EARTH SCIENCE MIDTERMS REVIEWER generally up to 2 km.

below the surface of the

earth.
ROCKS/ROCK CYCLE
INTRUSIVE AND EXTRUSIVE
Intrusive- magma cools slowly, large crystal form

Ex: granite, pegmatite

Extrusive- lava cools quickly, small or no crystal form,

may be vesicular, contains air bubbles

Ex: basalt, obsidian

* Name Terminology*
➔ Geology- earth
➔ Petrology- rocks
How do we classify rocks? ➔ Mineralogy- minerals

We classify rocks according to how they formed. Layers of the Earth:

Volcanic Eruption 1. Crust- oceanic, continental

➔ Ash cloud
➔ Crater: the mouth of volcano
➔ Conduit: underground passage
➔ Vent (Esophagus): opening in the surface
➔ Magma chamber: large underground pool of liquid
rock
Lava - flow-out/liquid rock
2. Mantle- lower, upper
3. Core- inner, outer
How to look for Sedimentary Rocks?
Sedimentary rock is often found in layers. One way to tell
if a rock sample is sedimentary is to see if it is made from
grains. Some samples of sedimentary rocks include
limestone, sandstone, coal and shale.

Magma - inside/runny or viscous - Generally formed from the compaction and

cementation of sediments.
How to look for Igneous Rocks? - Sediments are fragments of rock that have been
Igneous rocks form when magma from inside the Earth broken down as a result of weathering (wind, ice,
moves toward the surface, or is forced above the Earth’s running water, etc.)
surface as lava and ash by a volcano. Here it cools and - Sedimentary rocks accumulate on Earth’s surface
crystallizes into rock. Look for crystals in igneous rocks. in a process called deposition.
- The process by which these unconsolidated
Examples: gabbro, granite, pumice and obsidian. materials become solidified into rock is called
lithification.
Igneous Rock
Clastic- Compacted and cemented sediments.
- A rock that has formed from the cooling and
solidification of magma or lava. Ex: Conglomerate, Breccia, sandstone, siltstone, shale.
- “igneous” from the Latin ignis meaning fire.
Organic/Crystalline- Evaporates, precipitates, biological
Types of Igneous Rocks matter.
a. Volcanic Rocks (extrusive)- igneous rocks formed Ex: rock salt, gypsum, dolostone, coal.
on the surface of the earth by cooling and
crystallization of lava erupted from volcanoes. How Sedimentary Rocks are formed
The grain size of the crystals formed in these ➔ weathering
rocks are very fine and microscopic. ➔ erosion
b. Plutonic rocks (intrusive)- These are igneous ➔ deposition
rocks formed at considerable depths generally ➔ burial
between 7-10km below the surface of the earth. ➔ compaction
c. Hypabyssal rocks (intrusive)- These igneous ➔ cementation
rocks are formed at intermediate depths ,
ⓒ Ella
How to look for Metamorphic Rocks?
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have become changed
by intense heat or pressure while forming. One way to tell
if a rock sample is metamorphic is to see if the crystals
within it are arranged in bands.
Examples of metamorphic rocks are marble, schist,
gneiss, and slate.
TWO TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
1. CONTACT METAMORPHISM- heat
2. REGIONAL METAMORPHISM- pressure
CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. Foliated rocks- have distinct banding or layers
that formed perpendicular to pressure.
2. Non-foliated rocks- crystals with blocky shapes
and do not have banding.
Rock Cycle
MINERALS
Mineralogy
⮚ Branch of Geology that deals with the study of
Minerals.
⮚ Is the study of the composition, crystal
structure, and physical and optical properties of
minerals.
⮚ The solid crust of the Earth is made up of rocks.
Rocks are aggregates of minerals.
⮚ The property of rock is in turn based on the
property of the Minerals present in it, based on
which it can be used suitably
What are Minerals?
Minerals- A naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has
crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition.
- Quartz, Biotite, Potassium, Feldspar, Mica
- There are over 2,000 varieties of minerals on
Earth
- There are about 3,000 known minerals, 20
minerals make up most rocks.
FIVE CRITERIA
1. The substance must exist as a SOLID under
normal conditions on earth.
2. The substance must be NATURALLY OCCURRING
on earth, not man-made.
3. The substance must be INORGANIC (does not
contain carbon), not living or made from living
things.
4. The substance must have a FIXED CHEMICAL
FORMULA, made of specific elements.
5. The atoms that make up the substance must be
arranged in an ORDERLY STRUCTURE.
Non-Mineral Characteristics
➔ Artificial
➔ Liquid/gas
➔ Organic
ATOMS COMBINE TO FORM ELEMENTS
Elements- fundamental components that can not be
broken down into other substances by ordinary chemical
processes. They combine to form minerals.
➔ Pyrite- FeS2
➔ Quartz- SiO2
➔ Glucose (Sugar)- C6H12O5
➔ Silica Tetrahedra- SiO4
Compound- more than 1 element
GENERAL FACTS ABOUT MINERALS
- A few are “native elements” made of only one
element, such as sulfur, gold, copper, and
graphite (carbon)
- Most are compounds, especially the silicate
groups (Si, O)
- Other important groups are oxides, carbonates,
and sulfides.
ⓒ Ella

Mercury- the only naturally occurring liquid metal at room
temperature. Since it lacks a crystal structure, mercury is
technically not a mineral but is a MINERALOID
(Hydrargyrum “latin term”).
- Is officially classed as a mineral species for
historical reasons, and also because it is
distinctive in its chemical and physical
properties. However, because it occurs as liquid,
it does not satisfy the normal criteria to be a
valid mineral.
MINERAL FORMATION
- CRYSTALLIZE FROM MAGMA TO LAVA,
solidification of liquid magma/lava to solid with a
definite internal arrangement of atoms into a
regular repeating pattern
- PRECIPITATE FROM SOLUTION, dissolved minerals
come out of solution (water) to form solids.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
- A mineral’s physical properties are controlled by
its internal arrangement of atoms. Regularly
repeating, orderly pattern.
1. LUSTER
- Refers to the quality of light on the surface of a rock,
crystal, or mineral.
• A mineral with high luster is very reflective.
• There are several ranges of terms used to
describe a mineral’s luster.
➔ Greasy
➔ Silky
➔ Metallic or Nonmetallic
➔ Earthy
➔ Vitreous
2. COLOR
-It is caused by the absorption, or lack thereof, of visible
light by their crystalline structure
-Color is not a reliable characteristic to use for
identification.
3. STREAK
-Is the color of the powdered mineral produced when it is
dragged across an unweathered surface.
-Streak color is particularly useful in distinguishing
metallic minerals, such as hematite and galena, that look
very similar.
-Non metallic minerals usually have a colorless or white
streak
-Black, green, red (metallic)
4. HARDNESS
- Is a mineral’s ability to resist scratching or
abrasion.
- Hardness is determined by comparing the relative
hardness of an unknown specimen with another
mineral with known hardness.
- Mineral samples are tested for hardness against
a set of index minerals scaled from 1 (softest) to
10 (hardest). This is also known as Mohs Scale
of Hardness.
5. CLEAVAGE
- Is the tendency of a mineral to split or cleave
along planes of weakness.
6. FRACTURE
- Is the tendency of a mineral to break unevenly or
irregularly.
➔ Even- straight cut
➔ Uneven- rough cut
7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- Is a measure of relative density of a mineral.
- It is determined by comparing its relative mass
to water.
- A mineral with a specific gravity of 3.0 is three
times heavier than an equal volume of water.
- Specific gravity is not expressed in units of any
kind, as it is a ratio.
- Mass of mineral/ mass of equal vol of water.
ⓒ Ella
 8. CRYSTAL FORM -Translucent minerals transmit light (partially let light
pass through).
- Minerals can form from volcanic gases, sediment
formation, oxidation, crystallization from magma, -Light is able to pass through transparent minerals.
or deposition from a saline fluid.
- Minerals form when atoms bond together in a -Opaque minerals do not let any light through.
crystalline arrangement.

Three main ways this occurs in nature are:

1) precipitation directly from an aqueous (water) solution
with a temperature change.
2) crystallization from a magma with a temperature
change.
3) biological precipitation by the action of organisms.

9. TENACITY
- Refers to a mineral's resistance to breaking, bending, or
otherwise being deformed.

-The force of strength with which the particles (or

molecules) of a mineral or rock hold together or resist
separation. The terms commonly used to describe the
tenacity of a mineral are friable, brittle, sectile, malleable,
flexible, elastic, and tough.

❖ Ex. Cu & Ag
How do you find the tenacity of a mineral?

10. DIAPHANEITY
- Refers to a mineral's ability to transmit light.

-Minerals that do not transmit light as well as clear

calcite may be translucent.

ⓒ Ella