AIRCRAFT

MAINTENANCE
HANDBOOK
For EASA Part 66 Module Exams

Module 1:
M AT H E M AT I C S
Copyright Page [to come]
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1  Arithmetic 1
1.1 Basic Terms and Signs 1
1.1.1 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Bracketed Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Basic Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Sequence of Mathematical Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Fractions 6
1.2.1 Types of Fractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Fraction Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Decimals 12
1.3.1 Decimal Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.2 Pure Decimal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.3 Mixed Decimal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.4 Decimal Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4 Factors 15
1.4.1 Prime factorization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Multiples 18
1.6 Ratios 19
1.6.1 Ratio between two quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.6.2 Ratio between more than two quantities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.3 Simplifying ratios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6.4 Ratio to quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Proportions 21
1.7.1 Directly proportional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7.2 Inversely proportional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Averages 22
1.9 Percentages 24

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1.9.1 Converting fractions into percentages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1.9.2 Converting percentages into fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.9.3 Converting percentages into decimals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9.4 Converting decimals into percentages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.10 Powers 26
1.10.1 Squared powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.2 Cubed powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.3 Negative powers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.10.4 Powers of zero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.10.5 Powers of ten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11 Roots 27
1.11.1 Square roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.11.2 Cube roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.12 Law of Exponents 29
1.13 Common Logarithms (logs) 29
1.13.1 Multiplication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.13.2 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

CHAPTER 2  Mensuration 31
2.1 Lines and Angles 31
2.1.1 Degrees to Radians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.2 Radians to Degrees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.3 Types of Angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2 Mensuration Forms 36
2.2.1 Two-dimensional Shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

CHAPTER 3  Algebra 41
3.1 Linear Equations 42
3.2 Quadratic Equations 42
3.2.1 Solving methods of quadratic equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Simultaneous Equations 46

CHAPTER 4  Numbering Systems 47

4.1 Decimal System 47
4.2 Binary System 47
4.2.1 Operations of Binary Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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4.3 Octal System 50

4.4 Hexadecimal System 51
4.5 BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) System 51
4.6 Conversions 52
4.6.1. Binary to decimal numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.6.2. Decimal to binary numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.6.3. Octal to decimal numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.6.4. Decimal to octal numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6.5. Octal to binary numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6.6. Decimal to hexadecimal numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.6.7. Hexadecimal to binary numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6.8. BCD to decimal numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

CHAPTER 5  Geometry 57
5.1 Construct two parallel lines 57
5.2 Bisect a line 58
5.3 Construct a perpendicular at a point on a line 58
5.4 Construct a perpendicular from a point to a line 59
5.5 Divide a line into equal parts 59
5.6 Bisect an angle CAB 60
5.7 Construct a 60o angle 60

CHAPTER 6  Plane Trigonometry 63

6.1 Pythagoras theorem 65

CHAPTER 7  Graphs 67
7.1 Straight Line Graph 68
7.1.1 Graphing Linear Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.1.2 Graphing Simultaneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

CHAPTER 8  Polar Co-ordinates 73

8.1 Conversions 73
8.1.1 Polar co-ordinates to rectangular co-ordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
8.1.2 Rectangular co-ordinates to polar co-ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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CHAPTER
1 Arithmetic

A rithmetic is a branch of mathematics used to simplify, understand and solve real

world applications. The following are the contents that we will discuss in this module.

1.1 BASIC TERMS AND SIGNS

1.1.1 Numbers
A number is a mathematical object used for counting, labeling and measurement.
Numbers written in the form of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and so on are known as
Hindu-Arabic numerals, and the numbers written in the form of I, II, III, IV, V, VI,
VII, VIII, IX, X and so on are known as Roman numerals. The following are the fun-
damental number systems.

1.1.1.1. Natural number

This refers either to a member of the set of positive numerals 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . or the set of
non-negative numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. . . And a set of natural numbers is denoted by N.

1.1.1.2. Integer
An integer is a number that can be written without a fractional or decimal component
and is denoted by Z. It can be a positive number or a negative number. For example, 5,
12, –398 and –898 are Integers, whereas 9.75, 5½ and √2 are not integers.

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6

Integer

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1.1.1.3. Prime number

A prime number is a positive integer, greater than 1 that can be divisible only by 1 and
the number itself. For example an integer 5 can be divided by only by 1 and 5 with-
out a remainder. Number 6 is not a prime number because 2 and 3 can divide it. The
prime numbers list: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19. . .

1.1.1.4. Composite number

A composite number is a positive integer that has at least one positive divisor other
than one or number itself. For example, number 6 is a composite number because 2
and 3 other than 1 and 6 can divide it. The composite numbers list: 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12,
14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22. . .

1.1.1.5. Rational number

Rational number is a number that is expressed as a fraction with a numerator and a
denominator. The fraction a/b represents ‘a’ parts of a whole divided into ‘b’ equal
parts. The symbol is denoted by Q.

1.1.1.6. Real number

Real number is the limit of a convergence sequence of rational numbers and includes
all the measuring numbers. They are usually represented with decimal points and is
denoted by R.

1.1.1.7. Complex number

Complex number is the combination of real and imaginary numbers and is denoted by
C. It can be expressed as ‘a + bi’ or ‘a + ib’, where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are real numbers.

1.1.2 Bracketed Terms

Brackets are symbols used in pairs to group expressions together in mathematics.
Brackets exist in various shapes and are identified as parentheses ( ), square brackets [ ],
and braces { }. Typically a mathematical expression may be enclosed in an open bracket
‘(’ and a matching closing bracket ‘)’. Brackets within a bracket are permitted when
using brackets in an expression.

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1.1.3 Basic Operations

The four elementary operations of arithmetic are addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division.

1.1.3.1. Addition
Addition is a mathematical operation that represents the total amount of objects
together in a collection. It is indicated by the plus sign (+). Addition rules are as
follows.
Rule 1: (+a) + (+b) = (+ sign)
Rule 2: (+a) + (–b)  = ( – sign)
Rule 3: ( – a) + (–b)  = ( – sign)

Examples
• (+10) + (+5) = (10 + 5) = (+15)
• (+4) + (–9) = (4 – 9) = (–5)
• (–4) + (–9) = (–13)

1.1.3.2. Subtraction
Subtraction is a mathematical operation that represents the operation of removing
objects from a collection. It is signified by the minus sign (–). Subtraction riles are as
follows.
Rule 1: (+a) – (+b) = (takes the sign of higher number)
Rule 2: (+a) – (–b) = (+ sign)
Rule 3: (–a) – (–b) = (if ‘a’ is greater than ‘b’, then it takes negative sign; if ‘b’ is greater
than ‘a’, then it takes positive sign)

Examples
• 10 – 5 = 5
• (+4) – (+9) = (4 – 9) = (–5)
• (+4) – (–9) = (4 + 9) = (13)
• (–9) – (–4) = (–9) + 4 = (4 – 9) = (–5)

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1.1.3.3. Multiplication
The multiplication of two whole numbers is equivalent to the addition of one of them
with itself as many times as the value of the other one.
• (5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5) = 35 = (5 × 7)
• (4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4) = 20 = (4 × 5)
Rule 1: (+ sign) × (+ sign) = (+ sign)
Rule 2: (+ sign) × (– sign) = (– sign)
Rule 3: (– sign) × (– sign) = (+ sign)

Examples
• 6 × 6 = 36
• 52 × 12 = (52 × 10) + (52 × 2) = (520 + 104) = 624
• (+4) × (+8) = 32
• (+4) × (–8) = –32

1.1.3.4. Division
Division is the process of determining the number of times one number (the divisor) is
­contained in a second number (the dividend), the result being known as the quotient.

Dividend

12
= 4 Quotient

Divisor

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The step-by-step procedure for division is shown below.

Solve 569/4
569
400 (4 × 00)
169 (Difference)
160 (4 × 40)
9 (Difference)
8 (4 × 2)
1 (Difference)
Answer = 100 + 40 +2
= 142 and remainder 1

Rule 1: (+ sign) ÷ (+ sign) = (+ sign)

Rule 2: (+ sign) ÷ (– sign) = (– sign)
Rule 3: (– sign) ÷ (– sign) = (+ sign)

Examples
• (+8) ÷ (+4) = (+2)
• (+8) ÷ (–4) = (–2)
• (–8) ÷ (–4) = (+2)

1.1.4 Sequence of Mathematical Operation

The order of operation in a mixed mathematical expression is known as BODMAS,
which is expanded as follows.

1. Brackets
2. Order
3. Divide
4. Multiply
5. Add
6. Subtract

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Example
Solve 2 + 5 – 3 × 6 ÷ 2(3 – 1)
= 2 + 5 – 3 × 6 ÷ 2(2) (bracket 3 – 1 = 2)
= 2 + 5 – 3 × 6 ÷ 2 × 2 (remove bracket 2 × 2)
= 2 + 5 – 3 × 3 × 2 (division 6 ÷ 2 = 3)
= 2 + 5 – 18 (multiplication 3 × 3 × 2 = 18)
= 7 – 18 (addition 2 + 5 = 7)
= –11 (subtraction 7 – 18 = –11)
Although the bracket is a useful device for grouping terms or quantities, care must
be exercised when removing brackets. To remove brackets, multiply out the expression
as stated in the following examples.
• 5(2 + 5) = (5 × 2) + (5 × 5) = 10 + 25 = 35
• –3(a – 5) = (–3)(a) – (–3)(–5) = (–3a – 15)

1.2 FRACTIONS
A fraction represents a part of a whole or any number of equal parts in general.

1.2.1 Types of Fractions

1.2.1.1. Simple Fraction
One full object can be sliced into so many portions and that portion ratio in relation
to the whole object can be represented in fraction. For example, when you slice a pizza
into five equal pieces, then two pieces of the pizza can be represented by a fraction of
2/5. The following images show the graphical representation of simple fractions.

One Portion in Red =

1
Portion in Red =
2
   4    4

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3 4
Portion in Red = Portion in Red =
4    4

Simple fractions can be positive or negative, proper, or improper. In a fraction, the

number above the line is known as the numerator and the number below the line is
known as the denominator. A simple or common fraction where one integer is divided
by another integer (a/b) is called vulgar fraction. As with other fractions, the denomi-
nator (b) cannot be zero.

Vulgar Fraction

5 Numerator

6 Denominator

1.2.1.2. Proper Fraction

Proper fraction has the numerator smaller than denominator. An absolute value of
a proper fraction is strictly less than one. Examples of proper fractions are 2/5, –3/4,
and 4/7.

Proper Fraction

5 Numerator
Numerator
is less than
6 Denominator Denominator

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1.2.1.3. Improper Fraction

Improper fraction has the numerator same or greater than the denominator. An abso-
lute value of an improper fraction is always greater than or equal to 1. Examples of
improper fractions are 9/2, –4/3, and 2/2.

Improper Fraction

Numerator 5 Numerator
is greater than
Denominator
2 Denominator

1.2.1.4. Mixed Fraction

Mixed fraction is the sum of a non-zero integer and a proper fraction. Example is
stated below.
2 2
1+ =1
5 5

1.2.2 Fraction Operations

1.2.2.1 Addition of Fractions
Rule 1: When adding fractions having same denominator, first express them with the
same common denominator and simply add the numerators. An example is
stated below.

2 2 4
+ =
5 5 5

Common Denominator

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Rule 2: When adding fractions having different denominator, first find a Least common
denominator (LCD) and express the fractions in LCD and add the numerators.
Example
5 7
Solve +
6 9
• To solve the above problem, first find the LCD of 6 and 9.
6 = 6, 12, 18, 24
9 = 9, 18, 27
• Now convert both fractions to a common denominator ‘18’.
• To convert the fraction 5/6 with the denominator 18, multiply denominator
and numerator by 3.
5 3 30
× =
6 3 18
• To convert the fraction 7/9 with the denominator 18, multiply denominator
and numerator by 2.
7 2 14
× =
9 2 18
• Now add the two fractions (same as adding common denominator fractions).
30 14 44
+ =
18 18 18
• Since 44/18 is an improper fraction, simplify it to a mixed fraction.
44 8 4
=2 =2
18 18 9
Rule 3: When adding mixed fractions, we can add whole numbers separately and
rewrite the fractions.

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Example
5 7
Solve 2  + 3 
6 9
5 7
=2+3+ +
6 9
5 7
=5+ +
6 9
5 3 7 2
=5+ × + ×
6 3 9 2
30 14
=5+ +
18 18
44
=5+
18
4
= 5 + 2 
9
4
= 7 
9

1.2.2.2. Subtraction of Fractions

Rule 1: When subtracting fractions having same denominator, first express them with
the same common denominator and simply subtract the numerators. An exam-
ple is below.
2 1 1
– =
5 5 5

Common Denominator

Rule 2: 
When subtracting fractions having different denominator like the below
example, follow the same rules as stated in addition operation with different
denominators.
2 1
–
5 8

Different Denominator

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1.2.2.3. Multiplication of Fractions

Rule 1: Follow the three steps below, when multiplying common fractions.
• Multiply the numerators.
• Multiply the denominators.
• Simplify the fraction, if required.
Example 1
2 3
Solve ×
5 7
2×3
=    (Multiply the numerators and denominators separately)
5×7
6
=
35
Example 2
3
Solve 5 ×
7
5 3
= ×    (5 can be written as 5/1)
1 7
5 × 3 35
= = =5
7 7
Rule 2: Follow these steps, when multiplying mixed fractions.
• Change all mixed fractions to improper fractions.
• Multiply the numerators.
• Multiply the denominators
• Simplify the fraction, if required.
Example
2 4
Solve 1 × 2 
5 7
7 18
= × (Change mixed fractions to improper fractions)
5 7
7 × 18
= (Multiply the numerators and denominators separately)
5×7
18
= (Divide numerators and denominators by 7 to simplify)
5
3
= 3  (Convert it to mixed fraction)
5
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1.2.2.4. Division of Fractions

Rule: Follow the steps below, when dividing fractions.
• Exchange the numerator and denominator in the second fraction.
• Multiply the first fraction by the reciprocal fraction.
• Simplify the fraction, if required.
Example
1 2
Solve÷
2 7
1 7
= × (Turn 27 into 72 and multiply the first fraction)
2 2
1×7
= (Multiply the numerators and denominators separately)
2×2
7
=
4

1.3 DECIMALS
A decimal numbering system uses base 10 as the representation of a fraction or real
number. A fraction can be expressed in a decimal form, as in the following example.
3
= 0.3
10
3
= 0.03
100
3
= 0.003 and so on
1000

1.3.1 Decimal Point

Decimal point determines the place value of a number.
1/100
Decimal Point (hundredths)

10x
1 5 4 . 3 4 6 10x

Hundreds Tens Units 1/10 1/1000

(tenths) (thousandths)

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1.3.2 Pure Decimal

Decimal fraction such as 0.02, 0.004, and 0.0009 without a whole number is called
pure decimal.

1.3.3 Mixed Decimal

Decimal fraction combined with a whole numbers such as 2.3, 3.5 and 24.68 is called
mixed decimal. For example, a mixed decimal 23.156 can be written as follows.
1 5 6
23.156 = 23 + + +
10 100 1000
= 23 + 0.1 + 0.05 + 0.006

1.3.4 Decimal Operations

1.3.4.1. Addition of Decimals
The fundamental rule for adding decimals is to position the decimal points in-line. For
example, if you want to add 0.5, 2.4, and 15.52, then organize the numbers as shown
below where the decimal points are in-line
0.5
2.4
15.52
18.42

1.3.4.2. Subtraction of Decimals

The Subtraction is carried out as the same manner as addition by aligning decimal
points in-line. An example is stated below.
 3.478
1.23
  2.248

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1.3.4.3. Multiplication of Decimals

Follow the simple steps to multiply decimal numbers as stated below.
• Ignore the decimal points and multiply the whole numbers.
• Count the total digits on the right side of the decimal point on both the num-
bers being multiplied.
• In the answer, position the decimal point from right at the digits equal to the
total count.
Example
Solve 100 × 6.7365
= 100 × 67365 (Ignore the decimal point)
= 6736500   (Count the decimal places right of the decimal point in the
question and place it from the right; in this example it is 4)
= 673.6500  (Answer)

1.3.4.4. Division of Decimals

525 ÷ 33

Dividend Divisor

Rule 1: When you divide decimals by a whole number, ignore the decimal point and
divide as usual. Then place the decimal point at the same point as the dividend.
Example
22.6 ÷ 2
= 113 (ignore decimal)
= 11.3 (place the decimal point as the dividend; 2 digits from the left)
Rule 2: When you divide decimals by a decimal number, convert the divisor to a
whole number by shifting the decimal point and place the decimal point as the
dividend.

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Move 2 digits

525.3478 ÷ 33.23

Example
Solve 225.62 ÷ 2.1
= 2256.2 ÷ 21 (Convert the divisor to a whole number by moving the
 decimal point to 1 decimal place)
= 107.43   (Place the decimal point as the dividend; 3 digits from the left)

1.3.4.5. Rounding off Decimals

Rounding off a decimal is applied to estimate approximate values. Mostly the rounding
is used to limit the number of digits after decimal point, instead of having long string
of decimal places. For example, a decimal 45.2598239831 can be rounded off to 45.26
or 45.3 or 45.

1.3.4.6. Rounding up the Decimals

Increase the decimal place value by 1 and drop the rest if the digit value next is more
than or equal to 5.
• 23.567, when rounded up to 2 decimals will be 23.57
• 23.567 when rounded up to 1 decimal will be 23.6

1.3.4.7. Rounding down the Decimals

If the number next to the desired decimal place value is less than 4, leave the number
as it is and disregard the rest on the right.
• 23.4425 when rounded down to 2 decimals will be 23.44 (drop 2 and 5)
• 23.4425 when rounded down to 1 decimal will be 23.4 (drop 4, 2 and 5)
• 23.4425 when rounded down to whole number will be 23 (drop 4, 4, 2, and 5)

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1.4 FACTORS
A factor is a whole number that divides exactly into a whole number, leaving no
remainder. For example, 3 is a factor of 9 because when you divide 9 by 3 (9 ÷ 3 =
3 remainder 0), it divides exactly into itself leaving no remainder. So 3 is one of the
factors of 9.
• In simple terms, a number can be made by multiplying two or more numbers.
The numbers that are multiplied together to make that number are called fac-
tors of the final number. In the following example, 2 and 3 are the factors of 6.
Factor Factor

2 × 3=6
• Some numbers will have more than 2 factors. For example, consider 12
1 × 12 = 12
2 × 6 = 12
3 × 4 =12
Hence the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
• When you multiply any number by one, it will produce the same number. So
number 1 is the factor of any given number. For example, 1 × 15 = 15
1×6=6
• Since all numbers can be divided by the number itself to produce 1, usually we
ignore 1 and the number itself as the useful factors of a number. For example,
15/15 = 1 and 4/4 = 1
Facts about Factors
• Any even number will have factor 2.
• Any number ending in 5 will have factor 5.
• Any number above 0 that ends with 0 (such as 10, 20, 100. . .) will have factors
two and five.

1.4.1 Prime factorization

Prime factorization of a positive integer is the determination of prime factors that
divide that integer exactly. In simple terms, to find multiplication of prime numbers
that make the original number. It is also known as prime decomposition.
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Example

Determine the prime factorization of 12.

Using factor tree, first divide 12 by lowest
number possible.
12
12 ÷ 2 = 6,
So the factors of 12 are 2 and 6.
Since 2 is the prime number we circle it. 2 6
Then divide 6 by 2 (again lowest number)
6÷2=3
2 3
So the factors of 6 are 2 and 3.
Since 2 and 3 are prime numbers we circle them.
The prime factorization of 12 = 2 × 2 × 3.
12 = 22 × 3
2
12 = 2 × 3

1.4.1.1. Prime factorization of odd numbers

Example

Determine the prime factorization of 147

Using factor tree, first divide 147 by the lowest number possible.
Cannot divide by 2 because the answer should be a whole number.
So the next possible number is 3
147
147 ÷ 3 = 46
here the factors of 147 are 3 and 49.
Since 3 is the prime number we circle it. 3 49
Then divide 49 by 7 (again lowest number)

49 ÷ 7 = 7
7 7
here the factors of 49 are 7 and 7.
Since 7 is a prime number we circle.
Now we list all the circled numbers; 3, 7, and 7
The prime factorization of 147 = 3 × 7 × 7. 147 = 3 × 72
Using Exponents, prime factorization of 147 is

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1.4.1.2. Prime factorization of large numbers

Example

5940

10 594

2 5 2 297

3 99
Multiply all the prime numbers
from smallest to the largest
2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 11 = 5940
3 33
Prime Factorization of 5940 is
22 × 33 × 5 × 11

3 11

1.5 MULTIPLES
Multiple is a product of any quantity and an integer. In mathematical terms, y is a
multiple of x; if y = nx where n is an integer. For example multiples of 3 are . . . –9, –6,
–3, 0, 3, 6, 9. . .
3 × –3 = –9
3 × –2 = –6
3 × –1 = –3
3×0=0
3×1=3
3×2=6
3 × 3 = 9 (and so on)
Positive Multiples of 3 are: 3(1), 3(2), 3(3), 3(4) and so on
= 3, 6, 9, 12. . . .

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1.6 RATIOS
A ratio is a comparison of one quantity in relation to another of a same kind. Note that
the word ‘is to’ in the ratio has the same meaning as the colon ‘:’.
For example, if we have 10 apples and 2 oranges, then we can say that the ratio of
apples to oranges is 10 to 2. It means that for every 10 apples we have 2 oranges (10:2)
or scale it down and say, for every 5 apples we have 1 orange (5:1) or scale it up and say,
for every 20 apples we will have 4 oranges (20:4). Thus the ratio of apples to oranges
is ‘ten is to two’ and can be written as 10:2 or 10/2 or 10 to 2.
For example, the pressure to altitude ratio of 2:1 would indicate that for every foot
increase in altitude, the pressure would increase by 2 PSI.

1.6.1 Ratio between two quantities

Example 1
In a basket there are 12 red balls and 4 blue balls. What is the ratio of red balls to blue
balls?
Red balls : Blue balls (order is important)
12 : 4
12/4 : 4/4 (General practice to simplify)
3:1
This answer can be written as 3:1 or 3/1 or 3 to 1.
Example 2
In a basket there are 12 red balls and 4 blue balls. What is the ratio of blue balls to red
balls?
Here notice that the question is asking the ratio of blue balls to red balls.
Blue balls : Red balls (order is important)
4 : 12
4/4 : 12/4 (General practice to simplify)
1:3
This answer can be written as 1:3 or 1/3 or 1 to 3.

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Arith m e tic

1.6.2 Ratio between more than two quantities

Example
In a hangar there are 20 Helicopters, 40 Engines and 60 Propellers. What is the ratio
of helicopters to propellers to engines?
Helicopters : Propellers : Engines
20 : 60 : 40
20/20 : 60/20 : 40/20
(To simplify, find the largest number that can divide all three and in this case it is 20)
1 : 3 : 2
The answer is 1:3:2.
Note: Based on the answer given, if you are required finding the ratio of Engines to
Helicopters to Propellers. Then the ratio order is written as 2:1:3.

1.6.3 Simplifying ratios

In general, the ratios are expressed in a simplified form. The ratio numbers are scaled
down to smallest possible numbers. To scale down the ratio, divide both the sides by
the largest possible number. Let us look at some of the examples to understand better.
Example 1
A ratio 25:50 can be scaled down to 1:2 (divide both sides by 25)
Example 2
A ratio 12:16 can be scaled down to 3:4 (divide both sides by 4)
Example 3
To simplify the ratio 15:86, it is acceptable to scale it down to 1 and other as a whole
numbers and decimals. Because in this case, it is not possible to find a common num-
ber that can scale it down resulting whole numbers. The scaled down ratio of 15:86 is
15/15 : 86/15 (divide both sides by 15)
1 : 5.73

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1.6.4 Ratio to quantities

If we know the ratio, then the following steps will explain on how to find the quantity
(numbers).
Example 1
The ratio of files to hammer in a toolbox is 2:3. How many files would be there if there
are total of 25 tools?
The ratio 2:3 shows that for a group of every 5 tools (2 + 3) there are 2 files and
3 hammers. In total there are 25 tools, which means that there are 25/5= 5 group of
tools. Each group has 2 files. So in a group of 5 there should be 5 × 2 = 10 files.
Example 2
The ratio of serviceable to unserviceable engines in a hangar is 1:4. The total number
of engines is 120. Determine how many engines are serviceable?
Serviceable : Unserviceable
1 : 4
Total engines in a group = 1 + 4 = 5
Total number of groups = 120/5 = 24
Each group has one unserviceable engine. So, the total number unserviceable engines
= 24 × 1 = 24 engines.

1.7 PROPORTIONS
A proportion is a term used to state that two ratios are equal.
• If a/b = c/d, then the ratio ‘a/b’ is proportionate to a ratio ‘c/d’. The equal ratios
can be written as ‘a/b = c/d’ or ‘a:b = c:d’.
• When two ratios are equal, then the cross product of the ratios are equal. Thus
the proportion ‘a:b = c:d’ is equal to ‘a × d = b × c’.
• Cross product of ratios is also used to find a missing term.
Example
Find a value of ‘n’ in the following proportion
2/3 = n/9
2 × 9 = n × 3 (cross multiply)
18 = 3n
3n = 18
n = 18/3 = 6
Answer: 6 21
Arith m e tic

1.7.1 Directly proportional

Two variables are directly proportional if a change (increase or decrease) in one variable
always accompanies the other variable. So if one variable increases, the other too will
increase and vice versa.
Example
Consider two variables Temperature (T) and Pressure (P), where the temperature is
directly proportional (α) to pressure. That means the pressure increases corresponding
to the temperature increase or the pressure decreases corresponding to the temperature
decrease.
TαP
This can be written as T = kP (Where k is a constant)

1.7.2 Inversely proportional

Two variables are said to be inversely proportional to each other, if one value decreases
at the same rate that the other increases.
Example
Consider two variables Volume (V) and Pressure (P), where the pressure is inversely
proportional to volume. That means the volume increases corresponding to the pres-
sure decrease or the volume decreases corresponding to the pressure increase.
1
Vα
P
1
V = k  (k is a constant)
P

1.8 AVERAGES
Average is a mean value of multiple quantities, items or functions. Average values are
used to compare or estimate values. We often hear and use the word average in our
day to day activities such as average rainfall, average speed of an aircraft, average marks
obtained by the students, average height of Australian women and so on. Some exam-
ples to determine the average value are given below.

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 Ari t hm e t i c

Example 1
What is the average of 3, 5, 2, 8, 4 and 9?
Sum of items
Average =
Number of items
3+5+2+8+4+9
=
6
31
=
6
= 5.16
Note: Now we can determine the above and below average numbers.
Example 2
What is the average speed of an aircraft, if it travels 7600km in 9 hours?
Distance
Average speed =
Time
7600
=
9
= 844.44km/hr
Note: The answer would allow us to plan other destinations, such as how much time
it would take to fly a distance of 15000km or what distance it would cover in 5 hours.
Example 3
A boy participated in triathlon competition and has covered a distance of 25km
(Swimming 2km in 20 minutes; Cycling 18km in 60 minutes; Running 5km in 30
minutes). What was the boy’s average speed in completing the race?
Total distance
Average speed =
Total time
2 + 18 + 5
=
2 18 5
+ +
20 60 30
25
=
2 × 3 + 18 + 5 × 2
60
25
=
34
26
26
= 25 ×
34
650
=
34
= 19.12km/hr
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1.9 PERCENTAGES
Percentage is an expression of a quantity as a fraction of 100. It describes the quantity
out of 100 or we can say ‘of 100’. Thus the denominator of a percentage as fraction is
always 100.
#
Percent = = #%
100
1
The symbol of percent is % and it represents
100
1 1
For example when we say 50%, we mean it as 50 × =
100 2

1.9.1 Converting fractions into percentages

Fraction multiplied by 100 gives the percentage of the fraction.
Percentage = Fraction × 100

Example
3 out of 20 aircrafts are grounded. What percentage is grounded in this case?
3
Percentage of grounded aircraft = × 100
20
300
= = 15%
20

1.9.2 Converting percentages into fractions

When converting percentages into fraction, multiply the percentage by 1/100.
Fraction = Percentage × 1100

Example
Convert 125% into fraction
1 1
125% = 125 × (Multiply by )
100 100
125 5
= = (Improper fraction)
100 4
1
= 1 
4

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1.9.3 Converting percentages into decimals

When converting percentages to decimals, multiply by 1/100 and remove % sign.
Example
Convert 26% into decimals
1
26% = 26 × = 0.26
100

1.9.4 Converting decimals into percentages

When converting decimals to percentages, multiply by 100 and add % sign.
Examples
0.25 = 0.25 × 100 = 25%
0.75 = 0.75 × 100 = 75%
1.00 = 1 × 100 = 100%
1.36 = 1.36 × 100 = 136%
13.6 = 13.6 × 100 = 1360%
Some other examples in relation to aviation industry are given below.
Example 1
Total capacity of an aircraft fuel tank is 7000 US gallons. Left tank can hold 25% and
the right tank can hold 35%. How many gallons of fuel can the mid tank hold?
Left and right tanks can hold = (25% + 35%) × 7000
25 35
=Q + R × 7000
100 100
60
=Q R × 7000
100
= 4200 gals

Mid tank can hold = (7000 – 4200) = 2800 gals

Example 2
What percentage is 30 seconds of 1 minute?
1 minute = 60 seconds
30
Percentage = Q R × 100
60
= 50%
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Example 3
In 2013, Boeing sold 20 out of 100 aircrafts and Airbus sold 20 out of 140 aircrafts.
Which company did the highest sales in terms of percentage?
20
Percentage of Boeing sales = Q R × 100
100
= 50%
20
Percentage of Airbus sales = Q R × 100
140
= 14.28%
In terms of percentage, Boeing made the highest number of sales.

1.10 POWERS
The power of a number is a method of indicating how many times a number is mul-
tiplied by itself. For example, 54 means “5 to the power of 4.” That is, 5 multiplied by
itself 4 times. The 5 is the base number and 4 is the power.
Example
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16.
Read “two to the fourth power equals sixteen.”

1.10.1  Squared powers

When a number has a power of 2, it is commonly referred to as “squared.” For e­ xample,
52 is read as “five squared” or “five to the second power.”

1.10.2  Cubed powers

When a number has a power of 3, it is commonly referred to as “cubed.” For example,
63 is read as “six cubed” or “six to the third power.”

1.10.3  Negative powers

It means how many times to divide by the number.
Example
2 1 1
2−4 = 4 = =
2 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 16
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1.10.4  Powers of zero

Any number raised to the zero power always equals 1.
Examples
   40 = 1
(–69)0 = 1

1.10.5  Powers of ten

The scientific notation and various day-to-day applications use power of ten.

Powers of 10

Powers of 10 Standard Form Fractional Form Place Value

10,000
104 10,000 ten thousands
1
1,000
103 1,000 thousands
1
100
102 100 hundreds
1
10
101 10 tens
1
1
100 1 ones
1
1
10–1 0.1 tenths
10
1
10–2 0.01 hundredths
100
1
10–3 0.001 thousandths
1,000
1
10–4 0.0001 ten thousandths
10,000

1.11 ROOTS
A root is a number that when multiplied by itself a specified number of times will
produce a given number.

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Arith m e tic

1.11.1  Square roots

The common application in mathematics is finding the square roots. The symbol √
is called a radical sign. The square root of 81 (written as √81) equals 9. In other ways,
when the number 9 is multiplied by itself, it produces the number 81.
The collection of numbers whose square roots are whole numbers are called perfect
squares. The first ten perfect squares are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 and 100. And
the square root of each of these numbers is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 respectively.
The estimation method is commonly used to find the square root of a number that is
not a perfect square.
Example
Find the square root of 41.
• The number 41 cannot be reduced and it falls between the two perfect roots 36
and 49. We know that √41 must be between √36 and √49.
• Therefore, √41 must be greater than 6 and less than 7 because √36 = 6 and √49
= 7.
• Estimate the square root of 41 at 6.5, which is closest to the correct answer. The
square root of 41 is actually 6.403.
In the fractional method, the square root of a number is written with a 1⁄2 as the
exponent instead of a radical sign. For example, √31 = 311⁄2

1.11.2  Cube roots

The cube root of 64 (written as 3√64) equals 4. That is, when the number 4 is cubed
(4 multiplied by itself then multiplying the product (16) by 4 again), it produces the
number 64.
The clarification for ‘cube’ and ‘cube root’ confusion is given below.
• The cube of 27 = 273 = 27 × 27 × 27 = 19,683
• The cube root of 27 = 3√27 = 3
In the fractional method, the cube root of a number is written with an exponent of
1⁄3. For example, 3√125 = 1251⁄3

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1.12  LAW OF EXPONENTS

Rule 1: When multiplying numbers with powers, the powers can be added if the bases
are the same.
Example
42 × 44 = (4 × 4) × (4 × 4 × 4 × 4)
 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4
 = 46 or 42 × 44
 = 4(2+4)
 = 46
Rule 2: When dividing numbers with powers, the powers can be subtracted if the bases
are the same.
Example:
10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
106 ÷ 103 = = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103
10 × 10 × 10
(or) 106 ÷ 103 = 10(6 − 3) = 103

1.13  COMMON LOGARITHMS (LOG)

The common logarithm is the logarithm to base 10. The use of common logs made
the process of multiplication and division simpler and is widely used by engineers. The
numbers used with common logarithms should have the same base of 10 and raise to
some power value. It can be represented in any of the following ways.
10000 = 104 or ‘log of 10000 is 4’ or ‘log1010000 = 4’
The log and anti-log tables are used to convert the values between their number
form and exponent form.
The log is made up of two parts namely, characteristic of the logarithm and mantissa.
The figure in front of the decimal point is called the characteristic and the number
behind the decimal point is the mantissa.
In the example log10753 = 2.8768, the number ‘2’ is the characteristic and ‘.8768’
is the mantissa.
The mantissa is always positive, whereas the characteristic may be either positive or
negative. A negative characteristic will always occurs with numbers less than 1. As the
mantissa is always positive, the negative sign deliberately appears as a ‘bar’ above the
characteristic in order to avoid making the entire number negative.

29
Arith m e tic

Example
0.06 = 10−2 × 6 = 10−2 × 100.7782
log100.06 = 2.7782
Anti-log/anti-logarithm is a reverse process, which is used to obtain an ordinary
number from a log number. Once you get a log answer, use only the mantissa part to
consult anti-log table for an answer. The characteristic part will determine the number
of decimal places to move. The following arithmetic operations will explain this clearly.

1.13.1 Multiplication
In order to multiply any two numbers, the log values of the numbers are found from
log tables and are added. The resultant log value is viewed in the anti-log tables and
the answer is derived.
Example
Solve 69.31 × 57.43

1. Log of 69.31 (using log table) = 1.841

2. Log of 57.43 (using log table) = 1.7591
3. Add the log numbers = (1.841 + 1.7591) = 3.6001
4. Convert the mantissa part (.6001) into an ordinary number (using anti-log
table) = 3.981
5. Move the decimal point 3 places to the right for the final answer = 3981

1.13.2 Division
In order to divide any two numbers, the log values of the numbers that are found from
log tables are subtracted from one another.
Example
Solve 2500 ÷ 60

1. Log of 2500 (using log table) = 2.3980

2. Log of 60 (using log table) = 1.7782
3. Subtract the log numbers = (2.3980 − 1.7782) = 0.6198
4. Anti-log of 0.6198 (using anti-log table) = 4167
5. Move the decimal point 2 places to the right for the final answer = 41.67
30
CHAPTER
2 Mensuration

M ensuration is a branch of mathematics, which deals with the study of geometric

shapes including their area, volume and other measurements.

2.1 LINES AND ANGLES

A line is defined as a long thin mark whereas an angle is the space between two straight
intersecting lines. It is usually measured in terms of the amount of rotation.

Line

Intersection
Angle
Line

An angular measurement is made in degrees and denoted as ‘o’. For example, 45o.
Various degrees of a circle is given in the following figure.
90°
120° 60°

150° 30°

0° or
180°
360°

210° 330°

240° 300°
270°

31
Me n su r a tio n

In some disciplines, angles are measure in radians. It is numerically equal to the

length of a corresponding arc of a unit circle. One radian is equal to 57.3o and is
abbreviated to rads. One radian is the angle subtended at the circle center when the
arc-length is equal in length to the radius.

arc length
equal to
radius

one radian

radius

Generally radians are quoted as follows.

One revolution = 360o = 2π radians
180o = π radians
π
90o =
2

2.1.1 Degrees to Radians

The formula for converting degrees to radians is to multiply the number by Π/180°.
The value of Π = 3.142.
Example
Convert 140o into radians
π 140oπ
140o × = 180o
180o
= 0.783π
= 0.783 × 3.142
= 2.443 radians

32
 M e nsur a t i on

2.1.2 Radians to Degrees

The formula for converting degrees to radians is to multiply the number by 180°/Π.
The value of Π = 3.142.
Example
Convert 1.4 radians to degrees
180o 252o
1.4 × π = π ≈ 80.2o

2.1.3 Types of Angles

2.1.3.1. Right angle
This angle measures exactly 90o and is indicated by a small square at the intersection
point.

2.1.3.2.  Acute angle

This angle measures less than 90o.

33
Me n su r a tio n

2.1.3.3.  Obtuse angle

This angle measures more than 90o but less than 180o.

2.1.3.4.  Straight angle

This angle exactly 180o and looks like a straight line.

2.1.3.5.  Reflex angle

This angle measures more than 180o but less than 360o.

2.1.3.6.  Adjacent angle

This angle has a common vertex and a common side, which means that the vertical
point and the side are shared by the two angles without overlapping.

A
B

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 M e nsur a t i on

2.1.3.7.  Complimentary angles

The two angles whose measure add to 90o and form a right angle together are called
complementary angles.

2.1.3.8.  Supplementary angles

The two angles whose measures add to 180o are called supplementary angles.

120° 60°

2.1.3.9.  Vertical angles

These angles are opposite to each other when two lines cross by sharing the same
vertex.

B
A A
B

35
Me n su r a tio n

2.2 MENSURATION FORMS

The complex shapes are fragmented into simpler forms to enable easy calculation. A
length, area and volume are the three basic measures used in the formula.
• Length: A length is the most extended dimension of an object and its SI unit is
‘meter’.
• Area: An area measures the extent of a two-dimensional figure and its SI unit is
‘m2’ or ‘square meter’.
• Volume: A volume is a measure of a shape within the outside the outside surfaces
of a three-dimensional figure. The SI unit for volume is ‘m3’ or ‘cubic meter’.
The basic forms of mensuration are two dimensional and three dimensional shapes.

2.2.1  Two-dimensional Shapes

2.2.1.1. Circle
The area of the circle is the number of square units inside the circle. The length of the
curved line forming a circle is called as circumference. The distance from the center
point to the circumference is the radius. The straight line from one side of the circle to
the other side through the center point is the diameter.

Area of Circle

A = π × R2 or A = π × R × R

Radius
A=π×R×R
= 2 mm
A = 3.142 × 2 × 2
Diameter
A = 12.57 mm2
= 4 mm

R = radius

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2.2.1.2. Square
In a square, all four sides are of equal length and corners are all right angles.

Area of Square

A=s×s

A=s×s
Side = 7cm A=7×7
A = 49 cm2

Side = 7cm

s = side of the square

2.2.1.3. Rectangle
All angles in a rectangle are right angles (900). Unlike square, opposite sides of the
rectangles are equal in length and adjacent sides are not equal.

Area of Rectangle

A=b×h
height = 7m

A=b×h
A = 12 × 7
A = 84 m2

base = 12m

b = width of the rectangle

h = height of the rectangle

37
Me n su r a tio n

2.2.1.4. Triangle
Triangle is a three-sided polygon with three edges and three vertices. The sum of the
interior angles in a triangle is equal to 180o.

Area of Triangle

A = (b × h)
A = ½ × b × h or
2

height = 3 cm

A=½×b×h
A=½×4×3
A = 6 cm2

base = 4 cm

2.2.1.5. Parallelogram
In this, opposite sides are parallel and of equal length, but the adjacent sides are of
different length. The opposite interior angles are equal but not right angles.

Area of Parallelogram

A=b×h

height = 7 cm
A=b×h
A=8×7
A = 56 cm2

base = 8 cm

2.2.1.6. Trapezium
Trapezium is a four-sided figure with two parallel sides.

38
 M e nsur a t i on

Area of Trapezium

A = ½ (a + b) × h
a = 2 cm A = ½ (a + b) × h
A = ½ (2 + 10) × 6
A = 36 cm2
height = 6 cm

b = 10 cm

2.2.2  Three-dimensional shapes

The basic formulae on areas, surface areas and volumes of the basic three-dimensional
shapes are given in the figure below.

Lateral or
Sl. Curved Total Surface Area Volume
Name Figure Surface Area
No (sq.units) (cu.units)
(sq.units)

Solid right
1. circular h 2πrh 2πr (h + r) π r 2h
cylinder
r

r
Right π R 2h – π r 2h
circular
2. hollow h 2πh (R + r ) 2π (R + r) (R – r + h) π h (R 2 – r 2)
cylinder R π h (R + r )(R – r )

Solid right
1 πr 2h
3. circular h
l πrl πr (l + r )
3
cone
r

h 1 π h (R 2 + r 2 + Rr )
4. Frustum
3
R

r 4 r3
5. Sphere 4πr 2 π
3

39
CHAPTER
3 Algebra

A
lgebra is the branch of mathematics that uses letters or symbols to represent
variables in formula and equations. Equations formed using this method are
called as algebraic equations and they are widely used in aviation industry. The
following rules are important when solving algebraic equations.
Rule 1: When solving for a variable in an equation, you must follow the same mathe-
matical operations on both sides of the equation.
Example
Find N using the equation, 4N = 24
4N = 24
4N ÷ 4 = 24 ÷ 4 (divide both sides by 4)
N = 6
Rule 2: PEMDAS is an acronym to remember the order of operation for algebraic
equations. PEMDAS is expanded as follows.

1. Parentheses
2. Exponents
3. Multiplication and Division
4. Addition and Subtraction

However the process of ‘multiplication and division’ and ‘addition and subtraction’ can
be done together.

41
Alg eb r a

3.1 LINEAR EQUATIONS

The linear equations are simple algebraic equations that are also known as first degree
equations. Each term of a linear equation is either a constant or the product of a
constant and a variable. Like any other mathematical operation, an equal sign (=) is
important in solving linear equations. Anything can be done to one side of an equa-
tion, provided the exact operation is carried out to the other side. The standard form
of linear equation is ‘y = mx + c’.
Example
Solve the equation 3x − 6 = 15
3x = 15 + 6
3x = 21
x = 21/3
x = 7

3.2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Quadratic equations are called second degree equations where an unknown variable is
raised to a second power. The standard form of quadratic equation is written as ‘ax2 +
bx + c = 0’ and the simplest quadratic equation is ‘y = x2’.

3.2.1 Solving methods of quadratic equations

3.2.1.1. Solving by factoring
This method is followed when the equation is easily factorable and does not have a
constant.
Example
Factorize x2 – 12x + 27 = 0
(x – 9) (x – 3) = 0
x–9=0 x–3=0
x=9 x=3

42
 Al ge br a

3.2.1.2. Solving by graphing

Since it is difficult to determine the x-intercepts using equation solving method,
­following method can be use to solve the quadratic equations and find integer values
for x-intercepts.

Example
Solve (x2 + 2x + 1 = y) by graphing

1. Draw a table for values of x from 1-7 and calculate corresponding values of y
using the equation.

x x2 2x 1 Y
1 1 2 1 4
2 4 4 1 9
3 9 9 1 16
4 16 8 1 25
5 25 10 1 36
6 36 12 1 49
7 49 14 1 64

2. Mark points on graph of each value of x against the corresponding value of y, as

follows.

x Y
1 4
2 9
3 16
4 25
5 36
6 49
7 64

43
Alg eb r a

3. Plot graph by carefully joining marked points with a smooth curved line, and
the solution is derived based on the point of intersection as shown below.

Solution

(–1, 0) 3
y = x2 + 2x + 1
2 y = (x + 1)2
0 = (x + 1)(x + 1)
1 x = –1

–2 –1 1 2 3 4

3.2.1.3. Solving by quadratic formula

It is used when factorizing method is difficult. The following quadratic formula is
based on the standard form of quadratic equation ‘ax2 + bx + c = 0’.

− b ± √b2 – 4ac
x=
2a

Example
Solve (y = x² + 2x + 1) by using quadratic formula; a = 1, b = 2, c = 1
− 2 ± √22 – 4(1)(1)
2(1)

− 2 ± √4 – 4
2

− 2 ± √0 −2
−1
2 2

44
 Al ge br a

3.2.1.4. Solving by square method

Quadratic equations can be solved by completing the square.
Example

x 2 − 2x − 1 = 0 Keep all terms containing x on one side. Move the

constant to the right.
x 2 − 2x = 1
Get ready to create a perfect square on the left.
x 2 − 2x + = 1 +
Balance the equation.
x 2 − 2x + 1 = 1 + 1
Take half of the x-term coefficient and square it. Add
x 2 − 2x + 1 = 2 this value to both sides.
(x − 1)2 = 2 Simplify and write the perfect square on the left.
x − 1 = ±√2 Take the square root of both sides. Be sure to allow
x = 1 ±√2 for both plus and minus.
x = 1 ±√2;  x = 1 − √2 Solve for x.

Solve x2 – 2x – 1 = 0

3.2.1.5. Solving by square root method

One of the many ways to solve a quadratic equation is by using this method.
Example
x2 – 4 = 0
x2 = 4
√x2 = ±√4
x = ±2

45
Alg eb r a

3.3 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

This is a finite set of equations for which common solutions are sought. It usually
contain more than one unknown.
Example
Solve the two simultaneous equations:
2y + x = 8 [1]
1 + y = 2x [2]
Form [2]: y = 2x − 1 Subtract 1 from each side
Substituting this value for y into [1] gives:
2(2x − 1) + x = 8 Expand the bracket
or
4x − 2 + x = 8 ‘Tidy’ up
5x − 2 = 8 Add 2 to each side
5x = 10 Divide each side by 5 to
x=2 give the value for x

Substituting x = 2 into y = 2x − 1, gives:

y=4−1=3
y=3
So the two solutions are x = 3 and y = 3.

46
CHAPTER
4 Numbering Systems

4.1 DECIMAL SYSTEM

In the decimal system or denary system, ten is the radix of decimal numeration and
of common logarithms. This system came into use because of the fact that humans
have 10 fingers and the early computers were designed based on this system. It is built
on successive powers of 10, the number with the smallest value (100) being the LSD
(Least Significant Digit) and the number with the highest value (104) being the MSD
(Most Significant Digit). The decimal system is difficult and slow to operate in digital
equipment, as the circuits would have 10 separate levels of collector current.

4.2 BINARY SYSTEM

The primary use of the binary system is in computer applications. This system has only
two figure or digits ‘0 and 1’, called as bits (binary and digits).
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
0 0 10 1010
1 1 11 1011
2 10 12 1100
3 11 13 1101
4 100 14 1110
5 101 15 1111
6 110 16 10000
7 111 17 10001
8 1000 18 10010
9 1001 19 10011

The binary number system is also useful when working with digital electronics.
The use of this system is based on the fact that it has two states, ON and OFF which

47
Nu m b erin g Sy ste m s

is represented by 1 and 0, respectively. This system has a base or radix of 2 as shown

below.

Base – 2 System

25 24 23 22 21 20
32s 16s 8s 4s 2s 1s
1 1 0 0 = 12

4.2.1 Operations of Binary Numbers

4.2.1.1. Addition of Binary Numbers
Rules:

Case A+ B Sum Carry

1 0+0 0 0
2 0+1 1 0
3 1+0 1 0
4 1+1 0 1

Example
1  1  1    1
1 0 1 1 0 1
+     1 1 0 0 1
1  0  0  0  1  1  0
101101 + 11001 = 1000110

4.2.1.2. Subtraction of Binary Numbers

Rules:

Case A– B Subtract Borrow

1 0–0 0 0
2 1–0 1 0
3 1–1 0 0
4 0–1 0 1

48
 Num be ri ng S yst e m s

Example
0  1  1  1  1
1  0  0  0  0 1
−     1 1 1 1 1
0  0  0  0  1  0
100001 – 11111 = 000010

4.2.1.3. Multiplication of Binary Numbers

Rules:

Case A× B Multiply

1 0×0 0
2 0×1 0
3 1×0 0
4 1×1 1

Example
1 1 0 0
1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 Add
1  0  0  1  0  0 
1100 × 11 = 100100

4.2.1.4. Division of Binary Numbers

Rules:

A B Output

0 1 0
1 1 1
Division by zero is meaning less

49
Nu m b erin g Sy ste m s

Example
11011 ÷ 11 = 1001
1 0 0 1
1 1  R  1 1 0 1 1
1 1
0 0
0 0
0 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0

4.3 OCTAL SYSTEM

This system has less symbols to use than conventional number system. Octal system
uses the base or radix 8 to represent the quantities. They are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.
When we count up one from the 7, we need a new placement to represent what we call
8 since an 8 doesn’t exist in Octal and so, after 7 is 10.

Decimal Octal Binary Coded

Number Number Octal Number

0 0 000
1 1 001
2 2 010
3 3 011
4 4 100
5 5 101
6 6 110
7 7 111
8 10 100 000
10 12 001 010
15 17 001 111
16 20 010 000

50
 Num be ri ng S yst e m s

4.4 HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM

This system has a base or radix of 16, where 0 to 9 are used to represent values zero to
nine and A, B, C, D, E, F to represent values ten to fifteen.

Hexadecimal Binary Decimal

0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
A 1010 10
B 1011 11
C 1100 12
D 1101 13
E 1110 14
F 1111 15

4.5 BCD (BINARY CODED DECIMAL) SYSTEM

There are different BCD codes available, out of which BCD8421 code is more com-
monly used. In this system, the numbers 0 to 9 are represented by their pure binary
equivalents, 4 bits per decimal number consecutively. The LSB (Least Significant Bit)
has the weight of value 1, the next bit on the left has the value 2, and the next with
value 4 and the MSB (Least Significant Bit) has the value 8.

51
Nu m b erin g Sy ste m s

BCD
Decimal
8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
2 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1
4 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1
6 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1
8 1 0 0 0
9 1 0 0 1

4.6 CONVERSIONS
4.6.1. Binary to decimal numbers
To convert a binary number to a decimal number, add up the place values that have 1.
Example
Convert 10011011 to decimal

10011011

1 × 20 = 1
1 × 21 = 2
1 × 22 = 0
1 × 23 = 8
1 × 24 = 16
1 × 25 = 0
1 × 26 = 0
1 × 27 = 128

Result = 155

4.6.2. Decimal to binary numbers

To convert a binary number to a decimal number, the place values in the binary system
are used to create a sum of numbers that equal the value of the decimal number being
converted.
52
 Num be ri ng S yst e m s

Example

The problem: 1910 – ? 2

The procedure:

Step 1 2 19 Remainders Step 2

2 9 1 Rotate the
remainders
by 2 until zero
Keep dividing

2 4 1

2 2 0

2 1 0

0 1

1 0 0 1 1
2

4.6.3. Octal to decimal numbers

To convert any octal number into decimal number, multiply the digits of the number
from right hand side with increasing powers of 8 starting from 0 and finally sum up
all the products.
Example
Convert 1238 to decimal
1238 = 1 × 82 + 2 × 81 + 3 × 80
= 64 + 16 + 3
= 73
The decimal equivalent of 1238 = 7310

53
Nu m b erin g Sy ste m s

4.6.4. Decimal to octal numbers

To convert any decimal number into an octal number, divide it by 8. The remainder is
again divided by the largest possible power of 8. Continue the process until the power
of 8 is 1 and the remainder is less than 8. Finally arrange the obtained quotient.
Example
Convert 79610 to octal
796/8 = 99 (remainder 4)
99.5/8 = 12 (remainder 3)
12/8 = 1 (remainder 4)
1/8 = 0 (remainder 1)
The octal equivalent of 79610 = 14348

4.6.5. Octal to binary numbers

To convert an octal number to binary number, look up each digit to obtain the equiv-
alent group of three binary digits.
Example
Convert 3458 to binary
3   4   5
011 100 101
The binary equivalent of 3458 = 0111001012

4.6.6. Decimal to hexadecimal numbers

To convert a decimal number to hexadecimal number, divide the number by 16 ­writing
the remainders as hex characters and read that column from the bottom.
Example
Convert 92110 to hexadecimal
921/16 = 57 (remainder 9)
57/16 = 3 (remainder 9)
3/16 = 0 (remainder 3)
The hexadecimal equivalent of 92110 = 39916

54
 Num be ri ng S yst e m s

4.6.7. Hexadecimal to binary numbers

To convert any hexadecimal number to binary number, convert each hex digit to 4
binary digits according to the standard table.
Example
Convert 4E16 to binary
4 E
0100 1110
The binary equivalent of 4E16 = 010011102

4.6.8. BCD to decimal numbers

To convert any BCD number into decimal number, simply split the number into
groups of four and convert according to the standard table.
Example
Convert 10000011 to decimal
1000 0011
8 3
The decimal equivalent of 10000011 = 8310

55
CHAPTER
5 Geometry

G
eometry is a branch of mathematics related to shape, size, position and prop-
erties of space. It is helpful to discover patterns, find areas, volumes, angles
and length to understand the world around us. It is difficult to draw accurate
geometric shapes without using geometric instruments such as ruler, compass, and set
squares and so on.
As far as aviation industry is concerned, basic knowledge and understanding on
this subject is sufficient. Follow the steps to construct basic geometric shapes.

5.1 CONSTRUCT TWO PARALLEL LINES

1. Draw a straight line.
2. Place two marks on the line.
3. Set the compass radius (r) to required distance for the parallel line.
4. Construct two arcs (a and b) at the longest reasonable distance apart on line 1.
5. Draw line 2 (parallel line) just touching the top of the arcs.

Line 2

Arc Arc
r d r

Line 1

57
Ge o m e tr y

5.2 BISECT A LINE

1. Place the compass at one end of line segment ensuring the radius (r) is set greater
than half the line length.
2. Draw arcs above and below the line, leaving the radius unaltered.
3. Draw arcs from other line end with the same compass width.

Arc 2 Arc 1

r r

A B

4. Draw a perpendicular line (bisecting line) through arc intersections.

5.3 CONSTRUCT A PERPENDICULAR AT A POINT ON

A LINE
1. Set the compass on A (the place where perpendicular line is to be created) with
a medium width.
2. Draw an arc on each side of A, creating two points.
3. Form the centres of two further arcs 2 and 3 with the increased compass radius.
4. Draw a line from A to the intersecting point on the top, which will be a perpen-
dicular line.

Arc 2 Arc 3

Arc 1

58
 Ge om e t r y

5.4 CONSTRUCT A PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT

TO A LINE
1. Set the compass point on A.
2. Set the radius greater than the distance to the line, in order to cut the line at C
and D.
3. Reduce the compass radius and draw two arcs 3 and 4 from the compass points
C and D.
4. Draw a line from A through the intersecting point E, which will be a perpen-
dicular line.

Arc 3 E Arc 2

C D
Arc 1

5.5 DIVIDE A LINE INTO EQUAL PARTS

1. Draw a line with A and B points.
2. Draw a second construction ray (AD) from A at an angle.
3. Place the compass on A and adjust the width depending upon the number of
parts required.
4. Without changing the radius draw the arcs on the ray line. And name the final
point as D.
5. Join the point D to the end of the original line B.
6. Draw parallel lines to this line from each of the stepped-off points, thus divid-
ing the line into required number of equal parts.

59
Ge o m e tr y

A B

5.6 BISECT AN ANGLE CAB

1. Place the compass point on the angle’s vertex.
2. Draw an arc across each leg by setting the radius to any width.
3. Make two arcs 2 and 3 in the angle’s interior with reduced radius.
4. Draw a line from A to where the arcs cross, which bisects CAB.

Arc 1
C Arc 2

D
Arc 3

A B

5.7 CONSTRUCT A 60° ANGLE

1. Draw a line with A and B points.
2. Set the compass width to half the length of AB and place it on the point A.
3. Draw a big arc above crossing AB line.
4. Place the compass on the crossing point and draw another arc D across the
first.

60
 Ge om e t r y

5. Draw a line from A through the arc intersection point, which will form a 60o
angle with AB.

C
D

60º

A B

61
CHAPTER
6 Plane Trigonometry

T
rigonometry is the study of relationships between the sides and angles of a
­triangle. In the following figure, each angle is labelled with a capital letter and
the corresponding sides with a lower case letter. As it revolves, it can be imagined
that a right angled triangle ABC is formed with the right angle at C. The arm across the
right angle is referred as hypotenuse.

Arm
a

A b C

The three basic trigonometric functions that involve the angle θ and the triangle
sides are sine (sin), cosine (cos) and tangent (tan). The ratios comparing two triangle
sides are given below.
opposite BC
Sin θ = =
hypotenuse AB
adjacent AC
Cos θ = =
hypotenuse AB
opposite
sin θ hypotenuse
Tan θ = =
cos θ adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite BC
= =
adjacent AC
63
P lan e Trig o n o m e t r y

Apart from using a calculator, trigonometric table is also used to find out the
degree values. A part of the table is shown below.

θ 0º 30º 45º 60º 90º

1 1 √3
sin θ 0 2 √2 2
1

√3 1 1
cos θ 1 2 √2 2
0

tan θ 0 1
1 √3
Not
√3 defined

Example
Find BC for the following right angled triangle.

35 cm

30º
A C

opposite BC
Sin θ = =
hypotenuse AB
BC
Sin 30o =
35
BC = 35 Sin 30o

= 35 × 0.5 (from the table)

= 17.5 cm
Answer = 17.5 cm

64
 Pl ane Tri gonom e t r y

6.1 PYTHAGORAS THEOREM

Pythagoras or Pythagorean Theorem is used to determine the third side of any right
triangle when the other two sides are known. According to this theorem, in any right
angled triangle, the square on hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square of other
two sides.

c
a

θ
A C
b

The Pythagoras formula is stated below.

AB2 = BC2 + AC2
or
c2 = a2 + b2

Example
Find the length of the longest side (hypotenuse) of the right triangle, give the other
sides are 8cm and 9cm.
c2 = a2 + b2
= 82 + 92
= 64 + 81
= 145
If c2 = 145
Then c = √145
= 12.04 cm
Answer = 12.04 cm

65
CHAPTER
7 Graphs

G
raphs provide visual representation of data with the variation of one quantity to
another. The most frequently used graph is aviation industry is a form of line
graph, which uses a pair of straight lines known as axes that are drawn at right
angles to each other. They are also known as Cartesian graphs or linear graphs. A pair of
axes are known as rectangular or Cartesian axes. The horizontal axis is called the x-axis and
the vertical axis as the y-axis. The point where these two axes meet is called as origin (0).
The values on the right of the origin along the x-axis are positive and vice-versa. Likewise
with the y-axis, values above the origin are positive, whilst those below are negative.

y-axis

5
Abscissa (x,y)
4

2 Ordinate

1
0 (Origin)
x-axis
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1

–2

–3

–4

–5

–6

67
Gr a p h s

The location point on the graph is written as (x,y). The x-distance from the y-axis is
called as abscissa and the y-distance from the x-axis is called as ordinate. The co-ordi-
nates that are measure in this way are called Cartesian co-ordinates.

7.1 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH

Consider a body moves a meter for every kN force at the rate mentioned in the table
below.

Force Distance Moved

1 kN 1m

2 kN 2m
3 kN 3m

4 kN 4m

The values can be represented by plotting them in a graph. It is the straight line
that passes through the origin point. And the straight line shows that the output is
constant.

10

7
Distance (m)

–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1 Force (kN)

68
 Gr aphs

7.1.1 Graphing Linear Equations

Graphs are useful to find a pattern between x and y co-ordinates. The following f­ ormula
is shows the relationship of x and y with ‘m’ being a constant measure.
y
=m
x
y = mx
When straight line graphs does not pass through the origin, the relationship
(y = mx) changes to (y = mx + c), where ‘c’ is a value measured on the y-axis, from
the origin to where the graph cuts the y-axis (as shown below).

y-axis

x-axis

Not all straight line graphs will have a positive gradient, as the one above. A straight
line graph can also have a negative gradient (falling from left to right) and has a nega-
tive constant value, as shown below.

y-axis

x-axis
c

69
Gr a p h s

Example
Sketch the graph for y – 3x = 1.
• Rearrange this into the form ‘y = mx + c’ as y = 3x + 1.
• Thus, m = 3, c = 1, y-intercept = (0,1) and slope = 3.
• Plot the points as shown in the graph below.

y = 3x + 1
4

3
3
2

(0,1) 1
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4

–1

–2

–3

–4

7.1.2 Graphing Simultaneous Equations

Some forms of simultaneous equations may also be solved using this graphical method.
Generally, both equations are plotted on the same graph and where the two lines inter-
sect is the solution for x and y.

70
 Gr aphs

Example
Find x and y values of the equations, x + y = 6 and 2x + 3y = 15 using graph method.
• Rearrange this into the form ‘y = mx + c’ and get the following equations.

y = – x + 6 (gradient m = –1)

2 2
y = –   x + 5 (gradient m = –  )
3 3
• Gradients are shown below.

Gradient = –1
Gradient = –2/3
1

2 1

• Plot the points as shown in the graph below. The point where the two graphs cut
each other provides the solution to the simultaneous equations.

y-axis
6
x+y=6

(3,3)
3

2 2x + 3y = 15

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x-axis

Answers: x = 3 and y = 3.
71
CHAPTER
8 Polar Co-ordinates

T
he polar co-ordinate is a two-dimensional system in which each point on a
plane is determined by a reference point distance and a reference direction
angle. Apart from Cartesian co-ordinates, another way of locating a point on
a graph uses the distance (r) from the origin and an angle (θ) measured anticlockwise
from x-axis to the line joined to the origin point. These co-ordinates (r, θ) are called as
polar co-ordinates.

y-axis

(r,θ)

r
y

x-axis
x

8.1 CONVERSIONS
To convert between polar and rectangular co-ordinates, make a right triangle to the
point (x,y), as shown below. The conversion formulae are derived based on this picture.

73
Po la r C o -o rd in a t e s

y-axis

(x,y)

r y = r sinθ

x-axis
x = r cosθ

8.1.1 Polar co-ordinates to rectangular co-ordinates

The formula to convert polar to rectangular co-ordinates.
x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ

Example
Convert the polar co-ordinates (5, 30o) to rectangular co-ordinates.
(x,y) = (5 cos 30o, 5 sin 30o)
= (5 × 0.87), (5 × 0.5)
= (4.3301, 2.5)
Answer = (4.3301, 2.5)

8.1.2 Rectangular co-ordinates to polar co-ordinates

The formula to convert rectangular to polar co-ordinates.
y
sin θ =
r
x
cos θ =
r
y
tan θ =
x
74
 Pol ar Co-ordi na t e s

Example
Convert the rectangular co-ordinates (4,2) to polar co-ordinates.
r = √(42 + 22)
= √20
= 4.472
tan θ = 2/4
= 0.5
θ = 26.57o (from tangent table)
Answer = (4.472, 26.57o)

75