Recall from Monday - 1

▪ Proposition 1: The following three statements are

equivalent:
a) PMI
b) SPMI
c) WOP.
▪ Proof: This proof was done in class on Wednesday.
• Remark: Proposition 1 shows that if we adopt any of these three as
an axiom for N, i.e. a statement whose truth is assumed to hold,
then the others will follow as theorems for N. In the standard axiom
system for N, the so-called Peano Axioms, PMI is taken as an
axiom.

 Recall from Monday - 2

▪ Remark: In practice, we frequently use the
following form of PMI as a proof technique: Let X
⊆ N, and suppose the following conditions hold
for X:
i. X is non-empty, i.e. α ∈ X for some α ∈ N
ii. If n ∈ X, then n + 1 ∈ X also.
Then X = {n ∈ N: n ≥ α}.
• Remark: The above formulation can be used for SPMI also. In this
situation, while writing proofs, i. is usually referred to as the base
case, and the premise of ii. is referred to as the Inductive
Hypothesis (IH). Proving the conclusion of ii. is referred to as the
the Inductive Step.

 Something to Think About - 1

• Consider a 2n×2n chessboard with one

arbitrarily chosen square removed. Show
that any such modified chessboard can be
tiled without gaps or overlaps by L-shapes
consisting of three squares each, for n ≥ 1.
(Remark: If you require more explanation,
this is Q6/p23 of M&N. )
 Something to Think About - 2
• Consider the following assertion: If we have n lines in the plane, n
≥ 1, no two of which are parallel, then they all go through a single
point.
• Proof: Clearly this holds for n = 1 and 2. Suppose it holds for n
lines, and consider the n + 1 lines {a, b, c, d,…..}, no two of which
are parallel. Delete c. We are left with n lines, so by the IH, they
pass through a single point P, which in particular is the point of
intersection of a and b. Now put c back and delete d. Again by the
IH, these n lines pass through a single point P’. And again, this has
to be the intersection point of a and b, i.e. P’ =P. So all the n + 1
lines pass through P. By PMI, the assertion holds for all n ≥ 1.
• Remark: But obviously the assertion is false. What is wrong with
the proof ?

 FUNCTIONS - 1
• Definition: Let X and Y be non-empty sets (not necessarily
distinct). Then a function on X to Y is a subset f of X×Y
with the additional property that for each x∈ X, there is
exactly one ordered pair (x,y) ∈ f. In other words, each x∈
X occurs as the first component in only one ordered pair in f.
• Terminology: X is referred to as the domain of f, and Y is
referred to as the codomain of f. Note that the uniqueness
condition in the definition only applies to elements of the
domain. In other words, for a y ∈ Y, there could be zero, one
or many ordered pairs in f with y as the second component.

 FUNCTIONS - 2
• Remark: The formal definition of a function is as a set of
ordered pairs (as in the preceding slide). However, the notion
of a function f is usually introduced as a rule, which assigns
a unique element of the codomain to each and every element
of the domain. This is indicated by the notation f: X→ Y.
For any x ∈ X, the element y ∈ Y assigned to x by f is
notated as f(x), or by the notation x → y (M&N uses a
slightly different arrow), and referred to as the image of x.
The subset {y ∈ Y: y = f(x) for some x∈ X} is notated as
f(X) and referred to as the image of X or the range of f. We
will frequently use this more familiar approach and the
related notation and terminology.
 FUNCTIONS - 3
• Definition (Composition of Functions): If f: X → Y. and g:
Y → Z are functions, we can introduce a new function h: X
→ Z by the rule h(x) = g(f(x)) for every x ∈ X. This function
is known as the composition of the functions g and f, and is
denoted by g•f. It is not always possible to define the
composition of functions, but if we restrict ourselves to the
special case that X = Y = Z, then the composition is always
defined. Provided we are in this situation, we often will use
the simpler notation gf for the composition of the functions g
and f.
• Remark: There is a very nice example and illustration on pages
27-28 of M&N. BTW, when using this simpler approach to functions,
the subset {(x,f(x)); x ∈ X} is often referred to as the graph of f.

 FUNCTIONS - 4
▪ Definition (Special Types of Functions): Let f: X → Y. ne a
function. Then, f is said to be:
• one-to-one or injective or an injection if every y ∈ Y has at most
one incoming arrow;
• onto or surjective or a surjection if every y ∈ Y has at least one
incoming arrow;
• bijective or a bijection if every y ∈ Y has exactly one incoming
arrow.
• Remark: If f is surjective, then the range and codomain of f
are the same set. If X and Y are finite sets, then there is a
bijection on X to Y if and only if |X| = |Y|.
• Something to Think About: If X and Y are finite sets with |
X| = |Y|, then a function f: X → Y is surjective iff it is injective.

 FUNCTIONS - 5

• Proposition 2 (Simple Properties of Functions): Let f: X

→ Y. and g: Y → Z be functions. Then:
i. If f and g are injective, then g•f is also injective.
ii. If f and g are surjective, then g•f is also surjective.
iii. If f and g are bijective, then g•f is also bijective.
iv. For any function f: X → Y, there exists a set Z, an injective
function h: Z → Y, and a surjective function g: X → Z such
that f = h•g. In other word, every function can be
decomposed as the composition of a surjective function
followed by an injective function.
▪ Proof: Left as an exercise – this should be familiar, but you
can try to write a proof using only the definitions above.

 RELATIONS - 1
▪ Definition: Let X1, X2, …….,, Xn be an ordered list of non-
empty sets. Then a relation R on the list is a subset of the
cartesian product X1×X2× ….× Xn, i.e. R ⊆ X1×X2× .× Xn.
▪ Remark 1: This is a more general definition than the one in
M&N, which only considers the case n = 2. Such relations
are also called binary relations, and for the moist part we
will be concerned with this case only.
▪ Remark 2: The general case was not considered very
important until the advent of computer databases. In the
relational model, a database is simply a family of relations.
This has led to a great expansion in the study of relational
algebra, which we will not deal with in the course, but you
will certainly encounter later !.

 RELATIONS - 2
▪ For the time being, we will only consider binary relations.
▪ Terminology and Notation: Let R be a relation on X and Y.
If (x,y) ∈ R, we say that x and y are related. This is also
written xRy.
▪ Remark 1: Relations occur very frequently in mathematics.
The word relationship is also very common in day-to-day
life, and so relations often provide a convenient
mathematical model for other disciplines.
▪ Remark 2: Note that a function is also a relation, i.e. the
study of functions is a special case of the study of relations.
However, it is so important, that it is usually considered
separately.

 RELATIONS - 3
▪ Representing Relations: Apart from the standard method of
representing a relation as a set of ordered pairs, either by
stating the ordered pairs or by set builder notation, relations
can be represented in the following ways:
▪ As a (0,1) matrix
▪ Pictorially, as a rectangular grid with cells in the relation and those
not in the relation coloured differently.
▪ Pictorially, by representing elements of X and Y as points in
separate regions, and joining points which represent related
elements.
You are probably familiar with these approaches; you may consult
M&N if you need more explanation.

 RELATIONS - 4
• Definition (Composition of Relations): Let X, Y, Z be sets
and let R ⊆ X×Y and S ⊆ Y×Z ne relations. The composition
of the relations R and S is the relation T ⊆ X×Z defined as
follows: for a given x ∈ X and a given z ∈ Z, xTz holds if
and only if there is an element y∈ Y such that xRy and ySz.
The usual notation for this is R•S. Remark: Just as with
composition of functions, you would have noticed two
things: the composion of relations is not always defined and,
even if it is defined, composition is not commutative.
However, it is defined if R and S are both relations on the
same set X, i.e. subsets of X×X. You would also have
noticed that the notation is different !