Functional theory Developed by

Halliday-
language is used as a tool
for evolving economic +
social functions. DISCOURSE
FEATURES: several used in
conversations at the same time.Opening
greetings: standard form to ease the
participants into a conversation (“how
are you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes) Turn-taking:
Cooperative conversation takes place
when participants take turns. Some
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about when to start their turn.
1|Page
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response. Holding the
conversational floor: The person
speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over: -
Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”). - Complete what they
are saying - Hesitate (someone will fill in
when there is silence). - Use sound and
body language (tone will lower and the
speaker looks closely at the other
participant). In New Zealand/Australian
English, a rising tone indicates the
2|Page
speaker is concluding. Clashing: Two
people speaking at the same time- one
participant usually stops while the other
continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are saying by correcting
themselves or using phrases to
acknowledge a mistake (“I mean”,
“that’s wrong”, etc.). The other
participant may ask for clarification and
correction (“Did you mean yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently and expressions like
3|Page
“Speaking of which” and “By the way”
indicate a change in topic. Conversation
endings: Standard expressions are used
to end a conversation (“see you later”, “It
was nice chatting”, etc.). Body language
reinforces the end to a conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc DISCOURSE FEATURES:
several used in conversations at the same
time.Opening greetings: standard form to
ease the participants into a conversation
(“how are you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes) Turn-taking:
Cooperative conversation takes place
when participants take turns. Some
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
4|Page
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response. Holding the
conversational floor: The person
speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over: -
Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”). - Complete what they
are saying - Hesitate (someone will fill in
when there is silence). - Use sound and
body language (tone will lower and the
speaker looks closely at the other
5|Page
participant). In New Zealand/Australian
English, a rising tone indicates the
speaker is concluding. Clashing: Two
people speaking at the same time- one
participant usually stops while the other
continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are saying by correcting
themselves or using phrases to
acknowledge a mistake (“I mean”,
“that’s wrong”, etc.). The other
participant may ask for clarification and
correction (“Did you mean yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
6|Page
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently and expressions like
“Speaking of which” and “By the way”
indicate a change in topic. Conversation
endings: Standard expressions are used
to end a conversation (“see you later”, “It
was nice chatting”, etc.). Body language
reinforces the end to a conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc DISCOURSE FEATURES:
several used in conversations at the same
time.
Opening greetings: standard form to ease
the participants into a conversation
(“how are

7|Page
you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes)
Turn-taking: Cooperative conversation
takes place when participants take turns.
Some
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about
when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and
response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response.

8|Page
Holding the conversational floor: The
person speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over:
- Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”).
- Complete what they are saying
- Hesitate (someone will fill in when
there is silence).
- Use sound and body language (tone
will lower and the speaker looks closely
at the
other participant). In New
Zealand/Australian English, a rising tone
indicates the
speaker is concluding.

9|Page
Clashing: Two people speaking at the
same time- one participant usually stops
while the
other continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making
this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are
saying by correcting themselves or using
phrases to acknowledge a mistake (“I
mean”, “that’s
wrong”, etc.). The other participant may
ask for clarification and correction (“Did
you mean
yesterday?”).
10 | P a g e
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently
and expressions like “Speaking of
which” and “By the way” indicate a
change in topic.
Conversation endings: Standard
expressions are used to end a
conversation (“see you
later”, “It was nice chatting”, etc.). Body
language reinforces the end to a
conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc
DISCOURSE FEATURES: several used
in conversations at the same time.

11 | P a g e
Opening greetings: standard form to ease
the participants into a conversation
(“how are
you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes)
Turn-taking: Cooperative conversation
takes place when participants take turns.
Some
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about
when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and

12 | P a g e
response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response.
Holding the conversational floor: The
person speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over:
- Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”).
- Complete what they are saying
- Hesitate (someone will fill in when
there is silence).
- Use sound and body language (tone
will lower and the speaker looks closely
at the

13 | P a g e
other participant). In New
Zealand/Australian English, a rising tone
indicates the
speaker is concluding.
Clashing: Two people speaking at the
same time- one participant usually stops
while the
other continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making
this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are
saying by correcting themselves or using
phrases to acknowledge a mistake (“I
mean”, “that’s
14 | P a g e
wrong”, etc.). The other participant may
ask for clarification and correction (“Did
you mean
yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently
and expressions like “Speaking of
which” and “By the way” indicate a
change in topic.
Conversation endings: Standard
expressions are used to end a
conversation (“see you
later”, “It was nice chatting”, etc.). Body
language reinforces the end to a
conversation

15 | P a g e
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc
DISCOURSE FEATURES: several used
in conversations at the same
time.Opening greetings: standard form to
ease the participants into a conversation
(“how are you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes) Turn-taking:
Cooperative conversation takes place
when participants take turns. Some
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and response. A
16 | P a g e
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response. Holding the
conversational floor: The person
speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over: -
Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”). - Complete what they
are saying - Hesitate (someone will fill in
when there is silence). - Use sound and
body language (tone will lower and the
speaker looks closely at the other
participant). In New Zealand/Australian
English, a rising tone indicates the
speaker is concluding. Clashing: Two
people speaking at the same time- one
participant usually stops while the other
17 | P a g e
continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are saying by correcting
themselves or using phrases to
acknowledge a mistake (“I mean”,
“that’s wrong”, etc.). The other
participant may ask for clarification and
correction (“Did you mean yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently and expressions like
“Speaking of which” and “By the way”
indicate a change in topic. Conversation
endings: Standard expressions are used
18 | P a g e
to end a conversation (“see you later”, “It
was nice chatting”, etc.). Body language
reinforces the end to a conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc DISCOURSE FEATURES:
several used in conversations at the same
time.
Opening greetings: standard form to ease
the participants into a conversation
(“how are
you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes)
Turn-taking: Cooperative conversation
takes place when participants take turns.
Some

19 | P a g e
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about
when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and
response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response.
Holding the conversational floor: The
person speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over:
- Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”).
- Complete what they are saying
20 | P a g e
- Hesitate (someone will fill in when
there is silence).
- Use sound and body language (tone
will lower and the speaker looks closely
at the
other participant). In New
Zealand/Australian English, a rising tone
indicates the
speaker is concluding.
Clashing: Two people speaking at the
same time- one participant usually stops
while the
other continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making
this decision.

21 | P a g e
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are
saying by correcting themselves or using
phrases to acknowledge a mistake (“I
mean”, “that’s
wrong”, etc.). The other participant may
ask for clarification and correction (“Did
you mean
yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently
and expressions like “Speaking of
which” and “By the way” indicate a
change in topic.

22 | P a g e
Conversation endings: Standard
expressions are used to end a
conversation (“see you
later”, “It was nice chatting”, etc.). Body
language reinforces the end to a
conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc
DISCOURSE FEATURES: several used
in conversations at the same
time.Opening greetings: standard form to
ease the participants into a conversation
(“how are you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes) Turn-taking:
Cooperative conversation takes place
when participants take turns. Some
23 | P a g e
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response. Holding the
conversational floor: The person
speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over: -
Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”). - Complete what they
are saying - Hesitate (someone will fill in
when there is silence). - Use sound and
body language (tone will lower and the
24 | P a g e
speaker looks closely at the other
participant). In New Zealand/Australian
English, a rising tone indicates the
speaker is concluding. Clashing: Two
people speaking at the same time- one
participant usually stops while the other
continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are saying by correcting
themselves or using phrases to
acknowledge a mistake (“I mean”,
“that’s wrong”, etc.). The other
participant may ask for clarification and
correction (“Did you mean yesterday?”).
25 | P a g e
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently and expressions like
“Speaking of which” and “By the way”
indicate a change in topic. Conversation
endings: Standard expressions are used
to end a conversation (“see you later”, “It
was nice chatting”, etc.). Body language
reinforces the end to a conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc
Sophie Gonzales
A LEVEL ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Section 8 - Child Language Acquisition
NOTES
8.1 FEATURES OF SPOKEN
LANGUAGE
26 | P a g e
Individuals have distinctive patterns of
speech- spoken discourse does not
follow the same
rules as writing and conversation takes
place through utterances.
Conversation takes place between two or
more participants. Look at the
transcription table on
page P 267-268.
DISCOURSE FEATURES: several used
in conversations at the same time.
Opening greetings: standard form to ease
the participants into a conversation
(“how are
you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes)
27 | P a g e
Turn-taking: Cooperative conversation
takes place when participants take turns.
Some
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about
when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and
response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response.
Holding the conversational floor: The
person speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over:
28 | P a g e
- Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”).
- Complete what they are saying
- Hesitate (someone will fill in when
there is silence).
- Use sound and body language (tone
will lower and the speaker looks closely
at the
other participant). In New
Zealand/Australian English, a rising tone
indicates the
speaker is concluding.
Clashing: Two people speaking at the
same time- one participant usually stops
while the

29 | P a g e
other continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making
this decision.
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are
saying by correcting themselves or using
phrases to acknowledge a mistake (“I
mean”, “that’s
wrong”, etc.). The other participant may
ask for clarification and correction (“Did
you mean
yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently
30 | P a g e
and expressions like “Speaking of
which” and “By the way” indicate a
change in topic.
Conversation endings: Standard
expressions are used to end a
conversation (“see you
later”, “It was nice chatting”, etc.). Body
language reinforces the end to a
conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc.
LEVEL ENGLISH LANGUAGE Section 8 - Child Language Acquisition NOTES 8.1 FEATURES OF SPOKEN
LANGUAGE Individuals have distinctive patterns of speech- spoken discourse does not follow the same rules as
writing and conversation takes place through utterances. Conversation takes place between two or more
participants.

. DISCOURSE FEATURES: several used in conversations at the same time.

Opening greetings: standard form to ease the participants into a conversation (“how are you?” “good morning”,
etc.) accompanied by body language (kissing, hugging, handshakes)

Turn-taking: Cooperative conversation takes place when participants take turns. Some overlapping occurs and
can be seen as rude. Conversationalists take instant decisions about when to start their turn.

Adjacency pairs: The basic form of conversation, taking place through statement and response. A
question/exclamation/declaration followed by a response. Holding the conversational floor: The person speaking
is the one that holds the conversational floor. Strategies are used to determine who will take over: - Naming the
person (“John, why don’t you tell them?”). - Complete what they are saying - Hesitate (someone will fill in when
31 | P a g e
there is silence). - Use sound and body language (tone will lower and the speaker looks closely at the other
participant). In New Zealand/Australian English, a rising tone indicates the speaker is concluding.

Clashing: Two people speaking at the same time- one participant usually stops while the other continues.
Elements such as conversation, status, and context are important for making this decision.

Repairing: Participants constantly monitor themselves and they may repair what they are saying by correcting
themselves or using phrases to acknowledge a mistake (“I mean”, “that’s wrong”, etc.). The other participant may
ask for clarification and correction (“Did you mean yesterday?”).

Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic and spontaneous, meaning topics change frequently and expressions like
“Speaking of which” and “By the way” indicate a change in topic.

Conversation endings: Standard expressions are used to end a conversation (“see you later”, “It was nice

chatting”, etc.). Body language reinforces the end to a conversation (looking at watch, packing up, standing up, e
Prosodic vs. Paralinguistic Features

Paralinguistic features: unspoken elements of communication like body language, gestures and facial expressions
that aid the effectiveness of a conversation. Important for feedback in a conversation: showing the talker that the
listener is following the conversation.

- Back-channelling: noises like “Mm” or “Oh”.

- Verbal responses: “Right”, “Absolutely”.

- Pauses: indicating tension or participants thinking of what to say next.

- Vocal expressions: giggling, sighing (linked to the intentions of the speaker that is mutually understood by the
listener).

Prosodic features: spoken elements of conversation like intonation, stress, tone and speed.

- Tone: relating to emotion that is associated with the utterance (someone can usually tell if the other is sad,
angry, happy, etc. by their tone of voice).

- Pitch: whether someone’s voice is high or low; also associated with emotions or age range (children have high-
pitched voices).

- Volume: level of voice production (loud or soft), volume changes according to context and circumstances.

- Speed: relating to the pace at which someone speaks (also according to circumstances); people speak faster if
they are excited or slower if they are uncertain.

These two work together to add meaning to spoken discourse.

8.2 CONVERSATIONAL INTERACTION

32 | P a g e
Conversation is used for different purposes:

- Building relationships - Teach, guide, inform, explain - Express, describe - Plan, record

- Transactional language: instructions/imperatives like “Put the trash in the garbage cantc.

FEATURES OF UNSCRIPTED LANGUAGE

Adverbial phrases/adverbs: modify or add to adjectives (both in written and spoken language), conveying
attitudes of the speaker and their values/feelings/opinions (“really”, “basically”, “literally”, “extremely”, etc.).

Back-channelling: noise, gestures or expressions used by the listener to indicate that they are paying attention
(reassuring the speaker)- responses may merge with speaking terms (important for phone calls).

Contraction: A word or words that are shortened by placing an apostrophe where letters have been omitted

Deixis: words which locate the conversation in a particular space or context (non-participants

would not understand)- “this” or “that” is mutually understood by the participants during the

conversation at the time. (“Can you grab me that?”).

Discourse markers: used to change the subject in a conversation or to signal the conclusion of the conversation
(“Anyways”, “Well”, “So”).

Elision: omission of sounds or syllables (unstressed syllable disappears: “frightening” turns into “frightning”).

Ellipsis: omission of a word or words in speech and writing in a transcription that indicates silence (Off home
now…).

Fixed expressions: allows participants to maintain a shared understanding of their culture (repetitive phrases like
“To be honest” or “As a matter of fact” or colloquial phrases like “Driving me crazy” and “An awesome time”).

Hedges and vague language: strategies to avoid coming to the point or saying things directly (softening what is
being said) such as “Kind of” and “You know what I mean”.

Metalanguage: used when people realize they have made an error and correct themselves (“I meant to say” or “I
should have mentioned”) or language used to describe language (“noun”, “adjective” and “syntax”).

Modality: used in conjunction with hedges, allowing participants to introduce different options and compromises
for negotiation. Words used such as “perhaps”, “probably” and “maybe” as well as modal verbs like “might”,
“could” and “may”.

Non-fluency features (fillers): extended sounds like “Mmmm” that gives the speaker time to think or announce
what they are going to say.

False starts: speaker realizes they have made an error and repairs it through reformulation (“I come home- I came
home”).

33 | P a g e
Phatic communication: polite ice-breakers that initiate conversations such as “How are you?”, without expecting
a serious or detailed reply.

Repetition: repeat for emphasis or to gain thinking time.

Tag questions: speaker adds a question at the end of an utterance that prompts a response from the listener (“It’s
a nice day today, isn’t it?”).

Vague expressions: softens authoritative requests between participants and allows flexibility (“Can you grab me
a drink or something?”, “sort of”, “kind of”, etc.

Sophie Gonzales
A LEVEL ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
Section 8 - Child Language
Acquisition
NOTES
8.1 FEATURES OF SPOKEN
LANGUAGE
Individuals have distinctive patterns of
speech- spoken discourse does not
follow the same
34 | P a g e
rules as writing and conversation takes
place through utterances.
Conversation takes place between two or
more participants. Look at the
transcription table on
page P 267-268.
DISCOURSE FEATURES: several used
in conversations at the same time.
Opening greetings: standard form to ease
the participants into a conversation
(“how are
you?” “good morning”, etc.)
accompanied by body language (kissing,
hugging, handshakes)
Turn-taking: Cooperative conversation
takes place when participants take turns.
Some
35 | P a g e
overlapping occurs and can be seen as
rude. Conversationalists take instant
decisions about
when to start their turn.
Adjacency pairs: The basic form of
conversation, taking place through
statement and
response. A
question/exclamation/declaration
followed by a response.
Holding the conversational floor: The
person speaking is the one that holds the
conversational floor. Strategies are used
to determine who will take over:
- Naming the person (“John, why don’t
you tell them?”).
- Complete what they are saying
36 | P a g e
- Hesitate (someone will fill in when
there is silence).
- Use sound and body language (tone
will lower and the speaker looks closely
at the
other participant). In New
Zealand/Australian English, a rising tone
indicates the
speaker is concluding.
Clashing: Two people speaking at the
same time- one participant usually stops
while the
other continues. Elements such as
conversation, status, and context are
important for making
this decision.

37 | P a g e
Repairing: Participants constantly
monitor themselves and they may repair
what they are
saying by correcting themselves or using
phrases to acknowledge a mistake (“I
mean”, “that’s
wrong”, etc.). The other participant may
ask for clarification and correction (“Did
you mean
yesterday?”).
Topic shift: Conversations are dynamic
and spontaneous, meaning topics change
frequently
and expressions like “Speaking of
which” and “By the way” indicate a
change in topic.

38 | P a g e
Conversation endings: Standard
expressions are used to end a
conversation (“see you
later”, “It was nice chatting”, etc.). Body
language reinforces the end to a
conversation
(looking at watch, packing up, standing
up, etc.

39 | P a g e