18.4.

2019

Chapter - 3

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Density is defined as: “mass per unit volume”.

Air density is a measure of how much mass of air is
contained within a given volume of air.

Atmospheric density is commonly expressed in terms of
grams per cubic metre, or in kilograms per cubic metre.

In the ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA), at mean sea-level,
the density of the atmosphere is described as;
◦ 1 225 grams per cubic metre (gm/m3).

Factors affecting atmospheric density:

◦ Pressure,
◦ Temperature,
◦ Altitude, and
◦ The quantity of water vapour within a given mass of air.

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Atmospheric
Pressure is
low ⇒
Expanded

Atmospheric
Pressure is
high ⇒
Compressed

Density is directly proportional to pressure.

◦ As atmospheric pressure increases, density increases.

◦ As atmospheric pressure decreases, density decreases.

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Changes in temperature will affect atmospheric density.

If a ‘parcel’ of air is heated, the energy of the molecules of air increases and they
move about more rapidly, causing the parcel of air to expand, thus reducing the
density of the air.

Conversely, if the ‘parcel’ of air is cooled, the air molecules move around less
vigorously and the air parcel shrinks in volume, causing air density to increase.

Therefore, density is inversely proportional to temperature.

The lower the temperature of air, the greater is its density.

The higher the air temperature, the lower is the density of the air.

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However, as altitude increases, atmospheric

pressure
In the Troposphere, as altitude increases
falls, and, as we have seen, this causes air
atmospheric temperature falls. density to decrease.
Therefore, we might expect density to
increase with increasing So what is the net
altitude.
effect of increasing
altitude on air density?

The dominant effect on the

atmosphere is the change
in atmospheric pressure.

The fall in pressure reduces

air density more than the
decrease in temperature
causes air density to
increase.

Consequently, as altitude increases, air density decreases.

However, as shown in Figure, in the same way as air pressure, air density decreases with altitude, at a
decreasing rate.

In the ISA ρ = 100% at sea level, 50% at 20 000 ft, 25% at 40 000 ft and 10% at
60 000 ft

Density will change by 1% for a 3 degree change in temperature or a 10 hPa change in pressure.
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The molecular mass of water is less than that of

nitrogen and oxygen.

If we increase the amount of water vapour in a

fixed volume of air, then we are replacing the
heavier nitrogen and oxygen molecules with the
lighter water molecules so the total mass of that
volume will decrease and hence the density will
decrease. In other words, the more humid a given
volume of air, the lower is its density.

DENSITY IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO

WATER VAPOUR CONTENT
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At the surface as latitude increases temperature decreases so density will increase as we move from the Equator
towards the poles.

At the Equator the surface temperatures are high so the rate of change of pressure with height is relatively low
compared to the poles where temperatures are low and the change of pressure with height is relatively high.

This means that at, say, 50 000 ft the pressure over the Equator will be relatively high compared to the pressure
at 50 000 ft over the poles. The temperatures are lower at 50 000 ft at the Equator than at the poles which
means that the density at 50 000 ft at the poles will be less than at 50 000 ft at the Equator. So we can
summarize the change of density as follows:

at the surface density increases as latitude increases

at about 26 000 ft density remains constant with an increase in latitude.

above 26 000 ft density decreases with an increase in latitude. (Maximum deviation from standard occurs at
about 50 000 ft.)

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a) Accuracy of aircraft instruments - Mach

meters, ASIs.

b) Aircraft and engine performance - low
density will reduce lift, increase take-off run,
reduce maximum take-off weight.

c) Humidity generally has a small effect on
density (humidity reduces density), but must
be taken into account at moist tropical
airfields, e.g. Bahrain, Singapore.

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High altitude, High temperature and High humidity will cause air density to decrease.

Because changes in atmospheric density affect aircraft performance, it is, therefore, vital that pilots understand
the nature and extent of this phenomenon.

Lift is directly proportional to air density; therefore, a reduction in air density will cause a reduction in lift.

This is a performance-reducing characteristic that is not immediately obvious, and may be explained as follows.

For an aircraft to fly there needs to be a certain amount of lift generated by the wings. Now, the amount of lift
generated depends on the mass flow of air around the wings. If the rate of mass flow of air around the wings
reduces, because the air is less dense, then, to recover the loss in the lift force the aircraft will have to travel
faster in order to restore the required amount of mass flow of air around the wings.

This effect is especially important in the take-off phase of flight. Achieving a higher take-off speed in conditions
of low air density will require a greater length of runway.

Consequently, extra care in flight planning must be taken when operating in low density environments.

Air density affects piston engine performance, too. The lower the density of air, the less oxygen there will be in
any given volume of air. Oxygen is essential for combustion to take place, and, therefore, a reduction in air
density will cause a reduction in engine power.

The combined effect on engine and wing efficiency of reduced

atmospheric density obviously needs to be accounted for by the pilot
in his performance calculations.

Most density changes can be accounted for by using performance
graphs, which incorporate altitude and temperature parameters.

The input parameters required by the graph are pressure altitude and
temperature, which, together, give us density altitude.

Pressure altitude and density altitude are explained later in the
chapter.

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The atmospheric density at mean sea-level in the ICAO Standard

Atmosphere (ISA) can be used as a benchmark against which to
compare the air density prevailing at any particular time and in
any particular place.

The ISA density of 1 225 grams per cubic metre at mean sea- sea-
level is taken to be one hundred percent.

If, in a given place, or at sea-level, the actual density were 1 000
grams per cubic metre, this density would be approximately 82
percent of the ISA mean sea-level density.

This method of expressing atmospheric density is called Relative
Density.

Relative Density is a comparison of the prevailing air density to
the ISA meansea
meansea-
sea-level air density.

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It is essential that pilots understand the concept of density

altitude, as it plays a vital role in the calculation of aircraft
performance, especially in hot, high or humid atmospheric
conditions.

Density Altitude is, simply defined, the altitude in the ICAO
Standard Atmosphere (ISA), at which the actual prevailing density
would occur.

If, for example, an aircraft were to be about to
take off from an aerodrome at sea-level, and
the atmospheric conditions of the day is exactly
the same as ISA conditions, the air density at
sea-level in the real atmosphere would
correspond exactly to that found at 0 feet in
ISA, and the aircraft’s density altitude would be
0 feet.

However if, atmospheric density at sea-level in the real

atmosphere were to be 1 000 grams per cubic metre, this lower
atmospheric density would correspond to a density found at an
altitude in ISA, higher than sea-level. The atmospheric density at
sea-level, in this case, equates to a density found at 10 000 ft in
ISA. Consequently, the density altitude at mean sea-level in the
real atmosphere, at this location, on this particular day, is
10 000 ft.

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Density altitude is an important parameter for determining aircraft

performance, because an aircraft’s published performance figures most
commonly assume that ISA conditions prevail.

It is particularly important when calculating take-off and landing
distance required, that the density altitude of the aerodrome concerned
is calculated by the pilot.

Density altitude is usually taken into account when pressure altitude and
temperature are entered into standard performance graphs.

There are two simple ways of calculating density altitude.
◦ To use a navigation computer,
◦ By using a simple mathematical formula.

The mathematical formula tells us that every one degree Celsius

deviation from ISA conditions corresponds to a difference in altitude of
118.8 feet.

The altitude we use for our calculations is the aircraft’s pressure
altitude; that is, its altitude with respect to the Standard Pressure Setting
of 1013.2 millibars (hectopascals).

The formula, itself, is expressed as follows:
DENSITY ALTITUDE = PRESSURE ALTITUDE ± (ISA DEVIATION × 118.8) feet

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If the actual temperature is higher than ISA, density altitude will

be greater than the measured pressure altitude.

If the actual temperature is lower than ISA, the density altitude
will be lower than the measured pressure altitude.

Example;
◦ On a given day, let the pressure altitude be 2 000 feet and the
temperature at that altitude, 25°C.

In the ISA, the temperature at 2 000 feet would be 11°C.
◦ (Remember, ISA sea-level temperature is 15°C, and the ISA temperature
lapse rate is approximately 2°C per 1 000 feet.)
◦ So, in our example, at 2 000 feet, the temperature of 25°C is 14°C higher
than the ISA temperature, at that altitude. Therefore, the ISA deviation is
ISA+14.
◦ So, applying the formula for density altitude, we obtain:

DENSITY ALTITUDE = PRESSURE ALTITUDE ± (ISA DEVIATION × 118.8) feet

DENSITY ALTITUDE = 2 000 + (14 × 118.8) = 3 663 feet
◦ Therefore, in our example, the density altitude, on the day in question, at
a measured pressure altitude of 2 000 feet, is 3 663 feet.

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