It is false since 1 is a counterexample.
c.)∃𝑥 (𝑥 + 1 = 4) Solution: It is false since there is no
element in 𝑈 that will satisfy the statement, 𝑥 + 1 = 4
d) ∃𝑥 (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛)
Solution: It is true since 2 is both prime and even.
e.)∀𝑥 (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 2)
Solution: It is true since every element in 𝑈 satisfies the
statement, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 2
Example: Translating from formal to informal
language. Rewrite the following formal
statements in a variety of equivalent but
more informal ways. Do not use the symbol ∀
or ∃.
a) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 Solution: “The square of
any real number is positive.”
b) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≠ −1
Solution: “Every square of a real number
is not equal to −1” or “No real numbers
have squares equal to −1.”
c) ∃𝑚 ∈ ℤ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚 = 𝑚
+ 2

Solution: “There is a positive integer

whose square is equal to itself” or “Some
positive integer equals its own square.”
• Write as English sentences and
say whether they are true or false.
1. ∃𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 0.
• Find counterexamples to show that
the statements below are false.
1. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 > 1/𝑥 .
Find counterexamples to show that the
statements below are false.
1. ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ, (𝑎−1)/𝑎 is not an integer.
2. ∀ positive integers 𝑚 and 𝑛, (𝑚)(𝑛)
≥ 𝑚 + 𝑛.
3. ∀ real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦, √𝑥 + 𝑦 = √𝑥
+ √𝑦
Write as English sentences and say
whether they are true or false.
1. ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 > 0. __________________
2. ∃𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℚ, 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 9_____________
2 2
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