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CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
MIDTERM REVIEWER
 st
1 Chapter
 MEASUREMENTS, CHEMICAL REEACTION AND GASES

MEASUREMENT

Macroscopic Properties
- Can be determined directly
Microscopic Properties
- Cannot be determined directly
- On an atomic/Molecular scale

Intenational System Units (S.I. Units) by French Systeme Internationale d’Unites

7 Fundamental/Physical Quantities Name of Unit Abbreviation

Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meters m
Time Second s or sec
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Electric Current Ampere A or amp
Luminous Intensity Candela cd

Prefixes used in the Metric System and with SI Units

Multiple Prefix Abbreviation Example:

1024 yotta Y 1 yotta = 1 x 1024 meter
1021 zetta Z 1 meter =1 x 10-24 yotta
1018 exa E
1015 pera P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
101 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-10 angstrong Å
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
10-21 zepto z
10-24 yocto y
7 Fundamental/ Physical Quantities

A. Mass & Weight

Mass – measure of the amount of matter in an object
Weight – force that gravity exerts on an object

1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz) 1 gram = 1,000 milligram (mg)

1 ton (T) = 2,000 pounds (lb) 1 gram = 100 centigram (cg)
1 pound (lb) = 453.592 grams (g) 1kg = 1000 g
1 kilo (k) = 2.20462 lb 1 metric ton = 1,000 kg
1 ounce (oz) = 29.3 g

B. Volume

1ft3 = 1,728 in3 1cc = 1cm3 1in3 = 16.39 mL

1yd3 = 27 ft3 1mL = 1cm3 1L = 1.06 quart (qt)
1 cord = 128 ft3 1L = 1,000 mL 1gallon = 3.79L
1 m3 = 1000 dm3 1dm3 = 1Liter 1m3 = 35.31 ft3
1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 1 hectoliter (hL) = 100mL 1 quart = 0.95 L
1 quart = 1000mL (approx) 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000L 4 quart = 1 gallon
1 pint = 500mL (appox) 1 quart = 2 pints
C. Length

1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm 1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 yd = 91.44cm = 3ft

1km = 1000 m = 0.6214 mil 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 mil = 5280 ft =1.609 km = 63,360 in
1 m = 3.281 ft = 39.37 in 1 ft = 30.48 cm = 12 inches 1 nautical mile = 6080 ft

D. Time

1 banking year = 360 days 1 hour = 60 minutes

1 year = 365 days 1 minutes = 60 seconds
1 month = 30 days 1 second = 1,000 millisecond
1 day = 24 hours 1 millisecond = 1,000 microsecond

E. Temperature

°C = 5/9 (°F - 32°F) Measuring Water °F = 9/5 °C + 32° Measuring the Body
°K = °C + 273.15° Measuring Particles °R = °F + 460°

F. Other Conversions

1 Newton (N) = kg∙m/s2 1 calorie (cal) = 4.814 Joules

1 Pa = N/m2 = kg/m∙s2 1 Joule = kg∙m2/s2 = N∙m =Pa∙m3 =0.23901 cal

𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
PRESSURE = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
1 atmospheric pressure (atm) = 760 torr
= 760 millimeter-mercury (mmHg)
= 101325 Pascal = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar

AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐠 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐠 1 mole = 6.022x1023 particles/
𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝐌 ; 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 = 𝐦𝐨𝐥 1 mole = 6.022x1023 molecules

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎 𝒈
DENSITY (𝛒) = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒗
= 𝑳
1g/cm3 = 1g/mL = 1g/m3

Using amount of substance and density formula for the derivation of IDEAL GAS EQUATION

𝑛 𝑃 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑚) 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ρ 𝑃
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇; 𝑉
= 𝑅𝑇 │ 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑀) │ ρ = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 │ 𝑀
= 𝑅𝑇 │

𝑚 𝒎𝑹𝑻 𝛒𝑹𝑻 𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐱 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐏𝐌

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝑴) = 𝑴= 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝛒) = =
𝑀 𝑷𝑽 𝑷 𝐑 𝐱 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐑𝐓
CHEMICAL REACTION

Percent Compositon by Mass

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
mass % of an element = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑥100%

LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE or "The Equilibrium Law"

- Le Chatelier’s principle is an observation about chemical equilibria of reactions. It states that changes in the
temperature, pressure, volume, or concentration of a system will result in predictable and opposing changes in
the system in order to achieve a new equilibrium state.

BASIC CONCENTRATION UNITS IN A SOLUTION

SOLUTE + SOLVENT = SOLUTION

𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍

1. 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑽 = 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
2. 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%

CONCENTRATION UNITS IN ION SOLUTION

𝑨𝒍𝟐 (𝑺𝑶𝟒 )𝟑 → 𝟐𝑨𝒍𝟑+ + 𝟑𝑺𝑶𝟐− 𝟒 Given Chemical Reaction (Decomposition)

[𝐴𝑙2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 ] = 0.15 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 Given Molarity of Product

[𝐴𝑙 3+ ] = 0.15 𝑥 2 = 0.30 𝑀 Tingnan niyo yung kulay sa

[𝑆𝑂42− ] = 0.15 𝑥 3 = 0.45 𝑀 Missing Molarity
subscript

GENERAL AND MEASURABLE PROPERTIES OF MATTER

EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES
o Depends on how much matter is being considered
o Mass & Volume – depends on amount of matter
o Other Extensive Properties: Length, shape, size, weight, etc.
INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
o Does not depend on how much matter is being considered
o Example of Intensive Properties: Density, Temperature, Color, Luster, Hardness, Boiling and
Melting Point

PROPERTIES OF GASES
1. Most of the gases exist diatomic
2. Noble gases exist monoatomic
3. The density of gases is smaller than liquid and solid
4. Gases are compressible

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

1. Gas molecules moves in random straight-line motion
2. The collision of gas molecules to another gas molecules/ The collision of gas molecules to the
container is elastic collision
3. There are no forces of interaction between gas particles. They only interact with each other through
elastic collision/ the particles of each gas molecules are not attracted to each other.
GAS LAWS

1. PRESSURE – VOLUME (BOYLE’S LAW)

1
* 𝑃 ∝ 𝑉 (T Constant) P1V1=P2V2
* A constant Temperature process is said to be Isothermal

2. VOLUME – TEMPERATURE (CHARLES LAW)

𝑉1 𝑉
* V∝ T (P Constant) = 2
𝑇1 𝑇2
* A constant Pressure process is called Isobaric

3. PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE (GAY LUSAAC LAW)

𝑃1 𝑃
* P∝ T (V Constant) 𝑇
= 𝑇2
1 2
* A constant Volume process is called Isochoric
 4. VOLUME – AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCE (AVOGADRO’S LAW)
𝑉1 𝑉
* V∝ n = 2
𝑛1 𝑛2

5. GENERAL EQUATION

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑁1 𝑇1 𝑁2 𝑇2

6. IDEAL GAS EQUATION

1. Functional Theorem
PV = nRT
R = 0.082056 L∙atm mol-1K-1
2. Statistical Theorem *At higher temperature and lower
PV= nKT pressure gas, molecules move ideally
K = 1.382 x 10-23 J/K

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

𝟏
𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝟏
𝒓𝟏 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑻𝟐 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
= √𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏 = √𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝟐 = = √𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝟐
𝒓𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑻𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝟐
Application of Lesson on Problems (Long Quiz 1)

1. What are the units of v in the equation v=(RT/M)½ where R is in erg/mol∙K, T is in K, M is in g/mol and erg =
g•cm²•s^-2

1
1 𝑔 ∙ 𝑐𝑚 2 2 1
𝑅𝑇 (2 2 )𝐾 𝑐𝑚 2 2
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 ∙ 𝑠
𝑣=( ) =( 𝑔 ) = ( 2 ) = 𝒄𝒎/𝒔
𝑀 𝑠 ∙
𝑚𝑜𝑙

2. Units have all the following of the following properties except

[A] They give physical reality to pure numbers
[B] They are necessary for solving real problems
[C] They allow for the creation of conversion factors
[D] They give an indication of the magnitude of the error involved in a measurement

3. Which of the following operations will yield an intensive property?

[A] Measuring the length of an object in meters
[B] Determining the energy of a sample in Joules
[C] Dividing one extensive property by another extensive property
[D] Multiplying one extensive property by another extensive property

4. Which of the following statement is correct?

i. The density if water in solid phase (0°C, 1atm) is greater than liquid phase (25°C, 1atm)
ii. The density of water in liquid phase (25°C, 1atm) is greater than in gas phase (100°C, 1atm)
[A] I only
[B] II only
C] Both I and II
[D] Neither I and II

5. Which of the following is a consequence of Avogadro's hypothesis?

[A] The density of a gas is proportional to the temperature.
[B] The density of a gas is proportional to its atomic or molar mass.
[C] The density of a gas is inversely proportional to the temperature
[D] The density of a gas is proportional to the size of the sample mole

6. All of the following are a consequence of Boyle's law EXCEPT

[A] Increasing the pressure on a gas will raise its temperature
[B] Doubling the Volume of a sample of an ideal gas will halve its pressure at constant pressure.
[C] For an ideal gas at constant pressure, the product of the pressure times the volume is constant.
[D] If all the gas in a highly compressed cylinder is released, the volume of the gas at atmospheric pressure
will be greater than the volume of the cylinder.

7. Which of the following concentration units is a temperature-dependent?

[A] Molality
[B] Molarity [M]
[C] Percentage mass by mass (%mass/mass or %wt/wt)
[D] All of the above

8. What will happen to your reactant time to time if you have this hypothetical reaction?
A B
[A] increasing until it becomes 1 gram
[B] increasing until it becomes constant in a certain amount
[C] Decreasing until no longer exist
[D] Decreasing until it becomes constant in a certain amount.
Problem solving.

1. A family/consumer science class is given an assignment in candy-making that requires a sugar mixture to be
brought to a soft-ball stage (234–240°F). A student borrows a thermometer having a range from -20°C to
120°C from the chemistry laboratory to do this assignment. Will this thermometer serve the purpose?
(Yes/No) Explain (Why?)

Given: (234-240°F) – Needed Temperature; (-20°C - 120°C) Range of the Thermometer

Solution: Convert (-20°C to 120°C) to Fahrenheit = °F = 9/5°C + 32°

-20°C to 120°C = -4°F to 248°F

Answer:
Yes, the thermometer serves it purpose because the needed temperature 234-240°F is within the
range of -20°C to 120°C or = -4°F to 248°F.

2. An intravenous nutrient solution is delivered to a hospital patient at a rate of 1.5 drops per second. If drop of
solution weighs 85 mg on average, how many kilograms are delivered in 9.0h? Express your final answer in
scientific notation with 3-decimal places.

1.5 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 9 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 48600 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 1

85 𝑚𝑔 1𝑔 1𝑘𝑔
𝑥 𝑥 = 8.5 𝑥10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 1000 𝑚𝑔 1000 𝑔

8.5 𝑥 10−5 𝑘𝑔 48600 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠

𝑥 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈
𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 1

3. It takes 23 hours for a neon-filled balloon to shrink to half its original volume at STP. If the same ballon had
been filled with helium, then how long (hours, mins, seconds) would it have taken for the balloon to shrink to
half its original volume at STP?

Given: Ne = 23 hrs Molar Mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol

He = x hrs Molar Mass of He = 4.003 g/mol
𝟏
𝒓𝟏 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Graham’s Law of Effusion = √𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏 = √𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝟐
𝒓𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝟐

1
𝑇𝑥 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 23 ℎ𝑟𝑠 20.18 23 ℎ𝑟𝑠 √20.18 (23)(√4.003)
Solution: 1 = √𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑁𝑒 = ( = √4.003 ) = ( = ) = ( = 𝑥)
𝐻𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 √4.003 √20.18
𝑇2

𝑥 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝒉𝒓𝒔/𝟏𝟎𝒉𝒓𝒔 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

4. A typical grade aqueous phosphoric acid 75% H3PO4 by mass and has a density of 1.57g/ml. What is the
molarity of H3PO4 in this solution? Express your final answer in standard form (not in scientific notation) with 2
decimal places.

Given: 75% H3PO4 and 1.57g/mL

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍

Formula: 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎% & 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝚳) = 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑽 = 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓

75 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 H3PO4
Solution: 75% H3PO4 by mass meaning = 75 grams of H3PO4 and 100 grams of Solution
100 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

75 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 H3PO4 1𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥 97.994𝑔 = 0.7653529808 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1

100 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1𝑚𝐿 1

𝑥 1.57𝑔 𝑥 1000𝑚𝐿 = 0.0636942652 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
1

𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 0.7653529808 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝚳) = = = 12.02 𝑜𝑟 12.02𝚳
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 0.0636942652 𝐿 𝐿
MORE PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Calculation on density

a. To determine the approximate mass in grams of a small spherical shot of copper, the following
experiment is performed. When 120 pieces of the shot are counted out and added to 8.30 mL of water in
graduated cylinder, the total volume becomes 8.80 mL. The density of copper is 8.92 g/cm³. Determine
the approximate mass if a single piece shot, assuming that all of the pieces are of the same dimension.
Express your final answer with 3 decimal places and in standard form (not in scientific notation).
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎 𝒈
Formula: 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝛒) = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽
= 𝑳

Given: 120 pieces of the shot, Vinitial = 8.30 mL , Vfinal = 8.80 mL , p = 8.92 g/cm3

Solution: ΔV = 8.80mL – 8.30mL = 0.5mL or 0.5 cm3

𝟖.𝟗𝟐𝒈 𝟏
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 = 𝑽𝛒 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦𝐋 𝐱 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟔𝒈 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟕 𝒈/𝒑𝒄
𝒎𝑳 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔

b. The simple device pictured here, a pycnometer, is used for precise density determinations. From data
presented, together with the fact that the density of water at 20°C is 0.99821 g/ml. Determine the
density of methanol, in grams per millimeter. Write all places during calculation. Express your final
answer with 3 decimal places and in standard form (not in scientific notation).
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒎 𝒈
Formula: 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝛒) = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑽
= 𝑳

Given: density of H2O = 0.99821 g/mL

Solution:
STEP 1: KUNIN ANG VOLUME NG WATER
Kaya ganiyan kasi nakalagay sa image empty
𝑚 35.552𝑔 − 25.601 bottle tapos nung nagkaroon na ng tubig
𝑉= =
ρ 0.99821𝑔/𝑚𝐿 nadagdagan ng grams. So paano natin makukuha
𝑉𝐻2𝑂 = 9.968844231𝑚𝐿 grams ng water?

STEP 2: KUNIN ANG DENSITY NG METHANOL

𝑚 33.490𝑔 − 25.601𝑔 Bakit Volume ng water ang ginamit sa pagkuha ng

ρ= =
V 9.968844231 𝑚𝐿 Density ng Methanol? Water kasi palagi ang basis.
𝛒 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟏 𝐠/𝐦𝐋

2. A 132.10 mL glass vessel weighs 56.1035 g when evacuated and 56.2445 g when filled with the gaseous
hydrocarbon at 749.3 mmHg and 20.02°C. What is the molecular mass of gas? (In 2 decimal places) What us
the molecular formula of the gaseous hydrocarbon?

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚) 𝑔 𝑚
Formula: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ; 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑛) = = 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑀) 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀

Solution: m = 56.2445 g – 56.1035 g = 0.141 grams

0.082056 𝐿∙𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑚𝑅𝑇 (141𝑔)( )(293.17𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙∙𝐾
𝑀= 𝑃𝑉
= 749.3 132.1 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟒 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
( )( )
760 1000
3. Monochloroethylene is used to make polyvinychloride (PVC). It has a density of 2.56 g/L at 23.5°C and 759
mmHg. What is the molar mass of monochloroethylene? (In 2 decimal places) What is the molar volume under
these conditions? (In 2 decimal places)

𝛒𝑹𝑻 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙 𝑹 𝒙 𝑻𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆

Formula: 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝑴) = 𝑷𝛒
= 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝟐.𝟓𝟔𝒈 𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟔 𝑳∙𝒂𝒕𝒎

𝑹𝑻 ( )( )(𝟐𝟗𝟔.𝟔𝟓𝑲)
𝑳 𝒎𝒐𝒍∙𝑲
Solution: 𝑴 = = 𝟕𝟓𝟗 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟎 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑷𝛒 ( )
𝟕𝟔𝟎

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 62.40𝑔 1𝐿
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = = 𝑥 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟑𝟖𝑳/𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙 2.56𝑔

4. Give the derived SI units for each of the following quantities in base SI units:
𝒎
a. Acceleration = distance/time² 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝒔𝟐

𝑚 𝒌𝒈∙𝒎
b. Force = mass x acceleration 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑘𝑔 (𝑠2 ) = 𝒔𝟐

𝑘𝑔∙𝑚 𝒌𝒈∙𝒎𝟐
c. Work = force x distance 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ( 𝑠2
)𝑠 =
𝒔𝟐

𝑘𝑔∙𝑚2
( ) 𝒌𝒈∙𝒎𝟐
𝑠2
d. Power = work/time 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑠
= 𝒔𝟑
nd
2 Chapter
 GASES AND INTRODUCTION IN THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
- Is the study of heat, work, energy and the changes they produce in the state of the system
- Study of the relation of Temperature to the macroscopic properties of matter.

Thermodynamic System

System
– Specific part of the universe
– The macroscopic part of the universe
Surroundings
– The parts of the universe that can interact with the system
– The rest of the universe outside the system

TYPES OF SYSTEM
1. Open System – there’s a transfer of energy and matter between systems and surroundings, usually in
the form of heat.
2. Closed System – there’s no transfer if matter between system and surroundings but allows the
exchange of energy.
3. Isolated System – does not allow the transfer of matter and energy

TYPES OF ENERGY TRANSFER

1. Endothermic Process – any process which requires or absorbs energy from its surroundings, usually in the
form of heat.
2. Exothermic Process – a process that releases energy in the form of heat to the surrounding.

Types of Walls and Boundaries

1. Rigid (Non-movable) or Non-rigid (Movable)
2. Permeable (allows the exchange of matter) or Impermeable (does not allow the exchange of matter)
3. Adiabatic (does not allow heat or matter to pass across) or Non-adiabatic (does allow)

Types of equilibrium
* An isolated system is in equilibrium when in macroscopic properties remain constant with time
* A non-isolated system is said to be in equilibrium when the two following conditions held
a) The system's macroscopic properties remain constant with time
b) Removal of the system from contact with its surrounding cause no exchange in the properties of
the system, the system is in STEADY STATE.

a) Mechanical Equilibrium
- No unbalanced force act on or with the system (net force is equal to zero)
- System does not undergo acceleration
- No turbulence

b) Material Equilibrium
- No net chemical reactions are occurring in the system (Chemical equilibrium) nor there’s no net
transfer of matter from one part of the system to another or between system and surroundings
(Phase equilibrium).

c) Thermal Equilibrium
- There must be no exchange in properties of the system and surrounding when separated by
thermally conducting wall.
- There is no exchange of energy flow between two physical bodies (Matter to matter)

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

- Two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third one, will be found in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
- Defines the concept of Temperature
IDEAL GAS VS REAL GAS

IDEAL GAS (PV = nRT)

- High Temp, low pressure
- Follows kinetic molecular theory
- Hypothetical behavior of a gas
- neglible space and no interaction

IDEAL GAS REAL GAS

No Definite Volume Has Definite Volume
Has no mass Has mass
Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision
Low pressure High Pressure
High Temp Low Temp
No attraction/Repulsion Have small attraction and repulsive forces

REAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE

𝒂𝒏𝟐
(𝑷 + ) (𝑽 − 𝒏𝒃) = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑽𝟐

𝑽 𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
Molar Volume = =
𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒍

𝒂 𝒂𝒕𝒎∙𝑳𝟐 𝑳
(𝑷 + ) (𝑽𝒎 − 𝒃) = 𝑹𝑻 𝒂= ; 𝒃=
𝑽𝟐𝒎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍

REAL GAS EQUATION OF STATE DERIVATON OF FORMULA

FINDING Pressure
𝑹𝑻 𝒂
𝑷= − 𝟐
𝑽𝒎 − 𝒃 𝑽𝒎

FINDING Molar Volume

NOTE
𝑎 𝑎𝑏
𝑃𝑉𝑚 − 𝑃𝑏 + − 2 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
DAPAT ALAM NIYO PANO I-DERIVE TONG MGA
𝑃𝑉𝑚3 − 𝑃𝑏𝑉𝑚2 + 𝑎𝑉𝑚 − 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑅𝑇𝑉𝑚2 EQUATION NA ITO KASI KAILANGAN DIN NATIN
𝑃𝑉𝑚3 − 𝑃𝑏𝑉𝑚2 − 𝑅𝑇𝑉𝑚2 + 𝑎𝑉𝑚 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0 SIYA SA PARTIAL DERIVATIVES. DI NIYO NEED
KABISADUHIN ANG FORMULA BASTA ALAM NIYO
𝑃𝑉𝑚3 − (𝑅𝑇 + 𝑃𝑏)𝑉𝑚2 + 𝑎𝑉𝑚 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0 PAANO YUNG PROCESS NG PAG ARRANGE NG
𝑹𝑻 𝒂 𝒂𝒃 MGA EQUATION AT ANG KAKALABASAN NG
𝑽𝟑𝒎 − ( + 𝒃)𝑽𝟐𝒎 + 𝑽𝒎 − =𝟎 ARRANGEMENT SA DULO.
𝒑 𝒑 𝒑

FINDING Temperature

𝑅𝑇𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑃𝑉𝑚3 − 𝑃𝑏𝑉𝑚2 + 𝑎𝑉𝑚 − 𝑎𝑏

𝑃𝑉𝑚3 𝑃𝑏𝑉𝑚2 𝑎𝑉𝑚 𝑎𝑏
𝑇= 2− 2 + 2−
𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑉𝑚2

𝑷𝑽𝒎 𝑷𝒃 𝒂 𝒂𝒃
𝑻= 𝑹
− 𝑹
+ 𝑹𝑽 − 𝑹𝑽𝟐
𝒎 𝒎
Thermodynamic Quantities

6 Partial Derivatives

𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
( ) ,( ) ,( ) ,( ) ,( ) ,( )
𝝏𝑻 𝑷 𝝏𝑷 𝑻 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝑷 𝝏𝑷 𝑽𝒎

Reciprocal Rule

𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑻
( ) ( ) =𝟏
𝝏𝑻 𝑷 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝑷
EXPLANATION
𝑿 𝒀 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑷
( ) ( ) =𝟏 ( ) ( ) =𝟏
𝒀 𝒛 𝑿 𝒁 𝝏𝑷 𝑻 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝑻
𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝑻
( ) ( ) =𝟏
𝝏𝑻 𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑷 𝑽𝒎

Cyclic Rule

𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑻 𝝏𝑻
( ) ( ) ( ) = −𝟏
EXPLANATION 𝝏𝑻 𝑷 𝝏𝑷 𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑷 𝑽𝒎
𝑿 𝒀 𝒁 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑷 𝝏𝑻
( ) ( ) ( ) = −𝟏 ( ) ( ) ,( ) = −𝟏
𝒀 𝒛 𝒁 𝑿 𝑿 𝒀 𝝏𝑷 𝑻 𝝏𝑻 𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑽𝒎 𝑷

Thermal Expansion

𝟏 𝝏𝑽𝒎
∝= ( )
𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑻 𝑷

Isothermal Compressibility

𝟏 𝝏𝑽𝒎
𝜿 − ( )
𝑽𝒎 𝝏𝑷 𝑻

Compressibility Factor

𝑷 𝑷 𝟐
𝑷𝑽𝒎 = 𝑹𝑻 [𝟏 + 𝑩 (𝑹𝑻) + 𝑪 (𝑹𝑻) ]

𝑷 𝑷 𝟐
𝑷𝑽𝒎 = 𝑹𝑻 + 𝑩𝑹𝑻 ( ) + 𝑪𝑹𝑻 ( )
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝑻

What does compressibility factors says?

𝑪𝑷𝟐 z = 1 → Ideal Gas Behaviour
𝑷𝑽𝒎 = 𝑹𝑻 + 𝑩𝑷 +
𝑹𝑻 z < 1 → Attraction
z > 1 → Repulsion
𝑪𝑷𝟐
𝑷𝑽𝒎 = 𝑹𝑻 + 𝑩𝑷 +
𝑹𝑻

𝑪𝑷𝟐
𝑹𝑻 + 𝑩𝑷 + 𝑹𝑻
𝑽𝒎 =
𝑷

Deriving the Equation of

Compressibility Factor to Get
the Molar Volume
rd
3 Chapter
 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Energy (E)
𝑘𝑔𝑚 2
E = PE + KE + U PE = mgh = 𝑠2
= 1 Joule
𝑘𝑔𝑚 2
E=q+w KE = mv2 = = 1 Joule
𝑠2

“Conditions”
- If system is at rest → KE = 0
- If there is no magnetic field → PE = 0

E = PE + KE + U
E=U ;U=q+w Infinitesimal Change: dU = dq +dw

ΔU = q + w
A. HEAT (q)
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
Specific Heat Heat Capacity Units: 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑥 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑠
q = mcΔT C = mc
Mass
Mass
Heat Capacity
Specific Heat
Specific Heat

q = CΔT Infinitesimal Change: dq = CdT ; Heat Capacity (C) is constant

Heat Capacity

A.1 HEAT CAPACITY

𝒅𝒒
dq = CdT 𝑪= 𝒅𝒕

A.1.1 HEAT CAPACITY OF PERFECT GAS

a) In Isochoric Process (Constant Volume)
𝑑𝑈 𝜕𝑢
𝐶𝑣 = ( 𝑑𝑇 ) 𝐶𝑝 = (𝜕𝑇 )
𝑣 𝑣

b) In Isobaric Process (Constant Pressure)

𝑑𝐻 𝜕𝐻
𝐶𝑝 = ( 𝑑𝑇 ) 𝐶𝑝 = ( 𝜕𝑇 )
𝑝 𝑝

c) Isothermal Process (Constant Temperature)

𝐶𝑡 = 0

Heat Capacity Values for Non-Constant Heat Capacity

Monoatomic Diatomic Polyatomic
3 5 𝐶𝑝 = 3nR
𝐶𝑣 = 2nR 𝐶𝑣 = 2nR
5 7 𝐶𝑝 = 4nR
𝐶𝑝 = 2nR 𝐶𝑝 = 2nR

Heat Capacity for Constant Heat Capacity

𝟐 𝟐
(1) ∫𝟏 𝒅𝒒 = ∫𝟏 𝑪𝒅𝑻 𝑪𝑷 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝑻 + 𝒄𝑻𝟐 + ⋯

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒃∆𝑻𝟐 𝒄∆𝑻𝟑
(2) 𝒒 = ∫𝟏 𝒂 + ∫𝟏 𝒃𝑻 + ∫𝟏 𝒄𝑻𝟐 … 𝒒 = 𝒂∆𝑻 + 𝟐
+ 𝟑
+⋯

𝒃(𝑻𝟐𝟐−𝑻𝟐𝟏) 𝒄(𝑻𝟑𝟐 −𝑻𝟑𝟏) Ito na ang derived equation. Input Input nalang ng value.
𝒒 = 𝒂(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) + + +⋯ Given na yung values ng a, b, c and so on sa problem na ma-e-
𝟐 𝟑
encounter niyo.

EXPLAIN KO LANG KUNG BAT NAGING GANIYAN ANG FORMULA.

GINAMITAN SIYA NG DEFINITE AT INDEFINITE INTEGRAL. YUNG (2) GINAWA MUNA NATING INDEFINITE
INTEGRAL TAPOS KITA NIYO PANO YUNG RESULTA. PANGHULI GINAWAN NATIN NG DEFINITE INTEGRAL
KUNG SAAN ΔT NAGING INITIAL AT FINAL TEMPERATURE.
 Others:
Material to another Material
q = m1c1ΔT = m2c2ΔT
–q = q
–m1c1ΔT = m2c2ΔT Pwede niyong makuha yung
– m1c1(T2-T1) = m2c2(T2-T1) temperature pag dinerive ang
equation

B. WORK (w)
Formula Isocoric Process Isobaric Process Isothermal Process
(Constant Volume) (Constant Pressure) (Constant Temperature)
𝑉
𝑊 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝑉2
1
W = -PdV W=0 W = - PdV 𝑃1
or 𝑊 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑃2

Sign Convention for Work and Heat Sign ( - , + )

Work Done by the System on the Surroundings -
Work Done on the System by the Surroundings +
Heat absorbed by the system from the Surroundings (Endothermic) +
Heat absorbed by the Surrounding from the System (Exothermic) -

1st Law of Thermodynamics

ΔEuniverse = ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings

ΔEsystem = - ΔEsurroundings

ENTHALPY
ΔH = ΔU + PΔV + VΔP
ΔH = qp = ΔU + PΔV (Isobaric Process)
ΔH = qv = ΔU + VΔP (Isochoric Process)

For Condensed Phases

Solid to Liquid Transition
ΔU ≈ 0
ΔH ≈ ΔU

SUMMARY OF FORMULAES
dU = dq + dw
dq = CdT
dw = -PdV
ΔH = ΔU + PΔV + VΔP
ΔH = qp = ΔU + PΔV (Isobaric Process)
ΔH = qv = ΔU + VΔP (Isochoric Process)

𝝏𝑼
PERFECT GAS; PV = nRT ( ) =𝟎
𝝏𝑽 𝑻

1. For a cyclic process: ΔU = 0 and ΔH = 0 Units to Remember

2. For Isothermal Process: R = 8.314 J mol-1Kelvin-1
𝑽
𝑾 = −𝒏𝑹𝑻𝒍𝒏 𝑽𝟐 ; q = -w ; ΔU = 0 ; and ΔH = 0 101.3𝐽
𝟏
3. For adiabatic process: 1𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑻𝟐 −𝒏𝑹 𝑽𝟐
𝒍𝒏 = 𝒍𝒏 ; q= 0 ; ΔU = w ; w = ΔU
𝑻𝟏 𝑪𝒗 𝑽𝟏
 PROCESS/ BASIC HEAT (q) WORK (w) Internal Energy ENTHALPY
CONSTANT FORMULA q = CΔT W = -PΔV ΔU = q + w ΔH= ΔU + PΔV + VΔP

Isochoric P1 𝑃2 q = Cv (T2-T1) W=0 ΔU = q ΔH= ΔU + VΔP

=
(C = V) T1 𝑇2 Cv = 3/2nR (Mono-),
5/2nR (Dia-) or
3nR (Polyatomic)

Isobaric 𝑉1 𝑉2 q = Cp (T2-T1) W = -PΔT ΔU = q + w ΔH= ΔU + PΔV

=
(C = P) 𝑇1 𝑇2 Cp = 5/2nR (Mono-), ΔH= q
7/2nR (Dia-) or
4nR (Polyatomic)
𝑉2
𝑊 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
Isothermal P1V1 = P2V2 q = -w 𝑉1 ΔU = 0 ΔH = 0
(C = T) or 𝑊 =
𝑃
−𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝑃1
2

Adiabatic ──────── q=0 W = ΔU ΔU = w Depende kung ano

(All Constant) ibigay ni sir

𝑷
𝒂𝒕𝒎

ISOBARIC (CONSTANT PRESSURE)

ISOCHORIC (CONSTANT VOLUME)

ISOBARIC (CONSTANT PRESSURE)

𝑽
𝑳𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓
Application of Lesson on Problems (LQ3) Di ko na sinama ang Multiple Choice

1. 1.50 mol of diatomic perfect gas undergoes a reversible cyclic process (1→2→3→4→1) as shown below.
Calqulate q, w, ∆U and ∆H for each process and for the complete cycle. Temperature are round off with 2
decimal places.
2. Constant-pressure heat capacity of a sample of a perfect gas was found vary with temperature according to the
expression.

𝐶𝑃 𝑇
−1
= 20.17 + 0.3665 ( )
𝐽∙𝐾 𝐾

Caculate the q when the temperature us raised from 25°C to 200°C at constant-pressure process. Final answer
in "J" unit and round-off in whole number (no decimal places).

Note: The Cp is not a constant. You need to evaluate the value of heat capacity at constant pressure J•K^ -1 and
K are just units.

𝒃(𝑻𝟐−𝑻𝟏)𝟐 𝒄(𝑻𝟐−𝑻𝟏)𝟑
Formula: 𝒒 = 𝒂(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 ) + 𝟐
+ 𝟑
+⋯
a = 20.17; b = 0.3665
𝟎.𝟑𝟔𝟔𝟓(𝟒𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓𝟐−𝟐𝟗𝟖.𝟏𝟓𝟐)
Solution: : 𝒒 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟕(𝟒𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 − 𝟐𝟗𝟖. 𝟏𝟓) + 𝟐
= 𝒒 = 𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟔𝟒𝑱

3. A 3.12 grams sample of argon gas, Ar, at 23°C is allowed to expand reversibly and adiabatically from 400 cm3
to 2.00 dm3. What is the work done by the gas? Temperature are round-off with 2 decimal places and the final
answer in “J” and round off in whole number (no decimal places).

Given: T1 = 23.0°C to 296.15 K

V1 = 0.4 Liters; V2 = 2.0 Liter
3.12 g of Ar = 0.078 mol of Ar

Formula: ΔU = W; ΔU = Cvdt – given ni sir toh

𝑻𝟐 −𝒏𝑹 𝑽𝟐
𝒍𝒏 = 𝒍𝒏
𝑻𝟏 𝑪𝒗 𝑽𝟏

Solution: Hinahanap natin ang T2 para sa CvdT

2 2 2
𝑇2 −𝑛𝑅 𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑉 3 𝑉 3 0.4 3
𝑙𝑛 𝑇1 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑉 = ( 1) 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (𝑉1) = 296.15 (2.0) = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝑲
𝐶𝑣 1 𝑇1 𝑉2 2

Hanapin si Work
𝟑 𝟑 𝟖.𝟑𝟏𝟒𝑱
𝑾 = 𝟐 𝒏𝑹∆𝑻 = 𝟐 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖𝒎𝒐𝒍) ( 𝒎𝒐𝒍∙𝑲 ) (𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝑲 − 𝟐𝟗𝟔. 𝟏𝟓𝑲) = −𝟏𝟖𝟗. 𝟓𝟔𝑱

4. An adiabatic cylinder fitted with frictionless piston contains 1.25 mol of argon gas. Ar, at 292K. The external
pressure is reversibly decreased until the gas expanded and final pressure and temperature of 2.80 atm and
325K, respectively. Assuming that the gas is a perfect gas, determine the initial pressure of the gas.

Given: T1 = 292K; T2 = 325K

P2 = 2.80 atm
2 2
𝑇2 −𝑛𝑅 𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑉 3 𝑇2 𝑃 𝑇 3
Solution: 𝑙𝑛 𝑇1 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑉 = ( 1) = ( 2 1)
𝐶𝑣 1 𝑇1 𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇2

2 2 2
(𝑃2 𝑇1 )3 2 2 2
𝑇2 𝑇1(𝑃2 𝑇1 )3 𝑇1(𝑃2 𝑇1 )3
= 2 (𝑃1 𝑇2 ) = 3 (𝑃1 ) (𝑇2 ) =
3 3
𝑇1 (𝑃1 𝑇2 )3 𝑇2 𝑇2

3 3
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
𝑇1(𝑃2 𝑇1 )3 𝑇1(𝑃2 𝑇1 )3 𝑇1(𝑃2 𝑇1 )3
(𝑃1 ) =
3 2 ((𝑃1 ) = 3 2 ) 𝑃1 = ( 2 )
𝑇2 (𝑇2 )3 𝑇2 (𝑇2 )3 𝑇2 (𝑇2 )3

𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
𝑻𝟏(𝑷𝟐𝑻𝟏 )𝟑 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝑲(𝟐.𝟖𝟎𝒂𝒕𝒎 𝒙 𝟐𝟗𝟐𝑲)𝟑
𝑷𝟏 = √( 𝟐 ) 𝑷𝟏 = √( 𝟐 ) = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑻𝟐(𝑻𝟐)𝟑 𝟑𝟐𝟓𝑲(𝟑𝟐𝟓)𝟑
th
4 Chapter
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Kelvin Planck Statement of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

"It is impossible to undergo a cyclic process whose sole effects are flow of heat into the system from a heat reservoir
and the performance of an equivalent amount of work by the system on the surrounding.

q
Hot Body Engine W

Clasius Statement for the 2nd Law of thermodynamics

"It is impossible to undergo a cyclic process whose sole effects are the flow of heat into the system from a cold
reservoir and the flow of an equal amount of heat of the system into a heat reservoir".

q
Hot Body Engine Cold Reservoir

PHASE CHANGES

Phase Equilibrium
- The study of the equilibrium which exists between or within different states of matter namely
solid, liquid and gas

Phase Diagram

Triple Point- the point on a

phase diagram at which the
three states of matter: gas,
liquid and solid coexist.

Critical Point- the point on a

phase diagram at which the
substance is indistinguishable
between liquid and gaseous
state.
 MAY ABSOLUTE VALUE PAG EFFICIENCY

EFFICIENCY
Nilalagyan lang ng absolute value pag
−𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 −𝑾 ⃒−𝑾⃒ hinahanap ang efficiency pero pag hinanap mo
Formulas: 1) 𝒆= 𝒒
= 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
= 𝒒𝑯
= 𝒒𝑯 na ang work wala siyang absolute value
𝒒
2) 𝒆 = 𝟏 + 𝒒𝒄 Pag given lang ay heat
𝑯

𝑻 Pag given lang ay Temperature. Take note

3) 𝒆 = 𝟏 − 𝑻𝒄
𝑯 need palagi naka convert sa Kelvin

3) 𝒒𝑯 + 𝒒𝑪 = −𝑾 Yung qH ay heat absorb by the engine (See First

Page) at ang qC ay heat release by the engine.
𝒒𝑯 𝒒 Sa observation ko. Since ang engine ay ang
4) = − 𝑻𝑪
𝑻𝑯 𝑪 system natin, ang qH dapat ay lagging positive
at ang qC naman ay negative. Sa work since
exerted outside the system siya (From system
to surrounding) Edi Negative din ay work palagi.

Carnot's Principle

"No heat engine can be more efficient than a reversible heat engine when both engine work between the same pair of
temperature, TH and TC.

Hot Reservoir

Heat Pump Engine W

Cold Reservoir

Carnot Cycle

Yung qin ay yung heat transferred sa

engine at yung qout ay yung heat
transferred sa surrounding. Yung
sinasabi sa T1=T2=high kaya high dahil
from hot reservoir tapos yung sa T3=T4=
low ay papunta sa cold reservoir

Note:
Pag sa Carnot Cycle may
2 Isothermal Processes
2 Adiabatic Processes
 𝒅𝒒
ENTROPY DEGREE OF DISORDER/RANDOMNESS 𝒅𝒔 ≡
𝒅𝑻

1. Cyclic Process: ΔS = 0 (cyclic ibig sabihin isobaric, isothermal, isochoric process)

2. Adiabatic Process: ΔS = 0
3. Reversible Phase Change at Constant T & P

𝜟𝑯 Ginagamit lang pag may Phase Change kunwari Solid to Liquid tapos
𝜟𝒔 = 𝑻 Parehas sila ng Temperature (See Below).

4. Constant-Pressure Heating with no Phase Change

𝑻 Ginagamit pag di nag babago ang Phase ng isang matter kunwari H2O (liquid)
𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 𝑻𝟐 tumaas lang temperature niya; From liquid to liquid. Temperature lang nagbago
𝟏
(See Below).

BELOW

H2O (s) H2O (g)

@-10°C @120°C
Walang Phase
H2O (g) Change Pero nagbago
Nagbago ang Temp H2O (g) 𝑻𝟐 ang Temperature.
Diba 𝜟𝒔𝟏 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
@100°C @100°C
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝜟𝒔𝟓 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
H2O (g) H2O (g) 𝑻𝟏
H2O (s) @100°C @100°C H2O (g)
@0°C @100°C
𝜟𝑯
𝜟𝒔𝟐 = 𝜟𝑯
H2O (g) 𝑻 𝜟𝒔𝟒 = H2O (g)
𝑻
@100°C 𝑻𝟐 @100°C
May Phase Change at 𝜟𝒔𝟑 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 Same Temperature at
di nagbago ang
H2O (l) 𝑻𝟏 H2O (l) May Phase change
HTemperature
2O (g) H2O (g)
from liquid to Gas
@100°C @0°C @100°C @100°C
Parehas parin sila ng
Phase. Nagbago lang
H2O (g) ang Temperature H2O (g)
@100°C @100°C

H2Osinusundan
Yung sa below. May pattern yang (g) kung bakit ganiyan yan.HTinuro
2O (g)
lang sa atin ni sir kung ano lang gagamitin
@100°C @100°C
na formula. Di niya tinuro kung paano mapupunta diyan yung flow. Para malaman niyo kung paano. May tinatawag
tayong Enthalpy and Phase Changes na Graph. (see Belowlow)

BELOWLOW

PHASE CHANGE OF WATER

T
E
M
P
E
𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐
R 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
𝑻𝟏
𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
𝑻𝟏
A Above
100˚C
Gas Gas

T 𝜟𝑯
𝜟𝒔 = 𝜟𝒔 =
𝜟𝑯
𝑻 𝑻
U 100˚C Liquid to Gas Gas to Liquid
R (Evaporation) (Condensation)
Liquid 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐 Liquid
E 𝜟𝒔 =
𝜟𝑯 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
𝑻𝟏
𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
𝑻𝟏
𝜟𝒔 =
𝜟𝑯
𝑻 𝑻
0˚C
Solid to Liquid Liquid to Solid
(Fusion) (Solidification)
Below 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟐
0˚C Solid 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 Solid
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟏

ENERGY
NOTE:

𝜟𝑯
1. Pag gagamitin ang 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑻 laging may nakalagay na Heat na word. Heat of fusion, heat of condensation, heat
of evaporization. Need mo lang iconvert yun sa Joule yung given. Kasi ang unit ng 𝛥𝐻 ay Joule.
𝑻
2. Pag gagamitin ang 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 𝑻𝟐 lagi yang may specific heat na nakalagay o di kaya diretso na kaagad sa heat
𝟏
capacity. Tapos nagbabago ang Temperature.
3. Huwag kakalimutan mag change ng sign lalo na kung iba ang hinahanap sa given. Kunwari given ang entropy
ng evaporization eh kaso hinahanap condensation. Hanapin mo muna entropy ng evaporization tapos lagyan
mo lang ng negative sign.
4. BASAHIN NIYO ANG PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY BY IRA LEVINE (Pare-parehas lang tayo dito di nagbabasa! HAHAHA)

𝜟𝑺>0 𝜟𝑺>0
𝜟𝑯>0 𝜟𝑯>0
SOLID LIQUID GAS
𝜟𝑺<0 𝜟𝑺<0
𝜟𝑯<0 𝜟𝑯<0

Summary of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

ΔSsys > 0 ; ΔSsurr >0
ΔSsys < 0 ; ΔSsurr>0
ΔSuniv ≥ 0
ΔS = 0; Temperature → 0°K or -273.15°C

Gibbs free energy
ΔG = ΔH-TΔS
ΔG = 0, at equilibrium
ΔG < 0, spontaneous
ΔG > 0, non-spontaneous
A spontaneous reaction is a reaction that favors the formation of products at the conditions
under which the reaction is occurring. A roaring bonfire is an example of a spontaneous
reaction, since it is exothermic (there is a decrease in the energy of the system as energy is
released to the surroundings as heat). The products of a fire are composed partly of gases
such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. The entropy of the system increases during a
combustion reaction. The combination of energy decrease and entropy increase dictates that
combustion reactions are spontaneous reactions.

A nonspontaneous reaction is a reaction that does not favor the formation of products at
the given set of conditions. In order for a reaction to be nonspontaneous, it must be
endothermic, accompanied by a decrease in entropy, or both.

So ayun Guys Goodluck sa LQ4.

Pasabi kung may kulang ako sa lesson na diniscuss.

“THE UNIVERSE IS INCREASING IN DISORDER” –ENTROPY

𝜟𝑺 ≥ 𝟎
 Analyzing the Temperature we can conclude
that its from a Hot Reservoir To Cold
Application of Lesson on Problems (Seatwork and LQ4) Reservoir

1. Consider a heat engine that uses reservoirs at 800°C and 0°C. (a) Calculate the maximum possible
Efficiency. (b) if qH is 1000J, find the maximum value of w and the minimum value of qC.

𝑻𝒄
a) Formula to be used: 𝒆 = 𝟏 −
𝑻𝑯
273.15
Solution: 𝑒 = 1 − = 0.7454689
800+273.15
𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟒𝟔𝟖𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟓𝟓% 𝒐𝒓 𝟕𝟓%
𝒒
b) Formulas to be used: 𝒆 = 𝟏 + 𝒒 𝒄 and qH + qC = -W
𝑯
Solution: b.1) 𝑒 = 75%
𝑞𝐶
75% = 1 + 1000 750 = 1000 + 𝑞𝑐
𝒒𝒄 = −𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑱

b.2) qH + qC = -W
1000J + (-250) = -W
W = -750 J

2. A Carnot-cycle heat engine does 2.50kJ of work per cycle and has an efficiency of 45%. Find w, qH and qC for
one cycle.

−𝑾 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Solution: Work = -2.50kJ why negative? Remember the Formula 𝒆 = 𝒒
= 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
in sense the system does
exerted work towards the surrounding that’s why it’s negative.

−𝑾 ⃒−𝑾⃒ ⃒−𝑊⃒⃒ ⃒−2.5𝑘𝑗⃒⃒

Finding qH through the formula of 𝒆 = 𝒒
= 𝒒𝑯
𝑞𝐻 = 𝑒
= 45%
= 𝟓. 𝟓𝟔𝒌𝑱
Finding qC through the formula of qH + qC = -W qC = -W - qH = -(5.56kJ) - (-2.50kJ)= -3.06kJ

3. Find ΔS for the melting of 13.0g of ice (heat fusion = 79.7cal/g) at 0°C and 1 atm. Find also the ΔS (in kj) for
the freezing process.

𝜟𝑯
Tingnan niyo ang Temperature walang pagbabago so ang gagamiting formula ay 𝜟𝒔 = 𝑻 since ang nakalagay
ang delta of enthalpy which is heat of fusion = 79.7 cal/g ay hindi naka convert sa Joule. Edi i-convert!

79.7 𝑐𝑎𝑙 4.184𝐽

𝛥𝐻 = 13𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 = 4335.04 𝐽
𝑔 1𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝜟𝑯 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝟓.𝟎𝟒𝑱
a) 𝜟𝒔𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟕𝟑.𝟏𝟓𝑪 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟕𝑱/𝑲𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏
b) 𝜟𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = −𝜟𝒔𝒇𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = −𝟏𝟓. 𝟖𝟕 𝒐𝒓 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑱/𝑲𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏

4. The heat of vaporization of water at 100°C is 40.66kJ/mol. Find ΔS when 5.00g of water condenses to liquid
at 100°C and 1 atm.

Question 4 is same with question #3 though don’t need to convert it to Joule/Kilo-joule anymore since the
given is 40.66kj/mol but still we need to remove the mole in the denominator.

40.66𝑘𝐽 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 5 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝛥𝐻 = 𝑥 𝑥
1𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 18 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 1
𝛥𝐻 𝛥𝐻
𝛥𝑠𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 0.0302678𝑘𝐽 𝑜𝑟 30.27 𝐽
𝑇 100 + 273.15𝐶
𝜟𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = −𝜟𝒔𝒗𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = −𝟑𝟎. 𝟐𝟕

5. Find ΔS when 100g of water is reversibly heated from 50°C to 75°C at 1atm.

Though it’s said that it is reversible, the temperature changes so the formula to be used is
𝑻 4.184𝐽 75+273.15
𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 100𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 𝑙𝑛 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝑱/𝑲
𝑻𝟏 𝑔·𝐾 50+273.15

Cp (Heat Capacity) = Mass x Specific Heat

6. Find ΔS when 3.50 mol of ethanol, C2H5OH, is heated from 27°C to 127°C with pressure held fixed at 1.00 atm.
The specific heat of ethanol is 2.46J/g·K

Constant-Pressure heating with no phase change.

Parang parehas lang siya sa 5 kaso need natin pag tuunan pansin yung sa ethanol.

𝑻𝟐 𝟒𝟔𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝑱 𝟏𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

𝜟𝒔 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏 =( 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍) ( ) (𝒍𝒏 ) = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟗𝑱/𝑲
𝑻𝟏 𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒈·𝑲 𝟐𝟕 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

Molar Mass Mole

Cp (Heat Capacity) = Mass x Specific Heat

7. Steam at 100°C is condensed and is then cooled until frozen to 0°C. What is the entropy change of the
substance in J/mol. Consider that the average specific heat of liquid water is 4.184 J/K. The ΔH Vap and ΔHfus are
2258.1 J/g and 333.5 J/g, respectively. (Mass of H20 is 10 grams

H2O (g) H2O (s)

@100°C @0°C

𝜟𝒔𝟏
H2O (g) H2O (g)
𝜟𝒔𝟑
@100°C @100°C
H O (l) H2OO (l)
H22O (g) H 2 (g)
@100°C @0°C
@100°C 𝜟𝒔𝟐 @100°C
H2O (g) H2O (g)
@100°C @100°C
Formulas to be used
H2O (g) H2O (g)
𝜟𝑯 @100°C @100°C
𝜟𝒔𝟏 =
𝑻
𝑻𝟐
𝜟𝒔𝟐 = 𝑪𝒑𝒍𝒏
𝑻𝟏

𝜟𝑯
𝜟𝒔𝟑 =
𝑻