CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
Sampling and Testing of Materials
3 KEYS IN QUALITY CONTROL
a. ONWER – there will be worked to be done
b. IMPLEMENTER – there will be worked to be constructed
c. QUALITY – works are in performance level
QUALITY - a judgement by the customer or users of a product or service.
- It is the extent to which the customers or users fell the product or service surpasses their needs and
expectations.
- Characteristics of product that provides a level of performance in terms of services and life
QUALITY CONTROL – is to regulate and accompanied by economical work, safety, and beauty.
PURPOSE OF QUALITY CONTROL
▪ To ensure the highest quality of work and extend the service life of any structure by constructing according to
the prescribed plans and specifications. The plans indicate the specific type of the structure, and the specifications present
the characteristic in which it is built, as well as the materials that are to be incorporated into the work.
▪ To check and regulated the use of construction materials and to economize on the cost of construction. Fulfilling
these, requires adequate control of materials prior to and after placing to their final position in the structure. Normally,
every material should be subjected to testing, inspection and verification before acceptance.
QUALITY ASSURANCE- is the certainty that the materials are regulated accordance with specifications
WORKS OF QUALITY ASSURANCE – consist of all work elements carried out by the manager or by those in his organization,
which contribute to the quality of the output of organization.
QUALITY ASSURANCE IN PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
To ensure that quality control is being implemented effectively, Quality Assurance Unit (QAU) has been created
to act as the inspectors of all public projects in the country. The Bureau of Quality and safety creates members of QAU per
region that conducts inspection quarterly in every year. There are things to consider and must be prepared during their
visit.
THE QUALITY CONTROL PROCEDURES
1. The Selection of Materials
Information regarding the location of materials sources that will be incorporated into the work may be
represented by the following:
a. Raw materials such as soil, sand and bank or river gravel (with little or no processing)
b. Materials that are processed without basically changing their properties such as washed/manufactured sand,
crushed rock, and gravel, and etc.
c. Manufactured materials such as bituminous materials, cement, paint, and structural reinforcing steel bar. d.
Combination of materials that may be partly or totally manufactured, such as bituminous and Portland cement
concrete.
2. Handling and Storage of Materials
Materials which are not properly handled are prone to disturbance that may cause issues in the future. To avoid
damage, it should be placed in a safe place protected from contamination or the action of water. Water may cause
corrosion to the steel and may cause hardening to the cement. Thus, protection of the materials is highly important an
should be accessible to the project site.
3.
All materials for testing require proper sampling. These are indicated in AASHTO and ASTM. Quality control also
required proper testing, construction method and workmanship.
Minimum Testing Requirement
Quality stated in the program of works is the basis of minimum testing requirement for each project. The
requirements specify the kind and number of tests for each item and sizes. This indicates only the minimum and shall not
be the only basis of number of testings. When a government representative inspected a project and there is doubt in a
test, another testing can be done immediately.
4. Proper Construction Methods
Construction methods come in any different ways. Usually, it comes with experience and practical methods but
for some materials, methods of construction are given by instructions for each work. The following are the techniques in
project handling and construction methods.
a. technical personnel assigned in the project should be knowledgeable and responsible enough to the project.
b. Project Supervision shall be established first. The hierarchy starts from the Project Engineer, Project Inspector,
Materials Engineer, Safety Engineer, Construction Foreman, Skilled and Unskilled Laborers.
c. Construction methods shall be done for each work indicated in the design.
d. The materials shall pass the required specifications.
e. Continues quality control should be done in all terms of work as the construction progresses.
f. Proper equipment for each work item shall be used.
g. Materials quantity shall be well provided. Scarcity of one material can be the basis of delay for each work that
may affect another item schedule.
5. Inspection and Project Monitoring
Project inspected is vital in project monitoring. The progress reports require inspection of the actual work being
carried out, and the work accomplished per week of operation. The purpose of this is to ensure that the materials and
workmanship is being done by the hired contractor.
How is Quality being controlled?
Quality is controlled during construction by testing and inspection of the quality of materials and the method of
construction, the latter commonly known as workmanship
PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
1. Subgrade Pavement structure
➢ is composed primarily of the subgrade or commonly called natural grade line or existing soil.
➢ Usually, this is being enhanced through compaction to attain the subgrade requirements for selected Fill which
is more than or equal to 4%.
➢ For cut slope, the subgrade is still compacted to attain the highest strength it can contain. When embankment
fill is used, embankment foundation materials shall be selected, and use of suitable material stated in Item 104
is highly recommended.
➢ The subgrade strength determines the thickness of pavement structure. For economy, subgrade strength must
be maximized, and this is achieved by following strictly these quality control “musts”.
a. Remove the unsuitable materials from the upper layer in cut sections and replace with selected fill.
b. Please refer to Item 104 of the Blue Book.
c. Reject unsuitable material for embankments or use only in lower layers.
d. Provide adequate surface drainage.
e. Provide adequate subsoil drainage.
f. Minimize increase in moisture content.
g. Ensure thorough compaction based on the required for each layer and material.
2. Subbase Course Material Item (200) THE QUALITY CONTROL MEASURES.
➢ is the layer of aggregate material laid on the subgrade, on which the base course layer is located. 1. Selection of Materials
➢ may be omitted when there will be only foot traffic on the pavement but necessary for surfaces used by vehicles. 2. Design of concrete mixture
➢ often the main load bearing layer of the pavement with CBR value 30% or higher. 3. Aggregate Production Control
4. Concrete Production Control
3. Base Course Material (Item 201) 5. Control of Consistency
➢ refers to another sub-base layer of a pavement structure roadway but uses higher quality of grading. 6. Sampling requirements
➢ Generally consisting of larger grade aggregate, spread and compacted provide a stable base for further layers 7. Curing of concrete
of aggregates, concrete or asphalt pavement. 8. Testing of concrete samples
➢ The requirement for base course to be more than or equal to 80% CBR.
QUALITY CONTROL IN ASPHALT PAVEMENT/ASPHALT ROAD CONSTRUCTION
4. Stabilized Base Course ➢ A good asphalt road is designed to last at least 5 to 10 years when constructed with good quality control.
➢ This is a higher-grade base layer of pavement structure to withstand heavier loads primarily in urban areas. ➢ A good asphalt is preferable than a good cement concrete road due to its lower initial cost and more uniform
➢ This refers to a class of paving materials that are mixtures of one or more sources of aggregate and cementitious riding surface.
material(s) blended with enough water, that result in a mixture having a moist, non-plastic consistency that can
be compacted to form a dense mass and gain strength. Five basic equally important requisites of road building are satisfied and strictly adhered to.
➢ The purpose of a stabilized base or subbase layer is to provide some transitional load-bearing strata between 1. Good design
the pavement layer, which directly receives the wheel loadings of vehicular traffic, and the underlying subgrade 2. Good construction control or workmanship
soil. 3. Good quality of materials
➢ Stabilized base or subbase materials may be used to provide support for either flexible or rigid pavements but 4. Good foundation
are more frequently used with flexible pavements. 5. Good drainage

5. Surface/Wearing Course GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

➢ is the upper layer in roadway, airfield, and dockyard construction. A material can be considered as a building construction material if the quality and capacity of such is capable to
➢ The term ‘surface course’ is sometimes used, however this term is slightly different as it can be used to describe its application.
very thin surface layers such as chip seal. In rigid pavements, the upper layer is a Portland cement concrete slab. 1. PHYSICAL - shows the quality and condition of a material without exerting forces.
2. MECHANICAL - can be found out by applying and exerting forces.
Quality control of mentioned soil and soil aggregates and underlying structures of roads refers to proper 3. CHEMICAL – against chemical actions or combinations.
construction method, supervision, and materials testing. Common quality control to know the compaction is through field 4. ELECTRICAL conducts or resists electricity.
density test with regards to its maximum dry density and optimum moisture content. 5. MAGNETIC –like permeability and hysteresis that is required in the case of generators.
The specification requirement is 95% and 100% in embankment and subbase/course materials percent 6. THERMAL – absorbs heat and is required to design proper ventilation.
compaction, respectively.
Good compaction means subsequent settlement is minimized, stability is increased, and resistance to water Materials Engineering Concepts Materials engineers are responsible for the selection, specification, and quality
absorption is increased; change in moisture content is minimized. Please see Item 200 for the other requirements such as control of materials to be used in a job. These materials must meet certain classes of criteria or materials properties (Ashby
CBR Value, abrasion, Moisture content, grading requirement, plasticity, and compaction. and Jones, 2011). These classes of criteria include:
• economic factors
QUALITY CONTROL IN PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT (PCCP) • mechanical properties
• nonmechanical properties
Two major parts of concrete • production/construction considerations
- PASTE & AGGREGATES • aesthetic properties
• economic Factors
Two ways to concrete mix design
1. by ACI 211.1 Standard Practice for selecting proportions for Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete. The economics of the material selection process are affected by much more than just the cost of the material.
2. the traditional method being used in the Department. Factors that should be considered in the selection of the material include:

▪ PPCP is designed to last at least 20 years when constructed with good concrete. • availability and cost of raw materials
▪ In concrete construction, like any other, good concrete will be produced where effective control is exercised. • manufacturing costs section 1.2 Mechanical properties 23
▪ defective will certainly result where there is little or no quality control. • transportation
• placing
• maintenance
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:
1. DENSITY – It is the ratio of mass of the material and its volume.
2. POROSITY – It is the ratio of volume of pores to the volume of material.
3. DURABILITY – Property of a material to withstand against the combined action of atmospheric and other factors.
4. SPECIFIC WEIGHT – 𝛾 = 𝜌𝛿 is equal to the product of density of material and standard gravity due to acceleration.
5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY – Is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference substance.
6. WATER ABSORPTION – The capacity of a material to absorb and retain water. It is expressed in % of weight of dry
material. It depends up on the size, shape and number of pores of material.
7. WATER PERMEABILITY – The ability of a material to permit water through it is called water permeability. Dense
materials like glass metals etc. are called impervious materials which cannot allow water through it.
8. FIRE RESISTANCE – The ability to withstand against fire without changing its shape and other properties. Fire
resistance of a material is tested by the combined actions of water and fire. Fireproof materials should
provide more safety in case of fire.
9. WEATHERING RESISTANCE – The property of a material to withstand against all atmospheric actions without
losing its strength and shape. Weathering effects the durability of material. For example corrosion occurs
in iron due to weathering. To resist this paint layer is provided.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
➢ the mechanical behavior of materials is the response of the material to external loads.
➢ All materials deform in response to loads; however, the specific response of a material depends on its
properties, the magnitude and type of load, and the geometry of the element. Whether the material “fails”
under the load conditions depends on the failure criterion.
➢ Catastrophic failure of a structural member, resulting in the collapse of the structure, is an obvious material
failure.
**Examples of Functional Failures:
a. Pavement may fail due to excessive roughness at the surface, even though the stress levels are well
within the capabilities of the material.
b. A building may have to be closed due to excessive vibrations by wind or other live loads, although it
could be structurally sound.
1) LOADING CONDITIONS
STATIC
- loading implies a sustained loading of the structure over a period.
- are slowly applied such that no shock or vibration is generated in the structure. Once applied, the static load
may remain in place or be removed slowly.
- sustained (dead) loads that remain in place for an extended period. In civil engineering, much of the load the
materials must carry is due to the weight of the structure and equipment in the structure.
- point; after this point, the strain will increase with little additional stress. In this case, the material exhibits linear elastic
DYNAMIC
- Loads that generate a shock or vibration in the structure.
- Types of dynamic loads:
➢ Periodic – harmonic or sinusoidal load, repeats itself with time
➢ Random – the load pattern never repeats
➢ Transient – an impulse load that is applied over a short time interval in member and its deformation.
2) STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
• Materials deform in response to loads or forces. In 1678, Robert Hooke published the first findings that
documented a linear relationship between the amount of force applied to:
• The amount of deformation is proportion𝜀al to the properties of the material and its dimensions. The effect of the
dimensions can be normalized. Dividing the force by the cross-sectional area of the specimen normalizes the effect
of the loaded area.
stress 𝜎 = 𝐹 𝐴;
• Dividing the deformation by the original length is defined as strain ε of the specimen (i.e., e = change in
length/original length). Much useful information about the material can be determined by plotting the stress–
strain diagram. Figure shows typical uniaxial tensile or compressive stress–strain curves for several engineering
materials.
o Figure: Typical uniaxial stress–strain diagrams for some engineering materials:
▪ (a) glass and chalk, (b) steel, (c) aluminum alloys, (d) concrete, and (e) soft rubber.
3. ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
If a material exhibits true elastic behavior, it must have an instantaneous response (deformation) to load, and the
material must return to its original shape when the load is removed. Many materials, including most metals, exhibit elastic
behavior, at least at low stress levels. As will be discussed in Chapter 2, elastic deformation does not change the
arrangement of atoms within the material, but rather it stretches the bonds between atoms.
When the load is removed, the atomic bonds return to their original position. Young observed that different elastic
materials have different proportional constants between stress and strain. For a homogeneous, isotropic, and linear elastic
material, the proportional constant between normal stress and normal strain of an axially loaded member is the modulus
of elasticity or Young’s modulus, E, and is equal to 𝐸 = 𝜎 𝜀 ; 𝜎 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 In the
axial tension test, as the material is elongated, there is a reduction of the cross section in the lateral direction.
In the axial compression test, the opposite is true. The ratio of the lateral strain, εl, to the axial strain, εa, is
Poisson’s ratio, 𝑣 = −𝜀1 𝜀𝑎 If a homogeneous, isotropic cubical element with linear elastic response is subjected to normal
stresses sx, sy, and sz in the three orthogonal directions (as shown in Figure), the normal strains εx, εy, and εz can be
computed by the generalized Hooke’s law,
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧) 𝐸 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑥) 𝐸 𝜀𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦) 𝐸
Sample Problem
A cube made of alloy with dimensions 50mm x 50mm x 50mm is placed into a pressure chamber and subjected
to a pressure of 90 MPa. If the modulus of elasticity of the alloy is 100 GPa and Poisson’s ratio is 0.28, what will be the
length of each side of the cube, assuming that the material remains within the elastic region?
Linear Material – stress-strain relationship follows a straight line
Elastic Material – returns to its original shape when load is removed and reacts instantaneously to changes in load.
For materials that do not display any linear behavior, such as concrete and soils determining a Young’s modulus
or elastic modulus can be problematical. There are several options for arbitrarily defining the modulus for these materials.
Figure shows four options: the initial tangent, tangent, secant, and chord moduli.
4. ELASTROPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
For some materials, as the stress applied on the specimen is increased, the strain will proportionally increase up to a
behavior followed by plastic response. The stress level at which the behavior changes from elastic to plastic is the elastic
limit.
Initial tangent modulus the slope of the tangent of the stress–strain curve at the origin tangent modulus the slope of
the tangent at a point on the stress–strain curve secant modulus the slope of a chord drawn between the origin and an
arbitrary point on the stress– strain curve chord modulus the slope of a chord drawn between two points on the stress–
strain curve Figure: Stress–strain behavior of plastic materials: (a) example of loading and unloading, (b) elastic–perfectly
plastic, and (c) elasto–plastic with strain hardening.
When the load is removed from the specimen, some of the deformation will be recovered and some of the
deformation will remain as seen in Figure (a). Figure (b) shows a linear elastic–perfectly plastic response in which the
material exhibits a linear elastic response upon loading, followed by a completely plastic response. Figure (c) shows an
elastoplastic response in which the first portion is an elastic response followed by a combined elastic and plastic response.
5. VISCOELASTIC BEHAVIOR MINIMUM TESTING REQUIREMENT
In some cases, materials exhibit both viscous and elastic responses, which are known as viscoelastic. Typical ITEM 100: CLEARING AND GRUBBING
viscoelastic materials used in construction applications are asphalt and plastics. • Maglilinis
Time-Dependent response Viscoelastic materials have a delayed response to load application. For example, Figure • Ready for construction
(a) shows a sinusoidal axial load applied on a viscoelastic material, such as asphalt concrete, versus time. Figure (b) shows • Tatanggalin lahat ng unnecessary
the resulting deformation versus time, where the deformation lags the load—that is, the maximum deformation of the
sample occurs after the maximum load is applied. The amount of time delayed of the deformation depends on the material ITEM 101: REMOVAL OF STRUCTURES AND OTHER OBSTRUCTIONS
characteristics and the temperature. • Demolition or removal of existing structures
ITEM 102: EXCAVATION
6. TEMPERATURE AND TIME EFFECTS ITEM 103: STRUCTURE EXCAVATION
The mechanical behavior of all materials is affected by temperature. Some materials, however, are more susceptible • i-eexcavate mo yung sa structures mismo
to temperature than others. For example, viscoelastic materials, such as plastics and asphalt, are greatly affected by For every 1500 cu.m. [1-D(Field Density)- 150 mm uncompacted depth]
temperature, even if the temperature is changed by only a few degrees. Other materials, such as metals or concrete, are 1-P : Plasticity Test
less affected by temperatures, especially when they are near ambient temperature 1-G : Grading Test
In addition to temperature, some materials, such as viscoelastic materials, are affected by the load duration. The 1-C : Laboratory Compaction Test
longer the load is applied, the larger is the amount of deformation or creep. In fact, increasing the load duration and
increasing the temperature cause similar material responses. Therefore, temperature and time can be interchanged. ITEM 104: EMBANKMENT
• Ibabalik yung hinukay
7. WORK AND ENERGY For 1500 cu.m. (500 sq.m. – one group of 3 inituated density test layers should not exceed 200
When a material is tested, the testing machine is actually generating a force in order to move or deform the specimen. sq.m.)
Since work is force times distance, the area under a force–displacement curve is the work done on the specimen. When 1-P
the force is divided by the cross-sectional area of the specimen to compute the stress, and the deformation is divided by 1-G
the length of the specimen to compute the strain, the force– displacement diagram becomes a stress–strain diagram. 1-C

8. FAILURE AND SAFETY ITEM 105: SUB-GRADE PREPARATION (natutal grade line)
Failure occurs when a member or structure ceases to perform the function for which it was designed. Failure of a • Pinakailalim ng pavement
structure can take several modes, including fracture, fatigue, general yielding, buckling, and excessive deformation.
Fracture is a common failure mode. A brittle material typically fractures suddenly when the static stress reaches the ITEM 106: COMPACTION EQUIPMENT AND DENSITY CONTROL STRIPS
strength of the material, where the strength is defined as the maximum stress the material can carry. On the other hand, • Magcocompact ng material
a ductile material may fracture due to excessive plastic deformation.
The factor of safety (FS) is defined as the ratio of the stress at failure to the allowable stress for design (maximum ITEM 107: OVERHAUL
anticipated stress): 𝐹𝑆 = 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒/𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 where failure is the failure stress of the material and sallowable is the
allowable stress for design. Typically, a high factor of safety requires a large structural cross section and consequently a
higher cost. CONCRETE- composite material in cement and water that are generally used as a binding material for sand and aggregates
The proper value of the factor of safety varies from one structure to another and depends on several factors, including
the PROPERTIES OF GOOD CONCRETE
▪ cost of unpredictable failure in lives, dollars, and time, 1. STRENGTH- concrete should be able to withstand the stresses that is subjected to strong compression but weak
▪ variability in material properties, in tension
▪ degree of accuracy in considering all possible loads applied to the structure, such as earthquakes, 2. DURABILITY- durable enough to resist the effect of weathering agents
▪ possible misuse of the structure, such as improperly hanging an object from a truss roof, 3. DENSITY- should be well compacted so that there are no voids of hollows left
▪ degree of accuracy of considering the proper response of materials during design, such as assuming elastic response 4. WATER TIGHTNESS- used in water retaining structures such as dams, elevated tanks, and water reservoir
although the material might not be perfectly elastic. 5. WORKABILITY- property of a freshly mixed concrete which determines the ease and homogeneity with which it
can mixed, placed, consolidated AND FINISHED
6. RESISTANCE TO WATER AND TEAR- USED IN SLABS AND PAVEMENTS- Should withstand abrasive forces
TYPES OF CONCRETE Workability of Concrete
A. BINDING MATERIAL USED IN CONCRETE ➢ It is the amount of work required to place concrete and to compact it thoroughly.
➢ CEMENT CONCRETE- used in buildings and other important engineering works where strength and durability ➢ It increases with the addition of water but it reduces the strength that’s why it is not a desirable way of
are the prime importance increasing the workability.
➢ LIME CONCRETE- concrete consisting lime, fine aggregates and course aggregates ➢ Use of aggregates which are round and have smooth surface increases workability.
-Used for the sake of economy in foundation worksunder floors, inder roofs and where
➢ It could also be improved by adding air entraining agent such as vinsol resin or Darex.
cement is not cheaply and easily available in required quantity
➢ Use of Lisapole liquid at 30 cubic centimeter per bag of cement improves not only the workability but also the
B. DESIGN OF CONCRETE
water tightness of concrete.
➢ PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE - no reinforcement provided
➢ REINFORCE CEMENT CONCRETE - embedded for taking tensile stress ➢ It is better determined by compaction factor test.
➢ PRE-STRESSED CEMENET CONCRETE - highly compressive stresses are artificially induced before actual use
Compaction of Concrete
C. PURPOSE OF CONCRETE Compaction Factor Test
➢ VACUUM CONCRETE-entrained air and excess water is removed after placing it by suction using vacuum a. Cement concrete to be tested is placed in the hopper A and its bottom released. The concrete falling in hopper
pump B achieves some compaction.
➢ AIR ENTRAINED CONCRETE- prepared by mixing aluminum in it b. The bottom of hopper B is now released so that concrete now falls in cylinder C. Surplus concrete is removed
-Cellular or aerated concrete from the top of cylinder. Concrete in the cylinder is now weighed. Let this weight be W1.
-Used for lining walls and roots for heating and sound insulation purposes c. After cleaning the cylinder it is refilled with concrete in layers of 5cm each. Every layer of the concrete is
➢ LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE- prepared by using coke breeze, cinder or slag as coarse aggregate thoroughly compacted with an iron rod. Concrete in the cylinder will be weighed again and let this be W2.
-Used in making pre cast structural units for partition and walling lining d. The ration of the two weights is known as compaction factor. CF = W1/W2 e. A compaction factor of 0.85
represents a mix of poor workability, 0.92 represents medium and 0.95 represents good workability.
WATER CEMENT RATIO
Normal Construction -0.5 Compaction
Adding much water will reduce the strength of concrerte and can cause segregation ➢ It is very important in developing qualities like strength, durability, imperviousness by making the concrete
CONCRETE RATION QUANTITY WATER (LITERS) dense and free from voids.
1:3:6 64 ➢ For Reinforced concrete, compaction is done by pinning with an iron rod or even with trowel blade. ➢ Excess
1:2:4 30 tamping should be avoided as otherwise water, cement and finer particles would come to the surface and results
1:1.5:3 27 in non-uniform concreting.
1:1:2 25 ➢ For big works, compaction is done using a vibrator.
➢ The use of vibrator is best and the most efficient way of compacting concrete. It gives very dense concrete.
SLUMP TEST - test conducted before concrete to use for casting ➢ Over use of vibrator will make the concrete becomes non homogeneous.
-To determine the water content in concrete and workability
Curing
CONCRETE (CLASSIFICATION, PROPERTIES, TYPES AND TESTING) ➢ The process of keeping the concrete wet to enable it to attain full strength.
➢ This is to prevent loss of moisture from concrete due to evaporation or because of any other reasons
Equipment for Slump Test ➢ Curing should be done for a period of three weeks but not less than 10 days.
1. Base Plate
2. Trowel to mix concrete
3. Steel tamping rod Types of Cement
4. Slump Cone
5. Ruler • Rapid hardening or high early strength cement
• Quick setting cement
Slump Values: • High Alumina Cement
• Portland slag cement
Mass concrete work 2.5 to 5 cm • Low Heat Cement
Ordinary beams and slabs 5 to 10 cm • Air Entraining Cement
Columns and retaining walls 7.5 to 12.5 cm • White cement
• Coloured cement
• Portland Pozzolona cement
Composition of Cement

Calcium oxide (CaO) → 60 - 65% o Silica (SiO2) → 20 – 25% o Aluminum Oxide → 4 – 8% o Ferrous Oxide → 2 – 4% o
Apparatus Definition and Functions Photograph
Magnesium Oxide → 1 -3%
• a cylindrical glass or plastic vessel used for holding liquids
Basic Steps for Weight and absolute Volume Methods • a multipurpose piece of equipment used for containing a
Beaker chemical reaction, measuring liquids, heating them over
The basic steps required for determining mix design proportions for both weight and absolute volume methods are as Bunsen burners flame or collecting them in a titration
follows (Kosmatka et al., 2011): experiment
1. Evaluate strength requirements.
2. Determine the water–cement (water–cementitious materials) ratio required. • a relatively slim glass or plastic cylinder used specifically for
3. Evaluate coarse aggregate requirements. Graduated Cylinder
calibrating beakers or measuring a liquid's volume
■ maximum aggregate size of the coarse aggregate
■ quantity of the coarse aggregate
• is glassware used in laboratories for measuring volume in
4. Determine air entrainment requirements.
Volumetric Flask the preparation of solutions and holds a precise amount of
5. Evaluate workability requirements of the plastic concrete.
6. Estimate the water content requirements of the mix. liquid material when at room temperature
7. Determine cementing materials content and type needed. • used to extrude and trim soil samples from 35 mm to 100
8. Evaluate the need and application rate of admixtures. Soil Lathe
mm diameter to reduce samples
9. Evaluate fine aggregate requirements.
10. Determine moisture corrections • used with the stability compaction mold during the
11. Make and test trial mixes Compaction Pedestal compaction process of the specimen in Marshall stability
testing
ORDER OF OPERATIONS FOR CONCRETE
MIX DESIGN (Proportioning)
Trial mixes and Testing
High Voltage Sieve • preferably used for long or fibrous, needle-shaped, or flat
Batching Shaker (Horizontal) materials
------------ start clock
Mixing • separates particles by passing them through a series of
Transporting High Voltage Sieve
chambers with mesh filters and agitating the sample to
Pouring (placing) Shaker (Vertical)
---------- SAMPLING & TESTING
obtain complete separation
Vibrating (Consolidating)
-------- INITIAL TEST • a tool that uses metal cloth with holes in it to separate
Test Sieve
Finishing particles from materials
------ FINAL SET
Curing
Maintenance Motorized California • used to measure the strength of subgrade soil and highway
Bearing Machine subbase and subgrade via a penetration test
STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
Variations in materials, batching, and mixing of concrete results in deviations in the strength of the concrete
produced by a plant. the materials engineer designs the concrete to have an average strength greater than the strength • a penetration device used in testing of hydraulic cements
specified by the structural engineer. Vicat Apparatus and similar materials to determine their normal or standard
consistency
In order to compute the strength requirements for concrete mix design, three quantities must be known:
1. the specified compressive strength f′c
2. the variability or standard deviation s of the concrete Electric Strain Direct • mainly used in the compression and shear characteristic of
3. the allowable risk of making concrete with an unacceptable strength Shear Apparatus non-saturating soil

The standard deviation in the strength is determined for a plant by making batches of concrete, testing the • designed for measuring resistance to plastic flow of
strength for many samples, and computing the standard deviation Marshall Stability
cylindrical specimens of bituminous paving mixture loaded
Testing Apparatus
on the lateral surface
 • are used to sterilize biohazard waste, dissecting
instruments or media/reagents for aseptic assays
Oven Thermo- • used for creating and/or molding concrete hollow blocks
• also used for drying, heating, testing environmental Manual CHB Molder
Controlled for construction, manually
stresses, such as changes in temperature, light and
humidity
Field Density Test • conducted in the field to know whether the specified
Manual and Motorized Apparatus compaction is achieved or not
• used to determine the moisture content at which clay soils
Liquid Limit Apparatus
pass from plastic to liquid state
(Casagrande Cup) • used to produce smooth and accurate holes in a workpiece
Boring Tool
by enlarging existing holes with a bore
• to measure the mechanical properties of many deformable
Triaxial Shear Test
solids, especially soil (e.g., sand, clay) and rock

• measuring the distance between two opposite sides of a Concrete Molder • used to form rectangular solid concrete blocks which are
Vernier Caliper
surface (Rectangular) ideal for large-scale projects such as force-bearing walls

Permeability Testing • used to assess natural soils, fills, or clay liners in

Machine environmental and geotechnical applications
Concrete Molder • used to form specimens for testing compressive strength or
• a typical instrument used to measure the mass of various (Cube/Square) serve as sample containers for set-time testing
Triple Beam Balance
objects precisely

Weighing Balance
• a device used to measure mass or weight
(Digital)

Universal Tensile
• used to test the tensile strength and compressive strength
Machine (Universal
of materials
Testing Machine)

• performed for acceptance purposes, to record mixture

Gilson Slump Cone Test characteristics, or as an indirect method of determining the
water/cement ratio

Concrete Molder
• used to create cylinder test specimens
(Cylinder)

• eliminate air voids in concrete when making slump tests,

Tamping Rod concrete cylinders or conducting concrete air entrainment
test