ICSE CHEMISTRY SEMESTER - II

CHEMISTRY SIMPLIFIED NOTES by VK SIR – SISHYA, CHENNAI

METALLURGY
MINERALS
Minerals are compounds of metals that are naturally occurring in the earth’s crust.

ORE
Ore is a mineral from which the metal is extracted easily and profitably.
IMPORTANT ORES OF SOME METALS

Metal Ore Chemical Formula Chemical Name

Iron i) Haematite Fe2O3 Iron(III) oxide

ii) Magnetite Fe3O4 Tri iron tetraoxide

Aluminium i) Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Hydrated aluminium oxide

ii) Cryolite Na3AlF6 Sodium aluminium fluoride

zinc i) Zinc blende ZnS Zinc sulphide

ii) Calamine ZnCO3 Zinc carbonate

ALLOYS
Alloy is a homogeneous mixture of metals, where a base metal is taken andother metals are added to
it in certain fixed ratios to achieve the desirable properties.
Note: usually only metals are mixed to form the alloys, only in stainless steel alloy, a non-metal carbon is
mixed along with the metals.

ALLOYS OF ALUMINIUM

Name of the Alloy Composition Uses Reason for adding

the metal
i)Duralumin Al -95% For making aircrafts Aluminium imparts
Cu- 4% And light tools. Lightness and Magnesium
imparts strength
Mg -0.5%
Mn -0.5%
ii) Magnalium Al-95% For making light tools Magnesium imparts strength
Mg -5%

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EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM
Name of the ore: Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O)

Concentration of bauxite to alumina:

Concentration of bauxite ore is done by BAEYER’S PROCESS.
In Baeyer’s process, the impurities are removed by making use of the amphoteric nature of bauxite, bauxite
can be leached with sodium hydroxide whereas the impurities are washed away.

Step-1
Converting bauxite to sodium aluminate by reaction with sodium hydroxide

Al2O3.2H2O + 2 NaOH 2 NaAlO2 + 3 H2O

Step-2
Sodium aluminate is heated with water to precipitate aluminium hydroxide

NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3

Step-3
Aluminium hydroxide is heated to remove water and obtain pure alumina

1100C
2 Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O

Note: the formula of pure alumina is Al2O3.

Electrolytic reduction of alumina to aluminium.

The process of electrolytic reduction of alumina to aluminium is called Hall – Heroult’s process.

1) Why aluminium is reduced only by electrolytic method and not by using conventional reducing agents?
Aluminium is a highly electropositive metal and it has strong affinity for oxygen,the Al-O bond is very
strong, which cannot be broken down by conventional reducing agents, hence electrolysis is required to
break the bond.

2) Why a mixture of electrolytes is taken for the electrolytic reduction of alumina?

• The fusion temperature of alumina is around 20500C.
• pure alumina is almost a non-conductor.

3) Name the electrolytes used in the process and their ratio:

Alumina - Al2O3 - 1 part (20%)

Cryolite - Na3AlF6 - 3 part (60%)
Fluorspar - CaF2 - 1 part (20%)

4) what is the role of cryolite?

• Cryolite reduces the fusion temperature from 20500C to 9500C.
• It increases the mobility and conductivity of the electrolytes used.
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5) what is the role of Fluorspar?
Fluorspar along with cryolite helps in reducing the fusion temperature and increasing the mobility and
conductivity of the electrolytes.

Cathode and anode:

Cathode : carbon lining (made of gas carbon)

Anode : graphite rods.

Reaction at cathode during electrolysis:

4 Al3+ + 12 e- 4 Al

Product formed at the cathode is aluminium.

Reaction at anode during electrolysis:

6 O2- - 12 e- 3 O2

Product formed at the anode is oxygen only.

The above equations can be written with any correct balancing numbers, I have chosen the above balancing
numbers to show you, during electrolysis, the numberof electrons involved in the cathode and anode must
generally be the same.

6) why the graphite rods are replaced periodically during this process?
The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts with the graphite rods and converts them to carbon monoxide
or carbon dioxide.

7) why coke is sprinkled over the electrolyte?

• To prevent the burning of graphite rods by the oxygen evolved at anode
• To prevent the heat loss by radiation.

8) why further purification of aluminium is not required?

Aluminium is obtained by electrolysis process only and hence further purification not required.

Note: if at all further purification is required, it is done by a process called Hoope’s process which is not
required for our syllabus.

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 HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
LAB PREPARATION
Reaction for the lab preparation:
Less than 200C
NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl
(conc)

Reasoning questions based on the lab preparation of hydrogen chloride gas

1) Why the temperature should not exceed 2000C?

When heated above 2000C, along with HCl gas sodium sulphate is formed which forms a hard crust and
sticks on to the glass, that is difficult to be removed.

2) Name the drying agent used in the lab preparation of HCl gas:
Conc. Sulphuric acid

3) Why other drying agents like CaO and P2O5 are not used in the lab preparation of HCl gas?
Because they chemically react with HCl gas

4) How HCl gas is collected?

HCl gas is collected by upward displacement of air and it is not collected over water as it is highly soluble
in water.

5) Why HCl gas fumes in moist air?

HCl gas is highly soluble in water, hence it dissolves in the moisture present in the air and fumes.

6) Why conc. Nitric acid cannot be used in the place of conc.sulphuric acid as reactant?
Conc. Nitric acid is volatile and hence its vapours will mix with the HCl gas, whereas conc.sulphuric acid
is non-volatile acid.

BURNING CANDLE EXPERIMENT

Aim of the experiment - To prove that HCl gas is heavier than air.

Observation - when HCl gas fills the beaker, the air inside the beaker gets displaced and hence the candle
gets extinguished. This proves that HCl gas is heavier than air.

RED FOUNDTAIN EXPERIMENT

Aim of the experiment - To prove HCl gas is highly soluble in water

Observation - Blue litmus solution raises through the jet tube and comes out as red fountain.

PREPARATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID:

1) How hydrochloric acid is prepared in the lab?

Hydrochloric acid is prepared in the lab by dissolving HCl gas in water using a special funnel arrangement.

2) Why the special or inverted funnel arrangement is required?

To avoid back suction.

3) How the inverted funnel arrangement prevents the back suction?

The rim of the funnel provides larger surface area and hence water falls back into the beaker.
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Note: children who wants to score full marks learn all the reactions with balancing.

If you are unable to learn the reactions, leave out the reactions.
Atleast learn only the gas evolved and observations for each of the chemical properties.

Also you need to understand, you need to learn only the general reaction and then try to write the chemical
equation on your own and then do the balancing.

1) Reaction with active metals:

Metal + HCl → metal chloride + H2

Ca + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

Gas evolved: hydrogen

Observation: gas evolved extinguishes the burning splint with a pop sound.

2) Reaction with metal oxide/ hydroxide

Metal oxide/ hydroxide + HCl → Metal chloride + H2O

KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + H2O

CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O

(black solid) (green solution)

3) Reaction with metal carbonate/bicarbonate

Metal carbonate/bicarbonate + HCl → Metal chloride + CO2 + H2O

Na2CO3 + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O

K2CO3 + 2 HCl → 2 KCl + CO2 + H2O
CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
MgCO3 + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + CO2 + H2O
ZnCO3 + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + CO2 + H2O

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + CO2 + H2O

KHCO3 + HCl → KCl + CO2 + H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O

Gas evolved: carbon dioxide

Observation: Gas evolved turns lime water milky and has no effect on passing through acidified potassium
dichromate solution.

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 4) Reaction with metal sulphite

Metal sulphite + HCl → Metal chloride + SO2 + H2O

Na2SO3 + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + SO2 + H2O

K2SO3 + 2 HCl → 2 KCl + SO2 + H2O

Gas evolved: sulphur dioxide

Observation: Gas evolved turns lime water milky and on passing through acidified potassium dichromate
solution changes the colour of the solution from orange to green.

5) Reaction with metal sulphide

Metal sulphide + HCl → Metal chloride + H2S

Na2S + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + H2S

K2S + 2 HCl → 2 KCl + H2 S
MgS + 2 HCl → MgCl2 + H2S
ZnS + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 + H2S

Gas evolved: hydrogen sulphide

Observation: Gas evolved has rotten egg smell and can turn the lead acetate paper to silvery black.

6) Reaction with lead nitrate

Pb(NO3)2 + 2HCl → PbCl2 + 2HNO3

Observation: A white precipitate is formed.

This white precipitate formed dissolves on heating.

Note: this above equation is important, because it can be asked as equation, observation and also this is
very useful for the distinguished based questions.

7) Reaction with silver nitrate

AgNO3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO3

Observation: A curdy white precipitate is formed.

This white precipitate does not dissolve on heating but it is
Soluble on adding excess ammonium hydroxide.

How will you distinguish between the following:

1) Sodium carbonate and sodium sulphite
2) Lead nitrate and silver nitrate

Sodium carbonate Sodium sulphite

Adding dil.HCl to both and the gas Gas is evolved that does not Gas evolved changes the colour
evolved is passed through acidified show any effect of solution from orange to green
potassium dichromate solution

Lead nitrate Silver nitrate

Adding dil.HCl followed by heating White precipitate is formed White precipitate is formed that
that dissolves on heating. does not dissolve on heating.

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 AMMONIA
LAB PREPARATION OF AMMONIA

2 NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2 NH3 + 2H2O

NH4Cl + NaOH NaCl + NH3 + H2 O
Any ammonium salt + NaOH/KOH on heating liberates ammonia gas.
Reasoning questions based on the lab preparation of ammonia gas:

1) Why calcium hydroxide is used and not sodium hydroxide as reactant?

Sodium hydroxide is deliquescent and calcium hydroxide is not deliquescent.

2) Why the round bottom flask is kept in an inclined position?

It is kept in the inclined position so that the water vapour formed may not trickle back and crack
the flask.

3) Name the drying agent used in the lab preparation of ammonia:

Quick lime (Calcium oxide)

4) Why other drying agents like conc.sulphuric acid and phosphorous pentoxide not used?
Because they chemically react with ammonia.

5) Why ammonium nitrate cannot be used for the lab preparation of ammonia?
Because it is an explosive.

6) How ammonia gas is collected?

Ammonia gas is collected by downward displacement of air and not over water as ammonia gas is
highly soluble in water.

7) How ammonia gas is tested?

It turns moist red litmus paper blue.
It gives dense white fumes with a glass rod dipped in conc.HCl
When passed through Nessler’s reagent, it produces brown ppt.

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF AMMONIA

Name of the process: Haber’s process

Reaction:
N2 + 3 H2 2 NH3

Conditions:
Optimum temperature: 450 – 5000C
Optimum pressure : 200- 800 atm
Catalyst : finely powdered iron
Promoter : molybdenum.

BLUE FOUNTAIN EXPERIMENT

Aim of the experiment: To prove the high solubility of ammonia gas in water.
Observation: The red litmus solution raises through the jet tube and comes out as blue fountain in the flask.
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS:
1) Reaction of ammonia gas with acids.
NH3 + HCl NH4Cl
NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3

2) Reaction with oxygen

a) With catalyst
Pt
4 NH3 + 5 O2 4 NO + 6 H2O
0
800 C
The above reaction is the first step in the industrial preparation of nitric acid known as Ostwald’s
process.

b) Without catalyst (burning in the presence of oxygen)

4 NH3 + 3O2 2 N2 + 6 H2O

Observation: Ammonia burns with a green flame

3) Reaction with lead oxide and copper oxide

Note: In this reaction ammonia gas acts as reducing agent and reduces the metal oxides to
corresponding metals with the evolution of nitrogen gas.

a) 3 CuO + 2 NH3 3Cu + N2 + 3H2O

Gas evolved: nitrogen
Observation: black colour solid on heating changes to reddish brown solid.

b) 3 PbO + 2 NH3 3Pb + N2 + 3H2O

Gas evolved: nitrogen
Observation: yellow colour solid on heating changes to grey coloured solid.

4) Reaction with chlorine

a) Ammonia with excess chlorine

NH3 + 3Cl2 NCl3 + 3 HCl

Gas evolved: hydrogen chloride

Observation: NCl3 that is formed is a yellow oily explosive liquid.

b) Excess ammonia with chlorine

8 NH3 + 3 Cl2 6 NH4Cl + N2

Gas evolved: nitrogen

Observation: dense white fumes are evolved.

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 NITRIC ACID
LAB PREPARATION
Reaction:
Less than 200C
NaNO3 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HNO3
(conc)

Reasoning questions based on the lab preparation of nitric acid:

1) Why the temperature should not exceed 2000C?

When heated above 2000C, along with nitric acid sodium sulphate is formed which forms a hard crust and
sticks on to the glass, that is difficult to be removed.

2) Why conc. HCl cannot be used in the place of conc.sulphuric acid as reactant?
Conc. HCl is volatile and hence its vapours will mix with the nitric acid whereas conc.sulphuric acid is
non-volatile acid.

3) Why a complete glass retort is used for the preparation?

Nitric acid is corrosive and hence can attack the materials like rubber, cork and plastic.

4) Why the nitric acid prepared in the lab has slight yellow colour?
Nitric acid decomposes and produces nitrogen dioxide which is a reddish brown fumes which when
dissolved in nitric acid gives a pale yellow colour.

INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE OF NITRIC ACID

Name of the process: Ostwald’s process

Step-1
Pt
4 NH3 + 5 O2 4 NO + 6 H2O
0
800 C
Step-2
2 NO + O2 2 NO2
Step -3
4 NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4 HNO3

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NITRIC ACID

Note: in all the reactions given below, nitric acid always acts as an oxidizing agent.
1) Reaction of copper with dil.nitric acid
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO + 4 H2O

Gas evolved: nitric oxide

Observation: reddish brown solid changes to blue colour solution.

2) Reaction of copper with conc. Nitric acid

Cu + 4 HNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO2 + 2 H2O

Gas evolved: nitrogen dioxide

Observation: reddish brown fumes are evolved
Reddish brown solid changes to blue colour solution.
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 3) Reaction of carbon with conc.nitric acid
C + 4 HNO3 CO2 + 4 NO2 + 2 H2O

Gases evolved: carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide

Observations: reddish brown fumes are evolved.

4) Reaction of sulphur with conc.nitric acid

S + 6 HNO3 H2SO4 + 6 NO2 + 2 H2O

Gas evolved: nitrogen dioxide

Observation: reddish brown fumes are evolved.

Note: Sulphur is a yellow colour non metal.

Also, the above equation can be asked like a reaction to prepare sulphuric acid from a non metal.

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 SULPHURIC ACID
INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

Name of the process: Contact process

Reactions:
Step -1) Iron pyrites to sulphur dioxide

4 FeS2 + 11 O2 2 Fe2O3 + 8 SO2

Step-2) important step or catalytic step- conversion of SO2 to SO3

2 SO2 + O2 2 SO3

Optimum temperature - 450 to 5000C

Optimum pressure - 1 to 2 atm
Catalyst - vanadium pentoxide
Step-3) converting SO3 to oleum

SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7

Why SO3 is not directly absorbed in water to make sulphuric acid?

The absorption of SO3 in water is highly exothermic and so the sulphuric acid formed will vaporize
and forms like a mist, this is difficult to condense back.

Step -4) Dilution of oleum to sulphuric acid

H2S2O7 + H2O 2 H2SO4

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SULPHURIC ACID

A. SULPHURIC ACID AS A DIBASIC ACID

In the following reactions, the role of sulphuric acid will be as a dibasic acid.

1) Reaction with active metals:

Metal + H2SO4 metal sulphate + H2

Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2

Gas evolved: hydrogen

Observation: gas evolved extinguishes the burning splint with a pop sound.

2) Reaction with metal oxide/ hydroxide

Metal oxide/ hydroxide + H2SO4 Metal sulphate + H2O

2 KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2 H2O

2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2 H2O

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 3) Reaction with metal carbonate/bicarbonate

Metal carbonate/bicarbonate + H2SO4 Metal sulphate + CO2 + H2O

Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + CO2 + H2O

MgCO3 + H2SO4 MgSO4 + CO2 + H2O

2 NaHCO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O

Gas evolved: carbon dioxide

Observation: Gas evolved turns lime water milky and has no effect on passing through acidified potassium
dichromate solution.

4) Reaction with metal sulphite

Metal sulphite + H2SO4 Metal sulpahte + SO2 + H2O

Na2SO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + SO2 + H2 O

Gas evolved: sulphur dioxide

Observation: Gas evolved turns lime water milky and on passing through acidified potassium dichromate
solution changes the colour of the solution from orange to green.

5) Reaction with metal sulphide

Metal sulphide + H2SO4 Metal sulphate + H2S

Na2S + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2S

ZnS + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2S

Gas evolved: hydrogen sulphide

Observation: Gas evolved has rotten egg smell and can turn the lead acetate paper to silvery black.

B. Conc. Sulphuric acid acts as oxidizing agent.

C + 2H2SO4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 2SO2

S + 2 H2SO4 3 SO2 + 2 H2O

C. Conc. Sulphuric acid as non volatile acid.

NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl

KCl + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HCl

NaNO3 + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HNO3

KNO3 + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HNO3

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 D. Conc. Sulphuric acid as dehydrating agent
a) With copper sulphate crystals
Conc.H2SO4
CuSO4.5 H2O CuSO4 + 5 H2O

Observation: On adding conc.sulphuric acid to copper sulphate crystals, the blue colour crystal changes to
white powder.

b) With sugar crystals

Conc.H2SO4
C12H22O11 12 C + 11 H2O

Observation: On pouring conc.sulphuric acid over sugar crystals, a black spongy mass is formed.

Distinguish based questions asked in the specimen paper

Dil.HCl Dil.H2SO4
On adding lead nitrate solution White precipitate formed dissolves White precipitate is formed that
Followed by heating on heating does not dissolve on heating.
Dil.HCl Dil.HNO3
On adding silver nitrate solution Curdy white precipitate is formed No characteristic change

Dil.HNO3 Dil.H2SO4
Add freshly prepared FeSO4 with A brown ring appears No characteristic change
conc. sulphuric acid

Equation for the reaction between lead nitrate and sulphuric acid:

Pb(NO3)2 + H2SO4 PbSO4 + 2 HNO3

Observation: The white precipitate formed is insoluble on heating.

Equation for the reaction between barium chloride and sulphuric acid

BaCl2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + 2 HCl

Observation: White precipitate is formed, that does not dissolve in any mineral acids.

Extra distinguish based questions

Dil.HCl Conc. HCl
MnO2 + heating No gas evolved Greenish yellow gas evolved
Dil.H2SO4 Conc.H2SO4
With copper No characteristic change Colourless gas with choking odour that turns orange
acidified potassium dichromate solution into green

Dil.HNO3 Conc.HNO3
With copper Colourless gas is evolved Gas with Reddish brown fumes is evolved

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 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Divide organic chemistry into three parts for learning for the exams.
• First part is about learning the IUPAC names and the structures.
• Second part is about the concepts involved in organic chemistry
• Third part is about reactions involved in the syllabus.

IUPAC, COMMON NAMES AND STRUCTURES.

To do this first step is knowing the functional groups in organic chemistry.

What is a functional group?

An atom or group of atoms or double or triple bond that defines the physical and chemical properties of the
compound.

ALKANE - It is only made up of carbons and hydrogens, and each carbon atom is connected to other
carbon atom only by single bonds.

ALKENE - It is only made up of carbons and hydrogens, and in the carbon chain between any two carbon
atoms there will be a double bond present.

ALKYNE- It is only made up of carbons and hydrogens, and in the carbon chain between any two carbon
atoms there will be a triple bond present.

METHYL ALKANE - It is only made up of carbons and hydrogens, and each carbon atom is connected to
other carbon atom only by single bonds additionally a CH3 group is attached to any one of the internal carbons.

Note: The carbon atoms present in the two ends of the carbon chain are termed as terminal carbons and the
carbons that are present in-between these terminal carbons are called internal carbons.

A methyl group can only be attached to the internal carbons and never to the terminal ones.

CHLORO ALKANE – It is very similar to alkane and additionally there will be a chlorine atom attached to
any one of the carbon atom in the carbon chain.

BROMO ALKANE – It is very similar to alkane and additionally there will be a bromine atom attached to
any one of the carbon atom in the carbon chain.

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IODO ALKANE – It is very similar to alkane and additionally there will be an iodine atom attached to any
one of the carbon atom in the carbon chain.

ALCOHOLS - It is very similar to alkane and additionally there will be a ‘OH’ group attached to any one
of the carbon atom in the carbon chain.

ALDEHYDES - It is very similar to alkane and additionally there will be a ‘CHO’ group attached only to
the terminal carbon. The ‘CHO’ group can be written as follows.

CARBOXYLIC ACID - It is very similar to alkane and additionally there will be a ‘COOH’ group
attached only to the terminal carbon. The ‘COOH’ group can be written as follows.

NOTE: ONLY WHEN YOU HAVE A THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING THEN ONLY YOU NEED
TO LEARN THE BELOW WRITTEN MATERIALS.

IF NOT GO BACK ONCE AGAIN AND GET THOROUGH FOR IDENTIFICATION OF A

FUNCTIONAL GROUP.

ROOT WORD:
Root word is must for every organic compound, the root words are identified based on the number of carbon
atoms present in the longest chain

No. of carbon atoms Root word

1 meth
2 eth
3 prop
4 but
5 pent
6 hex
7 hept

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NUMBERING
If there can be more than two structures written with the same molecular formula, in order to differentiate
them numbering is required and the numbers are inserted along with the name in the organic compound.
Following examples can be considered.

Note:
i) The carbon atoms in the chain can be numbered from left to right or from right to left
ii) We need to choose the lowest number for the carbon that is attached to the functional group, then
include the number in the IUPAC name.
ONCE YOU UNDERSTOOD THE ABOVE WRITTEN THINGS, IT WILL BE EASIER TO NAME THE
COMPOUNDS USING THE CLUE WORDS GIVEN IN THE FOLLOWING TABLE
Functional group Clue words
alkane RW + ane
alkene No- RW + ene (or) Rw-No-ene
alkyne No - RW + yne (or) Rw-No-yne
Methyl alkane No-methyl + Rw + ane
Dimethyl alkane No,No-dimethyl + RW + ane
Chloro alkane No-chloro + RW + ane
Dichloro alkane No, No-dichloro + RW + ane
bromo alkane No-bromo + RW + ane
Dibromo alkane No, No-dibromo + RW + ane
alcohol No-Rw + an + ol (or) Rw + an-No-ol
aldehyde Rw + an + al
Carboxylic acid Rw + an + oic acid
Note: RW – Root word, No – number
PRACTICE ALL THE NAMES GIVEN IN THE QUESTION BANK AND ALSO THE STRUCTURES

IMPORTANT COMMON NAMES

IUPAC NAME COMMON NAME
ethene ethylene
ethyne acetylene
2-methylpropane isobutane
methanal formaldehyde
ethanal acetaldehyde
Methanoic acid Formic acid
Ethanoic acid Acetic acid
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SECOND PART - CONCEPTS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Saturated and Unsaturated compounds
Saturated compounds
• All the carbon atoms are connected only by
single bonds.
• They undergo only substitution reaction.
• They cannot decolorize bromine solution.
Unsaturated compounds
• Carbon atoms in the chain will have either
double or triple bond
• They undergo addition reaction.
• They decolorize the reddish brown colour
of bromine solution.

CATENATION
The ability of carbon atom to self-link with its own atom and form long chain and rings.

ISOMERISM
Organic compounds having same molecular formula, but different structural formula are called isomers,
this phenomenon is called isomerism.
There are two types of isomerism- chain and position isomerism

CHAIN ISOMERISM
Organic compounds having same molecular formula, but differing in the carbon chain length are called as
chain isomers.
Examples- butane and isobutane, butene and isobutene

POSITION ISOMERISM
Organic compounds having same molecular formula, but differing in the position of the functional group are
called position isomers.
Examples - but-1-ene and but-2-ene, propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol
Note: please refer the organic chemistry question bank for the questions based on isomerism

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Series of organic compounds which has same general formula but the successive members differ by a
formula unit of ‘CH2’ is called homologous series.
CHARACTERISITICS OF HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
i) They have a general formula for all the series.
Eg) Alkanes CnH2n+2
Alkenes CnH2n
Alkynes CnH2n-2
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES FIRST MEMBERS SECOND MEMBER
Alkane methane ethane
Alkene ethene propene
Alkyne ethyne propyne
Alcohol methanol ethanol
Aldehyde methanal ethanal
Carboxylic acid methanoic acid ethanoic acid
Note: the above table helps you to answer a particular type of question when asked about first or second
member
ii) All the members of the homologous series have same chemical properties as they all have same
functional group.
iii) All the members of the homologous series have gradation in their physical properties, as their
molecular mass varies
iv) Successive members differ by a formula unit of ‘CH2, and the molecular mass of 14.

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THIRD PART - REACTIONS INVOLVED IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

1. Chlorination of methane
CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl
Chloro methane

2. Chlorination of ethane
C2H6 + Cl2 C2H5Cl + HCl
Chloro ethane

3. Combustion of hydrocarbons
2 CxHy + (4x + y) O2 2x CO2 + y H2O
2
Example:
Combustion of ethane
2 C2H6 + 7 O2 4 CO2 + 6H2O

Note: this algebraic method of balancing will help you to balance the combustion reaction easily.
Place the 2 infront of the hydrocarbon. X = no. of carbon atoms, Y = no. of hydrogen atoms.

4. Hydrogenation of ethene
Ni
C2H4 + H2 C2H6
200C
Ethene on hydrogenation gives ethane

5. Chlorination of ethene
CCl4
C2H4 + Cl2 C2H4Cl2

Ethene on chlorination gives dichloroethane

6. Bromination of ethene
CCl4
C2H4 + Br2 C2H4Br2

Ethene on bromination gives dibromoethane

Observation: This is a special reaction, where ethene decolourises the reddish brown colour of bromine
solution. This is used to distinguish between saturated and unsaturated compounds.

7. Iodination of ethene
CCl4
C2H4 + I2 C2H4I2

Ethene on iodination gives diiodoethane

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8. Complete hydrogenation of ethyne
Ni
C2H2 + 2H2 C 2 H6
200C
Complete hydrogenation of ethyne gives ethane

9. Complete chlorination of ethyne

CCl4
C2H2 + 2Cl2 C2H2Cl4

Complete chlorination of ethyne gives tetrachloroethane

10. Complete bromination of ethyne

CCl4
C2H2 + 2Br2 C2H2Br4

Complete bromination of ethyne gives tetrabromoethane

11. Complete iodination of ethyne

CCl4
C2H2 + 2I2 C2H2I4

Complete iodination of ethyne gives tetraiodoethane

[AUTHOR NAME] 19
 PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY

IDENTIFICATION AND OBSERVATION OF GASES:

Hydrogen - Colourless gas that extinguishes the burning splint with pop sound.
Oxygen - Colourless gas that rekindles the glowing splint.
Carbon dioxide
i) Colourless gas that turns lime water milky
ii) shows no effect on passing through acidified potassium dichromate solution.
sulphur dioxide
i) Colourless gas that turns lime water milky
ii) On passing through acidified potassium dichromate solution, turns the colour of the solution
from orange to green.

Hydrogen sulphide
i) Gas with rotten egg smell
ii) Turns lead acetate paper silvery black

Hydrogen chloride - Gas that produces dense white fumes with a glass rod dipped in ammonium hydroxide.
Ammonia
i) Gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue.
ii) When passed through Nessler’s reagent produces abrown precipitate.
iii) Gives dense white fumes with a glass rod dipped in conc.HCl.
Chlorine
i) Greenish yellow gas
ii) Gas that turns moist starch iodide paper bluish black.

Nitrogen dioxide - Reddish brown fumes.

ACTION OF HEAT AND OBSERVATIONS:

i) Copper carbonate:

CuCO3 CuO + CO2

Green colour solid on heating changes to black solid, and the gas evolved turns lime water
milky and has no effect on passing through acidified potassium dichromate solution.

ii) Zinc carbonate:

ZnCO3 ZnO + CO2

A residue is formed that is yellow when hot and white when cold and the gas evolved turns
lime water milky and has no effect on passing through acidified potassium dichromate
solution.

[AUTHOR NAME] 20
 iii) Copper nitrate:

2 Cu(NO3)2 2 CuO + 4 NO2 + O2

Blue colour solid on heating changes to black solid, and reddish brown fumes are evolved.
Note: oxygen gas evolved is a colourless gas, but the presence of oxygen cannot be seen, as it is
masked by the reddish brown fumes it can only be checked by introducing the glowing splint
which can rekindle.

iv) Zinc nitrate:

2 Zn(NO3)2 2 ZnO + 4 NO2 + O2

A residue is formed that is yellow when hot and white when cold and reddish brown fumes are
evolved.
Note: oxygen gas is evolved is a colourless gas, but the presence of oxygen cannot be seen, as it
is masked by the reddish brown fumes it can only be checked by introducing the glowing splint
which can rekindle.

v) Lead nitrate:

2 Pb(NO3)2 2 PbO + 4 NO2 + O2

A yellow residue is formed and reddish brown fumes are evolved. Note: oxygen gas is
evolved is a colourless gas, but the presence of oxygen cannot be seen, as it is masked by the
reddish brown fumes it can only be checked by introducing the glowing splint which can
rekindle.
TESTING THE TWO BLACK COLOURED SOLIDS & DIFFERENTIATING THEM WITH CONC. HCl

MnO2 CuO
Adding conc.HCl A greenish yellow gas (Cl2) is evolved No such gas is evolved,but the
andheated that turns moist starchiodide paper bluish solution turns slightly green
black. colour.

IDENTIFICATION OF CATIONS USING AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE SOLUTION.

CATION Observation with little Observation on adding excess NH4OH to the

NH4OH precipitate formed with little NH4OH
Lead ion(Pb2+) White precipitate Remains insoluble
Zinc ion Gelatinous white precipitate The ppt. dissolves and becomes a clear
(Zn2+) solution
Iron(II) ion Dirty green precipitate Remains insoluble
(Fe2+)
Iron(III) ion Reddish brown precipitate Remains insoluble
(Fe3+)
Copper ion Pale blue precipitate Dissolves and gives an inky blue
(Cu2+) solution.

[AUTHOR NAME] 21
FLAME TEST FOR CATIONS
Sodium - Golden yellow
Potassium - Lilac
Calcium - Brick red
IDENTIFICATION OF ANIONS

Anions Reagent to be added and the observations

procedure
Carbonate Dil.HCl or dil.H2SO4 Gas evolved turns lime water milky and
shows no effect on passing through
acidified potassium dichromate solution.

Sulphite Dil.HCl or dil.H2SO4 Gas evolved turns lime water milky and
shows on passing through acidified
potassium dichromate solution turns the
colour of the solution from orange to green.
Sulphide Dil.HCl or dil.H2SO4 Rotten egg smelling gas is evolved that turns
lead acetate paper silvery black.
Chloride Silver nitrate solution Curdy white precipitate that dissolves on
adding excess ammonium hydroxide
Sulphate Barium chloride solution White precipitate that remains insoluble on
adding any mineral acids.

Nitrate Freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution A brown ring is formed at thejunction of
is added followed by the addition of two liquids.
conc.sulphuric acid through the sides of
the test tube.

[AUTHOR NAME] 22