Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 80, No. 5, 2022

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 80, No.
5, 2022
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Vilnius University & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
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Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr., Prof. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr., Prof. Muammer Calik, Trabzon University, Turkey
Dr. Saša A. Horvat, University of Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
Dr., Prof. Margaret Chan Kit Yok, MARA University of Technology (UiTM), Malaysia
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., Prof. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr., Prof. Lay Yoon Fah, University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Solange W. Locatelli, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
Dr., Prof. Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille, France
Dr., Prof. Katarzyna Potyrala, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Poland
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, Educational Robotics and Science Organization, Cyprus
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Vol. 80, No. 5, 2022
Contents 623
Editorial
A FEW POINTS ABOUT AXIOMATICS OF EDUCATION

Vincentas Lamanauskas .............................................................................................. 624
Articles
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING

HYBRIDISATION IN CHEMISTRY
Moses Abdullai Abukari, Huaru Alhassan Marifa, Jonathan Ayelsoma Samari,
Philip Dorsah, Fatao Abudu ........................................................................................630
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND EFL TEACHERS’ PRACTICES IN

ACTIVATING LEARNERS’ ACQUISITION OF 21ST CENTURY SKILLS
Mona Abdullah Alzahrani, Faizah Nor ..............................................................................652
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DISTANCE EDUCATION: A SYSTEMATIC

LITERATURE REVIEW OF BRAZILIAN STUDIES
Samuel de Oliveira Durso, Eucidio Pimenta Arruda .............................................................. 679
A MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING PERCEPTION SCALE FOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS: A VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY STUDY
Mehmet Ersoy, Miray Dağyar .......................................................................................693
TOWARDS THE DIFFERENT: A CASE STUDY OF A SYRIAN ASYLUM SEEKER

IN CROATIAN SCHOOL CONTEXT
Irena Klasnić, Marina Đuranović, Marina Lucin .................................................................708
DRIVERS OF CONTINUANCE INTENTION TO USE THE ONLINE LEARNING

PLATFORM AFTER THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Costin Pribeanu, Gabriel Gorghiu, Elena-Ancuța Santi ......................................................... 724
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS .............................................................................. 737
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION / GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS ............................... 739

This is an open access article under the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
PROBLEMS
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624
A FEW POINTS ABOUT AXIOMATICS
OF EDUCATION
Vincentas Lamanauskas
Vilnius University, Lithuania
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@sa.vu.lt
Postulates and axioms have been used as a means of knowledge since ancient times.
The well-known ancient Greek thinkers Aristotle, Plato, Euclid, and others used this cognitive
tool. As an example, we all know – Euclid’s postulates. Although mathematicians consider
him the pioneer of mathematics, one of the most famous mathematicians, nevertheless, it is
more appropriate to consider Euclid as a Greek philosopher, who presented the most important
postulates and axioms in his book "Elements". The prevailing opinion is that in essence it
is exactly enough to prove all mathematical statements. Even though that the most perfect
axiomatics is classical Euclidian geometry, there is an alternative here, i.e., modern non-
Euclidean geometry.
Can such an analogy be found in education (pedagogy). Do we have educational
alternatives? It turns out it is possible. Most of the educational statements we know can
indeed be considered postulates and axioms. It is obvious that this is especially evident in folk
pedagogy (ethnopedagogy). It seems to be saturated with postulates and axioms (proverbs,
sayings, expressions, etc.). So, it can be said that:
• Most sciences, such as logic, natural sciences widely use postulates and axioms
as a cognitive instrument;
• Postulates and axioms of education is a poorly theoretically analysed area;
• Axiomatics of education is a rather spontaneous area of education.
In order to analyse and get to know the axiomatics of education in more detail, first of
all, it is necessary to understand the general foundations of postulates and axioms.
Four essential points can be mentioned:
• Postulates and axioms do not fundamentally differ at the level of modern
understanding. Philosophers and logicians consider these two concepts
synonymous. Therefore, in principle, we do not aim here to examine the
differences between these concepts. Postulates and axioms have a historically
formed context. Modern science understands postulates as initial statements of
any theory, which do not need to be proven;
• Postulates (axioms) are treated as obvious, unprovable truths because they are the
result of long-term and repeated observations of phenomena;
• Axiomatic method is characterised by precision, strict rules, often formalised
language, although it is understood that not always and not everything can be
formalised;
• In education, the axiomatic method requires empirical confirmation. In this view,
axioms are examined as hypotheses.
The essential task of educational axiomatics can be represented in the following sequence
(Figure 1).
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. A few points about axiomatics of education
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Figure 1 625
Relationship: Educational Axiomatics-Educational Theory-Educational Practice
Postulates of Educational
education (axioms) practice (methodics
Educational theory and technologies)
(-ies)
Ethnopedagogy has accumulated many different postulates, which, by the way, have
been verified by the long-term practice of many generations. Therefore, it is an urgent task not
only to know them, but to systematise them. When the postulates are presented in a certain
system, with a certain consistency, then it helps us to have an excellent methodological basis for
any theory of education. From this point of view, the axiomatics of education and systemology
of education are closely related fields determining one another. A cognitive field is developing
systematic axiomatics (Lamanauskas, 2004). A question may arise as to how postulates (axioms)
interact with laws and regularities of education, various rules, and principles of education. It
would be wrong to think that they change the laws and regularities. Modern science tends
to treat postulates (axioms) as a component supplementing laws and regularities. However, it
cannot be denied that it is an important and fundamental methodological basis of education.
The most important thing is that postulate (axiom) should perform an essential function – it
would form pre-requisites for further conclusions (derived statements, principles, rules, etc.). It
is obvious that axioms are the cornerstones of any theory. Of course, a scientific theory can be
constructed without axioms, however, in scientific researchers’ opinion, such theory will not be
of full value. It can be conditionally stated that until now the concepts of educational science
have been constructed without "laying" axioms in their foundations. By using the possibilities
provided by the computer, it was clearly established the place of axioms in the pedagogical
theory structure. It turned out that axioms are not only the basis of scientific theory, but also
the result, the level reached (Podlasyj, 1991). It can be said that axioms at the same time crown
a scientific theory. Science education is special from this point of view because it has most
abundant empirical base (whole "mountains" of facts have been accumulated). How not to get
lost in such an abundance of educational information? How to sort out this abundance at least
a little (separate the chaff from the grain)? This is where we cannot do without axiomatics. It
remains only to wish researchers and educational practitioners to look into these issues much
more deeply and in detail than they have so far. It is not so easy to find axioms in the abundance
of empirical statements. Not every statement as a matter of fact can be an axiom. For this, it
is necessary that the meaning of that statement remains unchanged in any educational context
(both in terms of time and space). Only then, it is possible to construct various systems of
educational axioms.
When examining the issues of axiomatics of education, the concept of "theorem"
is inevitably mentioned (Figure 2). Theorem (gr. theorema – teaching, rule) – a theoretical
statement, the truth of which can be or is logically proven, based on previously established
scientific statements (TŽŽ, 1985).
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624

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626 Figure 2
Theorem of Education as a Postulate Outcome and as a Prerequisite of Rule Formulation
Postulates of Theorems of Rules, principles, etc. of

education (axioms) education education
Two examples can be given that illustrate this connection.
The first example
Play – a natural child’s need (axiom) → if we create conditions for the child to play, then
his development will be effective (theorem) → various game methodologies, game practice
(didactic/hodegetic rules, and principles).
The second example
A child becomes independent by acting practically (axiom) → in order to develop the

child’s independence, it is necessary to assign specific practical tasks and obligations to children
(theorem) → various methodologies of independence education, practice of such education
(didactic/hodegetic rules, and principles).
It is necessary to note that each educational paradigm is based on certain essential
postulates. The latter are which basically show the content of a specific paradigm and its
coordinates in space and time. As an example, we can examine the postulates of the traditionalist-
conservative educational paradigm. As Latyš (2000) rightly noticed, this paradigm does not go
to the past in any way, on the contrary, it often even regains its position in current and maybe
in future education. It can be said that this paradigm is resistant to various new educational
currents, educational fashions, and political change alternatives.
Postulate 1: education provides students with basic knowledge, abilities and skills (axiom)
→ education is effective when priority is given to mastering the main elements of the
teaching instrument (theorem) → it is important to teach children to read, write, and count,
to provide other most necessary mathematical, natural science skills, and socio-humanitarian
knowledge, abilities, skills, which are the basis for mastering any other academic subjects
(didactic goals and tasks).
Postulate 2: in the productive education process, only important and necessary knowledge
is conveyed (axiom) → education process is effective when it focuses on the most significant
areas of human cognition (theorem) → in the education process, it is necessary to distinguish
fundamental things from superficial, indisputable things from temporary, passing, etc.
(didactic goals and tasks).
Postulate 3: eternal human values – the basis of education (axiom) → a morally saturated
educational process enables the development of a strong, mature personality (theorem) → in
the educational process, the value component is important, value orientation of the learners,
the development of value attitudes and beliefs, all that preserves value and significance not
only in the present but also in the future (didactic goals and tasks).

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Here we have shown the postulates of only one of the paradigms. It is obvious that many 627
proofs can be presented for each of them (classical didactics, philosophy, etc.).
The 21st century insisted on qualitatively different education. Current global problems
require a new educational paradigm. In other words, flexible educational systems require flexible
pedagogy (Neimatov, 2002). Rapid changes in education at all levels of the system require not
only adequate operation, but first of all, adequate understanding of the ongoing processes. The
main axiom – any quick and easy educational achievements are an illusion. Perhaps the most
important education law in this aspect is - do not harm.
It is obvious that 21st century requires qualitatively new competencies. The most essential
can be represented in the form of a triad (Figure 3).
Figure 3
The Triad of Most Important Competencies
Ability to act
Ability to be
Ability to live
Although 20th century shaped technical progress (a new world view), on the other hand,
it caused many undesirable phenomena. It is obvious that the reason lies not in the technique
itself or in the technique progress, but in the insufficient understanding of its essence. The
human factor of technical progress becomes the central axis. Researchers emphasize that a
modern specialist must be both a professional and a humanist (Broks, 2000; Lamanauskas,
2003). However, the man of the 21st century found himself on the boundary between reason
and faith, truth and lies, illusions and myths. Therefore, it is understandable why the last decade
of the 20th century could be characterised as a period of active search for new educational
paradigms. The issue of the reconstruction of education in a humanistic and humanitarian
direction (humanitarian and humanistic paradigms of education) is being discussed very
actively. This approach to education today may seem to reject teaching and upbringing, which
undoubtedly is and will be important. However, as researchers note, the personality-oriented
education-communication model in no way ignores the systematic education and training of
children, it does not disturb the consistency of the goals of pedagogical activity (Juodaitytė,
2002, p. 32). Basically, all modern searches in education are expressed by three postulates.
Postulate 1: A child is an active subject with individual features, talents, and aspirations
unique to him (axiom) → it is a personality, discovering and creating the culture of society,
living in that society independently and forming himself independently, and becoming a full-
fledged and free member of the nation (theorem) → it is important to educate the ability of
young generation not only to live in a constantly changing world and environment, but also
to change living conditions, to improve them, not being satisfied with what has been obtained
from previous generations (didactic goals and tasks).

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Postulate 2: The socialisation of the personality is realised in a polycultural society,
characterised by diversity and interdependence (axiom) → the classical concept of culture
as the process of transmission of values and beliefs from generation to generation through
language and other symbol systems is inadequate and insufficient for present and future life
(theorem) → modern culture is a set of interacting cultures, the space of human existence,
for the creation of which it is necessary to train the young generation (in the construction of
education goals, content, process, etc.) (didactic goals and tasks).
Postulate 3: The most important and primary source of modern education (teaching and
upbringing) is real life and direct experience (axiom) → education is effective when it is
maximally moved nearer (or fully adequate) to modern life, is active and realised through
cooperation (theorem) → emphasis is placed on active teaching, work in various groups
(teams), cooperation in various project and innovative activities (didactic goals and tasks).
Thus, it can be said that the axiomatics of education is a significant instrument for the
cognition of educational phenomena, processes, and perspectives. Future education can no
longer be based on postulates established by directives. It is no doubt that it is useful for educators
to constantly remember the axiomatic statement – a mature thought gives birth to a wise action.
Education is capable of changing society, just as society is capable of changing education.
A fundamental open question is how to transform society through education. Of course, in a
positive way. Finally, what changes in education can we expect in the next 20-30 years? Will
a revolution take place in education? Predictions say that in the future even in the field of
education, robots and machines will work instead of people. Does this mean that educational
processes will take place without values and with very little interaction between educators
and students. According to Eleyyan (2021), it is important to effectively implement significant
changes in teaching/study programmes, learning/study environment, teacher – student roles and
other changes, in order to cope with the challenges caused by the industrial revolution (4.0).
Axiomatic theory in a general sense, or educational axiomatics, has real predictive power for
education systems. This is undoubtedly important in education, where “trial and error” can turn
into “trial by fire” for those being educated (Thompson et al., 2009).
References
Broks, A. (2000). Izglitibas sistemologija [Systemology of education]. RaKa.

Eleyyan, S. (2021). The future of education according to the fourth industrial revolution. Journal of
Educational Technology & Online Learning, 4(1), 23-30. http://doi.org/10.31681/jetol.737193
Juodaitytė, A. (2002). Socializacija ir ugdymas vaikystėje [Socialization and education in childhood].
Petro ofsetas.
Lamanauskas, V. (2003). Natural science education in contemporary school. Siauliai University Press.
Lamanauskas, V. (2004). Ugdymas: aksiomatinis ir sisteminis aspektai [Education: Axiomatic and
systemic aspects]. UAB Ciklonas.
Latysh, N. I. (2000). Obrazovanie na rubezhe vekov [Education at the turn of the century]. NIO.
Nejmatov, Y. M. (2002). Obrazovanie v XXI veke: tendencii i prognozy [Education in the 21st century:
Trends and predictions]. Algoritm.
Podlasyj, I. P. (1991). Aksiomy pedagogiki [Axioms of pedagogy]. Narodnoe obrazovanie, 1, 19-25.
Tarptautinių žodžių žodynas (TŽŽ) [Dictionary of international words](1985). Vyriausioji enciklopedijų
redakcija.

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Thompson, M. K., Thomas, B. C., & Hopkins, J. B. (2009). Applying axiomatic design to the educational 629
process. In Proceedings of the fifth international conference on Axiomatic Design (ICAD 2009,
Campus de Caparica – March 25-27) (pp. 93-98). FCT-UNL. https://www.axiomaticdesign.com/
wp-content/uploads/icad2009_13.pdf
Received: October 10, 2022 Accepted: October 15, 2022
Cite as: Lamanauskas, V. (2022). A few points about axiomatics of education. Problems of
Education in the 21st Century, 80(5), 624-629. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, Professor, Chief Researcher, Vilnius University Šiauliai Academy, Institute
of Education, P. Visinskio Street 25-119, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: vincentas.lamanauskas@sa.vu.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt/;
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vincentas_Lamanauskas
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4130-7899

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630
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’
DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING
HYBRIDISATION IN CHEMISTRY
Moses Abdullai Abukari
C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Science, Ghana
E-mail: mabukari@cktutas.edu.gh
Huaru Alhassan Marifa

Dr. Hilla Limann Senior High School, Ghana
E-mail: marifaalhassan@gmail.com
Jonathan Ayelsoma Samari, Philip Dorsah, Fatao Abudu

C. K. Tedam University of Technology and Applied Science, Ghana
E-mail: jsamari@cktutas.edu.gh, pdorsah@cktutas.edu.gh, fabudu@cktutas.edu.gh
Abstract
The concept of hybridisation is one of the most difficult concepts for chemistry students to grasp at all
levels of learning. Research showed the students conceptual difficulty ranged from their lack of the pre-
requisite knowledge for grasping the topic hybridisation to chemical bond formation and orientations
of atomic orbitals. This study investigated the difficulties Senior High School Students face in learning
hybridisation. The study adopted a mixed-method approach using the sequential exploratory design.
Purposive sampling was used to select six schools that offer elective chemistry subject. Simple random
sampling was then used to select 120 Senior High School form 1 students to take part in the study.
Convenient sampling was used to interview 24 students from the sample. Hybridisation Achievement
Test (HAT) and Semi-structured interviews were self-constructed and used to collect data. Descriptive
statistics and Content analysis were used to analyse the data. Results showed that, majority of students
had difficulties in explaining the concept of hybrid orbitals, writing the electron configuration of 6C,
explaining the effect of hybridisation on formation of chemical bonds in 6C, and type of hybridisation and
shapes of compounds such as NH3, OF2, BCl3, CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2 and C2H4. The study also showed
that students had difficulties in explaining and demonstrating the formation of C = C double bond in
ethene and other compounds. Equally students were challenged in demonstrating the differences between
the formation of sigma and pi bonds in compounds. Students had difficulties in using electron orbital
diagrams to explain the shape of CO2 as linear. The study concluded that Senior High School form 1
chemistry students in the Upper West Region of Ghana lacked the most basic and fundamental concept of
hybridisation. Teachers need to use conceptual change instructional approaches to teach hybridisation
in order to foster students’ understanding and reduce misconceptions.
Keywords: atomic orbitals, hybrid orbitals, hybridisation, mixed- method approach, sigma and pi-bonds
Introduction
The concept of hybridisation was proposed by Linus Pauling in 1931 to explain the
rearrangement of the energy of individual atomic orbitals to produce new orbitals of equivalent
energy. These newly formed orbitals, (hybrid orbitals), resulting from the mixing of other same or
similar orbitals of different energies and shapes from other similar or same atoms form chemical
bonds (Gillespie, 2004). The chemical bonds of compounds formed are either sigma or pi-bonds

Moses Abdullai ABUKARI, Huaru Alhassan MARIFA, Jonathan Ayelsoma SAMARI, Philip DORSAH, Fatao ABUDU. Senior high school
students’ difficulties in learning hybridisation in chemistry
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Vol. 80, No. 5, 2022
(Gillespie, 2004). The newly hybridised orbitals possess the geometry and bonding properties of 631
the newly formed molecules of chemical compounds (Petrucci, 2007). The new hybrid orbitals
formed have some of the properties of the different atomic orbitals which go into forming them
(Ameyibor & Wiredu, 1993). Bempong et al., (2009) described hybridisation as the processes
of mixing two or more different atomic orbitals of different energies and shapes of the same or
different atoms to form new hybrid orbitals which are equivalent in energies and shape. During
the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals, electrons of the interacting atoms
are shared between atomic orbitals and paired in overlapping orbitals of the atoms. In this inter
atomic orbital mixing, the shared pair of electrons, share and occupy the same region of space.
The orbital overlapping interactions of the atoms balance inter electronic and nuclear repulsions
of the interacting atoms. This then results in formation of most stable orbital configurations
(Essah & Emmanuel, 2019).
Yet, Senior High School or Upper Secondary School Chemistry students, must have a firm
grasp of the concept of hybridisation in order to predict molecular and electrical properties of
substances (Essah & Emmanuel, 2019). In Ghana, the Senior High School chemistry syllabus
emphasises the need for students to learn how to use models to help them explain molecular
shapes and structures, chemical bonds, and their properties (Ministry of Education [MOE],
2010). This aim of the Ministry of Education, (2010) is not different from other African
countries.
Research Problem
Recent studies showed that, majority of chemistry students have difficulty understanding
and assimilating chemical topics (Essumang & Bentum, 2012). Many of the research studies
showed that most Senior High School or Upper Secondary School Chemistry students frequently
confuse orbitals, shells, and orbital mixing and are unable to distinguish between atomic and
molecular orbitals (Çalış, 2018; Hanson et al., 2012; Koomson et al., 2020), and are therefore
unable to comprehend the concept of hybridisation. Some specific students’ misconceptions of
chemical topics include but not limited to bond angles, shapes of molecules, and their difficulty
in understanding concepts of isotopy and allotropy (Schmidt et al., 2003).
Many factors that contribute to students’ misconceptions of chemical topics and their
subsequent poor academic achievement, including inadequate preparation by teachers, lead to
poor instructional techniques employed by chemistry teachers (Okebukola, 2005); the inability
of students to understand basic chemistry concepts; teachers inability to explain the sub-
microscopic, macroscopic and symbolic learning (Taber, 2001); and the inability of learners
to understand basic concepts in chemistry (Taber, 2001). Yet other studies found that students
have trouble recognising chemical bonds (Demirci et al., 2016; Harrison & Treaguest, 2000;
Kabapinar & Adik, 2006; Şen, & Yilmaz, 2013) and distinguishing chemical bonds from each
other (Adik, 2003; Unal et al., 2001).
Koomson et al., (2020) found that, the hybridisation state of central atoms in molecules
was a challenge for students to determine. They also reported that students were perplexed by
the angles of the bonds in BCl3 and C2H2 chemical compounds and couldn't relate the shape of
the molecular species. Other research studies reported that the concept of hybridisation and
atomic orbitals is one of the most difficult concepts for students to grasp at all levels of learning
(Çalış, 2018; Jian, 2014; Salah & Dumon, 2014). Çalış (2018) reported that majority of students
struggled to use atomic and hybrid orbitals to explain the formation of sigma and pi bonds
in ethane, ethene and ethyne. Again, Çalış (2018) found that students could not accurately
demonstrate how the sp, sp2, and sp3 hybrid orbitals are formed.
The research therefore investigated into Senior High School students’ difficulties in
learning hybridisation in chemistry, especially in the Upper West Region of Ghana. This region

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632 is one of the regions in Ghana, in which Senior High School students performed abysmally in
West African Senior High Schools’ Examinations.
Research Question
This study sought to answer the question: What are the Senior High School students’
learning difficulties in hybridisation in chemistry?
Research Methodology
General Background
The study adopted a mixed- method approach using the sequential exploratory mixed-
method design. The mixed-method approach enabled the study to gather, analyse, and integrate
qualitative and quantitative data of the research (Creswell, 2014). The philosophy that
underpinned the study is the pragmatist paradigm.
Sample Procedure
The study targeted Senior High School first year chemistry students in the Upper West
Region, Ghana. A multistage sampling technique was used to sample 120 Senior High School
first year chemistry students for the study.
The first criterion used in the selection of the schools was Senior High Schools which
offer chemistry as an elective subject. Twenty (20) Senior High Schools that offer chemistry as
an elective subject were purposively sampled out of 32 Senior High Schools in the Upper West
Region of Ghana. The Purposive sampling procedure was used because some of the Senior
High Schools do not offer chemistry as an elective subject in their programme of instruction.
The second criterion of the multistage sampling technique was to select schools which
were category A Senior High Schools in the classification of Ghana Education Service category,
and six schools were purposively selected.
The third criterion of the multistage sampling technique was to select intact classes and
six intact classes were simple randomly selected from each of the six category A Senior High
Schools. At the fourth stage, twenty-four (24) students comprising of four (4) students each
from the six intact classes were conveniently selected to take part in the interview. The selection
was based on their performance in the hybridisation achievement test and included those who
performed very well and those who performed poorly.
Research Instruments
Two instruments were used to collect data: Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT) and
Semi-structured interviews.
Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT)
The Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT) consisted of 15 open-ended questions on

the concept of hybridisation. The questions were developed to cover areas such as concept of
hybridisation, types and formation of hybrid orbitals and shapes of molecular compounds and
formation of sigma and pi bonds. These topics were outsourced in the chemistry curriculum
in Ghana (MOE, 2010). The questions were self-constructed to reflect concepts of the topic
hybridisation in the chemistry curriculum. This was undertaken to identify major concepts

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students are supposed to learn. The items were developed based on the profile dimensions 633
outlined in the curriculum, based on the Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains. Works of
other researchers from literature on hybridisation also guided in the development of the items
(Calis, 2018; Hanson et al., 2012; Koomson et al., 2020). The items were given to experts such
as chemistry teachers and lecturers to make inputs and ensure content and face validity.
A rubric for scoring the test was developed and students’ responses were put into three
categories: Correct Response (CR), Wrong Response (WR) and No Response (NR). A student
was categorised under correct response (CR) if all or most of his/her responses to an item were
correct. A student was categorised under wrong response (WR) if most of his/her responses to
an item were wrong. Students who did not attempt at all to the items were categorised as no
response (NR).
The Hybridisation Achievement Test was piloted with 40 SHS students. This was done to
determine the reliability and then to ensure that the items were without ambiguity and students
understood the items. The Kuder-Richardson formula 21 (KR-21) was used to determine the
reliability of the test. The reliability was found to be 0.97 suggesting that the test was reliable.
Semi-Structured Interview
The Semi-structured interview items were self-constructed. To ensure trustworthiness of

the interview data, the interview protocol was given to experts to make inputs and pilot tested.
The interview transcripts were read to the students to ensure that the responses were exactly
what they intended to say. Twenty- four (24) students from the sample were interviewed.
Data Collection Procedure
Permission was sought from the Senior High Schools’ administration using an
introductory letter from the Science Education Department. A Pre-Test was conducted using
the Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT) to unearth the learning difficulties students have
in hybridisation. The students were taught the concept of hybridisation by their teachers for a
period of four weeks.
Post-Test was conducted after the instruction using the Hybridisation Achievement Test
(HAT) to identify the learning difficulties of students. The items on the Pre-test and Post-test
were similar.
Semi-structured interview was conducted to further identify students learning difficulties
in hybridisation and to validate the responses from the Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT).
The interview was face to face and lasted between 30-60 minutes. The interview was recorded
and transcribed verbatim.
Data Analysis
Data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.
Descriptive statistics such as frequency was used to analyse the data. The frequencies were
used to determine the number of students who gave Correct Responses, Wrong Responses or
No responses to the items of the test.
Content analysis was used to analyse the interview data. Content analysis is an approach
to quantify qualitative information by systematically sorting and comparing items of information
in order to summarize them. Often this process entails turning a large set of raw data into
useable evidence through data reduction methods (Hawkins, 2013). The data was coded and
categories into themes were based on whether students’ responses were correct or wrong. The
results were presented in tables and figures.

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634 Research Results
Learning difficulties students encounter in hybridisation
Difficulties in the Concept of Hybridisation
Table 1 shows the difficulties students have in the concept of hybridisation. These
difficulties were revealed in their responses to items in the Hybridisation Achievement Test.
Table 1
Students’ Learning Difficulties on the Concept of Hybridisation
Learning difficulties Category Pre-test Post-test

f % f %
NR 19 15.8 1 0.8
Explaining the term hybridisation WR 55 45.8 45 37.5
CR 46 38.3 74 61.7
NR 45 37.5 12 10.0
Explaining the term Hybrid orbitals WR 67 55.8 87 72.5
CR 8 6.7 21 17.5
NR 46 38.3 24 20.0
Stating the effect of hybridisation on bonds. WR 54 45.0 36 30.0
CR 20 16.7 60 50.0
NR 24 20.0 3 2.5
Writing the ground state Electron Configuration
WR 50 41.7 50 41.7
of 6C.
CR 46 38.3 67 55.8
NR 48 40.0 3 2.5
Writing the excited state Electron Configuration
WR 56 46.7 41 34.2
of 6C.
CR 16 13.3 76 63.3
NR 35 29.2 8 6.7
Stating the number of hybrid orbitals in 6C. WR 62 51.7 77 64.2
CR 23 19.2 35 29.2
(From researchers’ data, 2021).
NR – No Response, WR – Wrong Response, CR – Correct Response
The pre-test results revealed that, many of the students gave wrong responses or did not
respond to the items on the concept of hybridisation, hybrid orbitals, effect of hybridisation on
bonds, ground state and excited state configuration of carbon and stating the number of hybrid
orbitals in carbon. This implies that, before the instruction, students had difficulties in the
concept of hybridisation.
From the post-test results, 74 of the students representing 61.7% correctly explained
the term hybridisation. Also, 45 of the students representing 37.7% gave wrong explanations
to the concept of hybridisation while 1 student representing 0.8% did not make an attempt in
explaining the term hybridisation. This implies that, students had less difficulty in explaining
the term hybridisation.

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The post-test results also revealed that, 21 of the students representing 17.5% correctly 635
explained the term hybrid orbitals while 87 students representing 72.5% gave wrong
explanations. Also, 12 students representing 10.0% did not respond. This implies that students
had difficulty in explaining the term hybrid orbitals.
Results from the interview data also revealed that, students had difficulty in learning
the concept of hybridisation. For example, regarding the concept of hybridisation, this is what
a student said.
Researcher: The hybrid orbitals formed after hybridisation have a higher energy than the
individual orbitals mixed. Explain your answer.
Student 1: (Correct response): ‘’The orbitals mixed always have a higher energy which makes the
hybrid orbitals formed to have a lower energy’’.
Student 2 (wrong response): ‘’The individual orbitals are strong and stable when mixing them due
to the type of hybridisation’’.
Student 3 (wrong response): ‘’Hybrid orbital is the central atom in which hybridisation is formed
with the same energy and shape’’.
Student 4 (wrong response): ‘’Individual orbitals have low energy and when mixed will have
orbitals with increasing energy’’.
Also, students had difficulty in defining the concept of hybridisation. This was evident in
some of their definitions as follows:
Researcher: Explain the term hybridisation.

Student 20 (wrong response): ‘’hybridisation is a mixing of orbital to form the same orbital’’,
Student 15 (correct response): ‘’hybridisation is the mixing up of two or more different atoms of
the same energy and shape to form a new hybrid orbital of the same energy and shape’’,
Student 8 (wrong response): ‘’ hybridisation is the mixing of two or more atomic orbitals of
different energy and shape to form a new bond’’
Many of the students also had difficulty in explaining the term hybrid orbitals. This is
what they had to say:
Researcher: Explain the term hybrid orbitals.

Student 3 (correct response): They are orbitals formed when two or more orbitals of different
energies and shapes mix to form new orbitals of equivalent energy and shape
Student 12 (wrong response): ‘’these are point use different the two or more - bond energy all
together’’,
Student 8 (wrong response): ‘’is defined as the covalent molecular atom as the result of the head-
on overlap of orbitals’’, ‘
Student 18 (wrong response): ’is the mixing of two or more orbitals when new orbitals are formed
in different energy and shape’’.
Students also could not state the effect that hybridisation has on bonds. Example of their
responses are seen in the excerpts below:
Researcher: what is the effect of hybridization on bonds?

Student 5: ‘’ Hybrid orbitals predict equal energy and shape’’
Student 4: ‘’ The hybridisation has ground state’’,
Student 11: ‘’ The outermost electrons take part in the bonding’’

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636 Students had difficulty in writing the ground and excited-state electron configuration of
6
C. For example, below are some of the student’s responses:
Researcher: write the ground and excited state electron configuration of 6C.
Student 3: s1, s2; S1, s2; spy spx spz
Student 5: 1s2 2s2 2px2; 1s1 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1
Student 16: ’1s2 spx2 spy2; s2 spx2 spy2
Again, many of the students were not able to state the number of hybrid orbitals in 6C.
The excerpts below are some of their responses:
Student 1 (wrong response): 4

Student 9 (wrong response): four sp3
Student 2 (wrong response): sp2
Student17 (wrong response): one type of hybrid thus sp
Formation of Sigma and Pi bonds
Table 2 shows the difficulties students had in the concept of formation of sigma and pi
bonds. These difficulties are revealed in their responses to items in the hybridisation achievement
test.
Table 2
Learning Difficulty of Students on the Formation of Sigma and Pi Bonds
Pre-test Post-test
Learning Difficulty Response
f % f %
NR 103 85.8 47 39.2
Formation of C = C double bond in ethene. WR 17 14.2 70 58.3
CR - - 3 2.5
NR 81 67.5 15 12.5
Formation of pi bond and sigma bond using an electronic
WR 38 31.7 81 67.5
diagram.
CR 1 0.8 24 20.0
NR 88 73.3 28 23.3
WR 32 26.7 86 71.7
Formation of sigma and pi bonds in Ethyne (H - C≡ C - H).
5.0
CR - - 6
NR -No Response, WR - Wrong Response, CR – Correct Response
respond to the items on the formation of C = C double bond in ethene, formation of pi bond
and sigma bond using an electronic diagram and the formation of sigma and pi bonds in ethyne
(H - C≡C-H). This implies that, the concept of formation of sigma and pi bonds before the
instruction, was difficult for students.
The post-test results revealed that, only 3 students (2.5%) of the students correctly used
an appropriate diagram to explain the formation of C = C electron double bond in ethene while
70 students (58.3%) gave wrong explanations, and 47 students (39.2%) did not respond. The
high percentage implies that, students had difficulty in explaining the formation of C = C double
bond in ethene.

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Results from the interview data also revealed that, students had difficulty in learning the 637
concept of formation of sigma and pi bonds in ethene. Some students’ responses are presented
in Figure 1 below. That is, the majority of students had a difficulty in drawing the trigonal planar
shape of Carbon and indicating the unhybridized 2pz orbital for the formation of sigma and pi
bonds in ethene.
Figure 1
Students’ diagrammatic representation of the C = C bond in an alkene
In addition, the post-test results also revealed that, 24 students (20.0%) of students
correctly used the appropriate electron diagram to differentiate between the formation of pi
bond and sigma bond while 81 students (67.5%) gave wrong explanations, and 15 students
(12.5%) did not respond. This implies that, students had difficulty in explaining the formation
of pi and sigma bonds in ethene.
Also, students could not use electronic diagrams to differentiate between pi and sigma
bonds. The majority of students had difficulty in using s, p, and d hybrid orbitals to differentiate
between the formation of pi and sigma bonds. Figure 2 shows a sample of students’ drawings.
Figure 2
Students’ Drawings of pi and sigma Bonds
However, some 6 students (5%) correctly used orbital diagram to describe the formation
of sigma and pi bonds in ethyne (H – C ≡ C – H), while 86 students (71.7%) could not describe
the bonding in ethyne using orbital diagrams. Moreover, some 28 students (23.3%) did not
respond at all. This implies that, majority of students had difficulty in using diagrams to describe
the formation of sigma and pi bonds in ethyne. Figure 3 shows samples of students’ drawings.

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638 Figure 3
Students’ Drawings of the Formation of sigma and pi Bonds in Ethyne
Some other students gave explanations of the formation of sigma and pi bonds without
illustrating with orbital diagrams. However, these explanations were wrong. Figure 4 shows
samples of students’ explanations.
Figure 4
Students’ Explanation of the Formation of pi and sigma Bonds
Furthermore, students had difficulty in explaining that a triple bond consists of one sigma
bond and two pi bonds. This is what some students had to say:
Researcher: Explain the type and number of bonds in ethyne.

Student 1: ethyne have two pi bonds and one sigma bond
Student 16: you can use carbon to explain all the hybridisation – sp, sp2 and sp3
Student 9: the one sigma and one pi bonds have a small degree of overlap

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Students could not also explain the number of sigma and pi bonds in CO molecule. 639
Researcher: How many sigma and pi bonds are in CO? Explain your answer.
Student 12: CO has 1 sigma and 1 pi bond because in the excited state is only one electron that is
used in the bonding and the one-electron is the sigma bond and the other one is the pi bond
Student 2: CO has one sigma, no pi bond…the shape is linear
Student 18: CO has one sigma and one pi bond…this is because it is having two lone pair of
electrons
Student 14: CO has six…because sigma bonds are two and pi bonds are four
Types and Formation of Hybrid Orbitals
Table 3 shows the results of students’ difficulties in the types and formation of hybrid
orbitals.
Table 3
Learning Difficulties of Students on the Types and Formation of Hybrid Orbitals
Pre-test Post-test
Learning difficulty Response
f % F %
NR 83 69.2 32 26.7
Describe the formation of sp hybrid orbitals in CCl4.
3
WR 37 30.8 80 66.7
CR - - 8 6.7
NR 73 60.8 7 5.8
Shape and bond angles of sp hybrid orbitals. WR 26 21.7 29 24.2
CR 21 17.5 84 70.0
NR 98 81.7 29 24.2
Type of hybridisation of central atom in NH3 WR 19 15.8 42 35.0
CR 3 2.5 49 40.8
NR 100 83.3 30 25.0
Type of hybridisation of central atoms in OF2 WR 20 16.7 47 39.2
CR - - 43 35.8
NR 102 85.0 30 25.0
Type of hybridisation of central atoms in BCl3 WR 17 14.2 57 47.5
CR 1 0.8 33 27.5
NR 99 82.5 32 26.7
Deduction of shape of NH3 WR 21 17.5 73 60.8
CR - - 15 12.5
NR 101 84.2 32 26.7
Deduction of the shape of OF2 WR 19 15.8 73 60.8
CR - - 15 12.5
NR 102 85.0 37 30.8
Deduction of the shape of BCl3 WR 17 14.2 64 53.3
CR 1 0.8 19 15.8

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640 NR 82 68.3 10 8.3

Type of hybridisation of central atom in CO2 WR 28 23.3 40 33.3
CR 10 8.3 70 58.3
NR 85 70.8 11 9.2
Type of hybridisation of central atom in SiO2 WR 35 29.2 78 65.0
CR 31 25.8
NR 93 77.5 13 10.8
Type of hybridisation of central atom C2H2 WR 26 21.7 70 58.3
CR 1 0.8 37 30.8
NR 95 79.2 16 13.3
Type of hybridisation of central atom in BeF2 WR 20 16.7 60 50.0
CR 5 4.2 44 36.7
NR 95 79.2 17 14.2
Type of hybridisation of central atom in C2H4 WR 22 18.3 76 63.3
CR 3 2.5 27 22.5
NR 82 68.3 22 18.3
Shape of CO2 WR 31 25.8 44 36.7
CR 7 5.8 54 45.0
NR 89 74.2 24 20.0
Shape of SiO2 WR 31 25.8 80 66.7
CR 0 0.0 16 13.3
NR 94 78.3 23 19.2
Shape of C2H2 WR 25 20.8 64 53.3
CR 1 0.8 33 27.5
NR 94 78.3 27 22.5
Shape of BeF2 WR 23 19.2 56 46.7
CR 3 2.5 37 30.8
NR 96 80.0 26 21.7
Shape of C2H4 WR 24 20.0 78 65.0
CR - - 16 13.3
respond to the items on the formation of sp3 hybrid orbitals in CCl4, shape and bond angle of sp
hybrid orbitals, the type of hybridisation of the central atoms in and shape of NH3, OF2, BCl3,
CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2 and C2H4 molecules. This implies that, before the instruction, students
had difficulties in the concept of types and formation of hybrid orbitals.
The post-test results revealed that, 8 students (6.7%) correctly explained the formation of
sp3 hybrid orbitals in CCl4 while 80 students (66.7%) gave wrong explanations, and 32 students
(26.7%) did not respond. The high percentages of wrong and no response implies that, students
had difficulty in explaining the formation of sp3 hybrid orbitals in CCl4 with diagrams.
The majority of students could not use a diagram to explain the formation of sp3 hybrid orbitals
in CCl4 given an s and three p orbitals.

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In addition, some of the students drew the electron configuration of C but could not mix 641
the s and p orbitals to draw the tetrahedral shape of the sp3 hybrid orbital. Some samples of
students’ responses are presented in Figure 5.
Figure 5
Students’ Responses on the Formation of sp3 Hybrid Orbitals in CCl4
It was also revealed in the post-test that, 84 students representing 70.0% correctly
used diagrams to explain the shape and bond angle of sp hybrid orbitals. Also, 29 students
representing 24.2% gave wrong explanations while 7 students (5.8%) did not respond. This
implies that most of the students had less difficulty in explaining the shape and bond angle of
sp hybrid orbitals.
Also, the post-test results showed that, 49 students (40.8%) correctly stated the type
of hybridisation of the central atom in NH3 while 42 students (35.0%) stated wrongly and
29 students (24.2%) not answering. Also, 43 students (35.8%) correctly stated the type of
hybridisation of central atom in OF2 while 47 students (39.2%) gave wrong responses, and 30
students (25.0%) did not respond. With the type of hybridisation of the central atom in BCl3,
33 students (27.5%) gave correct response while 57 (47.5%) gave wrong responses, and 30
students (25.0%) did not respond. This implies that, students had difficulties in stating the type
of hybridisation of the central atoms in NH3, OF2 and BCl3.
Furthermore, post-test results revealed that, 15 students representing 12.5% deduced the
shape of NH3 correctly while 73 students (60.3%) provided wrong responses, and 32 students
(26.7%) did not respond. Also, with the shape of OF2, 15 students (12.5%) correctly deduced
the shape while 64 students (53.3%) gave wrong response, and 32 students (26.7%) did not
respond. For BCl3 molecule, 19 students (15.8%) deduced the shape correctly while 64 students

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642 (53.3%) gave wrong responses, and 37 students (30.8%) provided no response. This implies
that, students had difficulty in deducing the shape of NH3, OF2 and BCl3.
The results further revealed that, 70 (58.3%), 31 (25.8%), 37 (30.8%), 44 (36.7%) and 27
(22.5%) students provided correct responses on the type of hybridisation of the central atoms
in CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2 and C2H4 respectively. Also, 40 (33.3%), 78 (65.0%), 70 (58.3%),
60 (50.0%) and 76 (63.3%) students gave wrong responses on the type of hybridisation of the
central atoms in CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2 and C2H4 respectively.
The post-test results also revealed that, 54 (45.0%), 16 (13.3%), 33 (27.5%), 37 (30.8%)
and 16 (13.3%) of students stated correctly the shapes of CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2 and C2H4
respectively. Also, 44 (36.7%), 80 (66.7%), 64 (53.3%), 56 (46.7%) and 78 (65.0%) gave wrong
responses on the shapes of CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2 and C2H4 respectively.
Interview responses from students also revealed students’ difficulties in the concept
types and formation of hybrid orbitals.
Researcher: The central atom C in CH4 is sp3 hybridised. Explain your answer.
Student 3: "the core atom of CH4 is sp orbital";
Student 16: "because C in CH4 has two lone pair of electrons and is bent in the form";
Student 7: "because the lone pair of electrons on C in CH4 will move them down"
Also, on the type of hybridisation on the carbon atoms in ethyne, students had this to say.
Researcher: All the carbon atoms in ethyne are sp2 hybridised. Explain your answer.
Student 1: ‘’In Ethyne there is one pi bond and two sigma bonds which join together to form sp3
in carbon’’.
Student 2:’’Because all the carbon atoms are having one angle of 109.5 and a shape of trigonal’’
Student 3:’’ You can use carbon to explain all the hybridisation – sp, sp2, and sp3 ‘’
Shapes of Molecular Compounds
Table 4 shows the difficulties students have in shapes of molecular compounds. These
difficulties are revealed in their responses to items in the Hybridisation Achievement Test.
Table 4
Students’ Learning Difficulties in Shapes of Molecular Compounds
Pre-test Post-test
Learning difficulty Response
f % f %
Explain why H2O is not a linear molecule using hybridisation. NR 59 49.2 19 15.8
WR 59 49.2 50 41.7
CR 2 1.7 51 42.5
Explain why CO2 is a linear molecule using hybridisation. NR 69 57.5 17 14.2

WR 51 42.5 50 41.7
CR - - 53 44.2
Explain why NH3 and H2O have bond angles of 1070 and NR 92 76.7 40 33.3
104.50 respectively. WR 28 23.3 70 58.3
CR - - 10 8.3

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NR 92 76.7 17 14.2 643

Draw an orbital overlap diagram to represent the bonding in
WR 28 23.3 95 79.2
the methyl (CH3) group.
CR - - 8 6.7
NR 63 52.5 9 7.5
Matching sp, sp2 and sp3 hybrid orbitals with shapes of WR 26 21.7 25 20.8
molecules and compounds. CR 31 25.8 86 71.7
With the aid of electron bonded diagrams show the lone pair NR 93 77.5 63 52.5
of electrons and bond pair of electrons present around Al and WR 27 22.5 56 46.7
P in AlCl3 and PCl3 molecules?
CR - - 1 0.8
With the help of a diagram show the electron bonding in CO NR 10 90.0 56 46.7
molecule. WR 12 10.0 64 53.3
The post-test results showed that, 51 students (42.5%) correctly explained why H2O is
not a linear molecule while 50 students (41.7%) explained wrongly, and 19 students (15.8%)
did not respond. This implies that, students had difficulty in using hybridisation to explain why
H2O is not a linear molecule.
Also, 53 students (44.2%) used hybridisation to explain correctly that, CO2 is a linear
molecule while 50 students (41.7%) provided wrong responses, and 17 students (14.2%) did
not respond. This also implies that students had difficulty in using hybridisation to explain that
CO2 is a linear molecule.
The post-test results further revealed that, 10 students (8.3%) correctly accounted for
the difference in bond angles between NH3 and H2O using diagrams while 70 students (58.3%)
gave wrong explanations, and 40 students (33.3%) did not respond. This implies that, students
had difficulty in using diagrams to account for the difference between NH3 and H2O with bond
angles of 1070 and 1040 respectively.
In addition, the post-test results indicated that, 8 students (6.7%) correctly used orbital
overlap diagrams to represent the bonding in methyl (CH3), while 95 students representing
79.2% gave wrong responses, and 17 students (14.2%) did not respond. This implies that,
majority of the students had difficulty in using orbital overlap diagrams to represent the bonding
in methyl (CH3).
The results from the post-test show that, none of the students could use a diagram to
show the bonding in CO molecule while 64 students (53.3%) gave wrong response, and 56
students (46.7%) did not respond. This implies that, students had a difficulty in using diagrams
to show the bonding in CO molecule.
The results revealed that majority of students were not able to use diagrams to show
the arrangement of bonding electrons in BeCl2 and BCl3. Figure 6 shows samples of students’
responses.

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644 Figure 6
Student’s Drawings of the Bonding in BeCl2 and BCl3
Students could not account for the difference in bond angles in NH3 and H2O. Figure 7
shows samples of students’ responses.
Figure 7
Students’ Responses on Bond Angles of NH3 and H2O
In addition, students could not draw an orbital overlap diagram to represent the bonding
in methyl (CH3). Majority of students failed to understand that the central atoms in CH3 and
CH4 are sp3 with the only difference being the number of Hydrogen atoms in the tetrahedral
structure. The difficulty of students is seen in some of their responses as shown in Figure 8.

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Figure 8 645
Students’ Drawings on Bonding in Methyl (CH3)
Furthermore, students were not able to use orbital diagrams to show the number of lone
pair and bond pair electrons of Al and P in AlCl3 and PCl3 molecules. Majority of the students
could not draw the orbital diagrams and identify the bond pair and lone pair electrons in AlCl3
and PCl3.

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646 Figure 9
Students’ Drawings of Bonding in AlCl3 and PCl3 Molecules
Students had difficulty in showing the bonding in CO. Some of the responses from
students are shown in Figure 10.
Figure 10
Students’ Drawings on the Bonding in CO Molecule

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647
Discussion
The results revealed that, 61.7% of the students were able to correctly define the concept
of hybridisation while 37.5% gave incorrect definitions. The findings are consistent with that
of Çalış (2018) who reported that the number of students who correctly explain the definition
of the hybridisation concept with their own census is 35%. Çalış (2018) identified that 20%
of the students considered the bonds made by the carbon atom as hybridisation, while 25%
of the students define hybridisation as bringing orbitals in different energy levels to the same
energy level. The findings supported that the misconceptions in the definitions reported by Çalış
(2018) since 37.5% of students could not define hybridisation. In a study about hybridisation
and atomic orbitals, Nakiboğlu (2003) stated that the students could not identify hybrid types
or define the hybridisation concept. In his study, Zoller (1990) stated that the students confused
the hybridisation concept with electronic orbitals and could not really define it. Taber (2001)
revealed that the students thought that electrons in hybrid orbitals were the s, p, d atomic orbitals
and they stated that hybrid orbitals were similar to atomic orbitals.
Fifty percent (50%) of students stated correctly the effect of hybridisation on bonds
while 30% gave wrong responses. Many of the students (55.8%) were able to write the ground
state configuration of carbon, while 41.2% of them could not. Also, majority of the students
(63.3%) were able to write the excited state configuration of carbon, while 34.2% of them could
not. Majority of the students (64.2%) could not state the number of hybrid orbitals of carbon.
However, Hanson et al., (2012) in their study found that more than half of the participants
did not understand the meaning of the term, hybridisation. They reported that 72 of the
participants (93.2%) failed to respond correctly to the set question on the hybridisation or did
not answer it at all. The study also found that 72.5% of students gave wrong definitions of
hybrid orbitals. This finding agrees with the work of Hanson et al., (2012) who reported that
students had a better conceptual understanding of the concept of atomic orbitals.
The majority of students had difficulty in stating the type of hybridisation in and shapes
of NH3, OF2, BCl3, CO2, SiO2, C2H2, BeF2, and C2H4. Koomson et al., (2020) also found that,
students struggled to identify the hybridisation of central atoms in molecules. Students could not
also state the bond angle of BCl3 and C2H2, and they could not relate bond angles to the shape
of molecules. They reported that some students struggled to identify the hybridisation state of
central atoms in molecules, that others were perplexed by the bond angles of BCl3 and C2H2 and
couldn't relate the shape of the molecular species, that students couldn't define hybridisation,
that students had a poor understanding of hybridisation’s contributing effect on bonds, and that
student’s diagrammatic poor representation of why water is not a linear molecule.
Again, students could not explain why the central atom in CH4 is sp3 hybridised.
Furthermore, many of the students failed to explain correctly why all the carbon atoms in
ethene are sp2 hybridised and why the carbon atoms in ethyne are sp hybridised. Majority of the
students could not explain the bond angles of molecules such as NH3 and H2O. Hanson et al.,

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648 (2012) reported that students experience conceptual difficulty as a result of understanding the
meaning of s, p, d and f orbitals and how they are oriented in space. Again, the results confirmed
the findings of 2. Nakiboğlu (2003) and Hanson et al., (2012) that, pre-service teachers they
used for their study displayed major misconceptions about atomic orbitals and hybridisation
and students were unaware of the role hybridisation played in the formation of covalent bonds.
Çalış (2018) supported with his findings that, 75% of students could not accurately demonstrate
how sp, sp2, and sp3 hybrid orbitals were formed while 25% could.
Tilahun, and Tirfu (2016) reported that students had poor knowledge in the concept of
hybridisation orbital like sp, sp2, and sp3 which are the bases of chemical bonding. They did
not recognize the importance of sp, sp2 and sp3 in determining single, double, and triple bonds
respectively. Çalış (2018) further found that 25% of the students were able to show the sp, sp2
and sp3 hybrid orbital formations correctly and recognize these orbitals. These students also
did not specify how many identical hybrid orbits were formed, although they could show the
formation of sp3, sp2 and sp hybrid orbital from the p orbital with s orbital. Also, most of the
students did not show the hybrid orbital formation correctly. This result is also seen as a result
of students' tendency to learn by memorizing the hybridisation phenomenon.
The majority of students were not able to use diagrams to show the arrangement of
bonding electrons in BeCl2 and BCl3. Also, most of the students (57.5%) in the post test results
had difficulty in explaining why H2O is not a linear molecule. This supports the findings of
Koomson et al., (2020) that students could not draw and represent with diagrams explanations
of why water is not a linear molecule.
The results also showed that students could not correctly state the hybridisation of the
central atoms in NH3, H2O, OF2, CO2 and SiO2. This is consistent with other findings. For
example, Uyulgan and Akkuzu (2016) in a study on conceptual understanding of the molecular
structures of compounds found that 49.6% of students were not able to give the hybrid type of
the central atom in the molecules while other students (31.6%) gave mostly incorrect answers,
showing that the students had difficulty in identifying the hybrid type. Also, students had
misconceptions about hybridisation. The students were not able to state that hybrid orbitals
occur as a result of overlapping of orbitals.
Conclusions
In general, from the study most of the students had difficulty in understanding the
concept of hybridisation. However, the concept of hybridisation is one of the key topics science
students need to have adequate understanding to progress in the field of chemistry. This is
because knowledge of hybridisation is pre-requisite to learning other topics in chemistry such
as chemical bonding and organic chemistry. Unfortunately, research found that hybridisation
is difficult to understand by most students at all levels of schooling. In order to find ways of
minimizing the difficulties students encounter in learning hybridisation, the root cause as well
as the specific areas of the concept students find to be more problematic must be known.
It is therefore important to detect and take into consideration students’ prior conceptions
when planning chemistry lessons. Understanding the concept of hybridisation requires the
connection of different abstract concepts such as atomic orbitals, chemical bonding, and
molecular compounds. This work found out the peculiar hindrances that impede senior high
school science students understanding of the concept of hybridisation.
The major areas of difficulties in learning hybridisation identified from the study included the
inability of students to:
• define the concept of hybridisation,
• explain the types and formation of hybrid orbitals,
• explain the formation of sigma and pi bonds in ethene and ethyne,

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• draw electron orbital diagrams of some molecules, and 649

• draw the shapes of molecules.
There is the need for chemistry teachers to use student-cantered teaching approaches
that will foster understanding of students in hybridisation. Again, teachers should use teaching
and learning materials such as molecular/atomic models to teach hybridisation for conceptual
understanding. In addition, conceptual methods and analogies should be used to teach shapes of
hybrid orbitals and their orientations. Emphasis should be placed on the relationship the type of
hybridisation of the central atom has on the molecular geometry of a molecule. For students to
gain conceptual competency on the covalency of hybrid orbitals in bond formation, they must
be introduced to more worked examples.
It is therefore suggested that further research on using cutting-edge instructional
technology or teaching learning materials should be conducted to minimize if not eliminate the
learning difficulties associated with the findings of the research.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all the headmasters, chemistry teachers and respondents
who were involved in this research.
Declaration of Interest
The authors declare no competing interest.
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Received: June 07, 2022 Revised: August 18, 2022 Accepted: September 05, 2022

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651
Cite as: Abukari, M. A., Marifa, H. A., Samari, J. A., Dorsah, P., & Abudu, F. (2022). Senior
high school students’ difficulties in learning hybridisation in chemistry. Problems of Education
in the 21st Century, 80(5), 630-651. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630
Moses Abdullai Abukari School of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, C. K.

Tedam University of Technology and Applied Science, P. O. Box 24,
Navrongo, Ghana.
E-mail: mabukari@cktutas.edu.gh
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7534-7867
Huaru Alhassan Marifa Dr. Hilla Limann Senior High School, Ghana.
(Corresponding author) E-mail: marifaalhassan@gmail.com
Jonathan Ayelsoma Samari School of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, C. K.

Navrongo, Ghana.
E-mail: jsamari@cktutas.edu.gh
Philip Dorsah School of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, C. K.

Navrongo, Ghana.
E-mail: pdorsah@cktutas.edu.gh
Fatao Abudu School of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, C. K.

Navrongo, Ghana.
E-mail: fabudu@cktutas.edu.gh

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652
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND EFL
TEACHERS’ PRACTICES IN ACTIVATING
LEARNERS’ ACQUISITION OF 21ST
CENTURY SKILLS
Mona Abdullah Alzahrani
Taif University, Saudi Arabia
E-mail: mona2007za1428@hotmail.com
Faizah M. Nor
University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
E-mail: m-faizah@utm.my
Abstract
Teachers who teach English as a foreign language (EFL) should constantly develop their skills and
knowledge by taking part in professional development programs (PDPs) which keep them aware of
the most recent teaching trends. This mixed method study seeks to explore how PDPs influence EFL
teachers’ teaching practices in activating 21st century skills, and therefore their students’ acquisition
of these skills. It also examines the correlation between EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills
and their students’ acquisition of these skills. The study used a sequential explanatory research design
by utilizing questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The results revealed that the two dimensions
of 21st century skills that got the highest level of activation were the collaboration and communication
skills. Furthermore, the results showed that the students acquire all 21st century skills with different
levels of acquisition. Finally, the results showed that EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills had
no significant direct correlation with students’ acquisition of these skills. These findings could provide
insights on the area of PDPs that need to be researched more in different contexts. They also suggested
that PDPs designers should incorporate all dimensions of 21st equally to be activated accurately by
teachers in higher education institutions.
Keywords: professional development, EFL teachers, EFL learners, 21st century skills activation, 21st
century skills acquisition
Introduction
There are many things that require changes over time which means that they are
developing. Thus, teaching is a developmental process, and this is indicated by the changes
of teachers’ skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (Topkaya & Ÿelik, 2016). Therefore, all
teachers either new or experienced need a wide variety of ongoing opportunities to improve their
pedagogical knowledge and skills by attending professional development programs (PDPs).
Thus, these programs for in-service teachers at higher education will help increase the quality
of all teachers which will lead to the best results from their students (Compen et al., 2019).
Professional development (PD) was defined by Darling-Hammond et al. (2017), as an
organized professional learning that changes teacher knowledge and practices and enhances
student learning outcomes. Merchie et al. (2018) also agreed with this definition and defined
PD as activities that are designed for and presented to teachers in order to enhance their own
and their students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. These definitions reflect important elements

Mona Abdullah ALZAHRANI, Faizah NOR. Professional development and EFL teachers’ practices in activating learners’ acquisition
of 21st century skills
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that PD can influence, such as teachers’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes as well as students’ 653
learning.
As we are in the 21st century, teachers’ skills and practices must be aligned with enhancing
21 century skills at higher education, thus all PDPs are needed to help university teachers learn
st
and improve their knowledge and instructions required to teach 21st century skills (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2017). Today’s young people must adapt to a quickly changing environment,
which necessitates going beyond fundamental formulaic knowledge and abilities. Therefore,
higher education policy should move from rote learning and fact memorizing towards the
development of 21st century skills (Cruz, et al., 2021; Urbani et al., 2017). Andrade (2016)
reported that teaching content development in higher education must be compatible with the
acquisition of global skills from the 21st century, such as problem solving, critical thinking, oral
and written communication, collaboration, and information literacy.
In addition, in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT), the development of
teaching language skills and its combination with language learners’ ever-changing needs such
as 21st century skills have become a main focus (Çınar, 2021). The 21st century skills at higher
education help students to enter the work life with the capacity to think creatively and critically,
interact with others, take initiative when faced with a problem, and fully utilize technology
(Okolie et al., 2021; Weeks et al., 2020). Thus, learners in higher education need to be prepared
to acquire the 21st century skills as their wants in this challenging era indicated that the teaching
materials must be able to promote these skills (Menggo et al., 2019). In addition, Çınar (2021)
claimed that every element of 21st century skills becomes a requirement for English language
teaching. Thus, administrators need to develop a plan to implement PDPs to support teachers
with 21st century skills development in the classroom (Stegall, 2016).
Research Aim and Research Questions
The literature reveals that there are some research studies that have studied the impact
of PDPs on students’ academic achievement such as Basma and Savage (2018); Miles (2019);
and Warner, et al. (2019), however, the correlation between teachers’ participating in PDPs and
students’ acquisition of 21st century skills in higher education is not clear. Thus, teachers who
are involved in PDPs are now challenged with the task of incorporating 21st century skills into
their classrooms at higher education institutions.
Although PDPs play a crucial role in changing higher education teachers’ practices and
attitudes towards PDPs and subsequently students’ outcomes, few studies have focused on this
topic particularly in Saudi Arabia. Hence, this mixed method study attempts to contribute to the
knowledge base by exploring the correlation between EFL teachers’ practices in activating 21st
century skills and their students’ acquisition of these skills. Therefore, this study was designed
to answer the following research questions:
1. To what extent does participation in PDPs at higher education help EFL teachers
activate 21st century skills?
2. To what extent do learners of English course at higher education acquire 21st
century skills?
3. Is there a correlation between EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills and their
students’ acquisition of these skills?
Literature Review
The Today’s young people must adapt to a quickly changing environment, which
necessitates going beyond fundamental formulaic knowledge and abilities. Therefore, education
policy should move from rote learning and fact memorizing towards the development of 21st
century skills (Urbani et al., 2017). There are various interpretations of what 21st century

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654 skills are. The Partnership for 21st Century Learning Skills has established a structured vision
for the overall educational process titled the “Framework for 21st Century Learning”. It was
first released in 2007 and then updated in 2016. This framework determines the skills which
are crucial for students’ success in life and work. It contains a combination of various skills,
competences along with knowledge and expertise in the field of academic disciplines. Four
skill areas have been identified to outline the 21st century students’ outcomes which are: (a) key
subjects and 21st century themes; (b) life and career skills; (c) learning and innovation skills: the
4Cs (i.e., critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity); and (d) information,
media, and technology skills (Battelle for Kids, 2021).
Moreover, Binkley et al. (2012) have categorized the 21st century skills into four
groupings: ways of thinking, ways of working, tools for working, and living in the world.
Critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making; creativity and innovation; learning to
learn and metacognition are all included in the group of ways of thinking. Communication and
collaboration are the skills of ways of working. Tools for working contain information literacy
and ICT literacy. Finally, citizenship (local and global), life and career, and personal and social
responsibility are categorized under living in the world.
Furthermore, Hixson et al. (2012) categorized the 21st skills into three domains: learning
and innovation skills, career and life skills, and digital literacy skills. Critical thinking,
communication, and creativity and innovation are subgroups of learning and innovation skills.
Self-direction, collaboration, making global and local connections are included in the career
and life skills. Finally, using technology as a tool for learning, information and communication
technology (ICT), and media literacy are all subcategories of digital literacy skills.
Having learners’ with 21st century skills is a demand for every society that wants to
keep up with the global educational developments. Therefore, learning materials should be
designed to support such skills. Menggo et al. (2019) conducted a wants analysis for academic-
English speaking content in order to promote 21st century skills. First, the outcome of students’
desires strongly showed that material design needs to be more about 21st century skills such
as ways of thinking that include creative and critical approaches to problem-solving and
decision-making, ways of working that include communication and collaboration, and ways
of using relevant technologies (ICT literacy). Furthermore, 21st century teaching and learning
necessitate cooperation skills by encouraging students to contribute functions, solve issues, and
employ various thinking processes in order to attain academic success. Finally, it was advised
that the academic-English speaking material be designed with linguistic resources to aid in
the development of 21st century skills especially communication skills. Henceforth, it can be
concluded that the nature of the course that is offered to the students can be a factor that might
affect their acquisition of 21st century skills.
Besides the learning materials, teachers also need to be able to foster 21st century skills
in their teaching practices in order to help their students acquire these skills. As professional
development is the source for enhancing and influencing the knowledge and skills of teachers,
institutions need to include what knowledge and skills teachers need in the content of their
PDPs. Thus, in order to have 21st century learners, attention must be paid to how teachers can
implement these skills in the classrooms and how they can be evaluated and trained through
PDP. Only with successful achievement of 21st century teaching skills, 21st century learning of
students can be enhanced and developed (Kim et al., 2019). This is also supported by Yue (2019)
as he mentioned that higher education institutions need to address 21st century skills, such as
problem solving and critical thinking, creativity and innovation, cross-cultural understanding,
and ICT literacy. For this purpose, teachers need to develop all these skills and then can teach
them to their students. As a result, in order to fulfil the 21st century requirements, professional
development has become an urgent need for improving successful language teaching and
learning (Hazaea, 2019).

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In this regard, Andrade (2016) mentioned that the learning outcomes needed for higher 655
education such as communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, and innovation had a
wide support in all institutions and should be the elements of the curricular for learner success
in enhancing 21st century skills. Furthermore, Hasan and Parvez (2017) discussed the PD of
teachers in higher education in India. They analyzed the aspects and areas of PDPs of teachers
in 21st century. It had been noticed that the universities were running updated courses with the
help of Academic Staff in Colleges. They were largely responsible for organizing workshops
and newly academic activities for the teachers’ PD in order to prepare teachers with the required
skills of 21st century. Observing the classroom processes and teacher practices of enabling and
supporting the development of 21st century skills in the classroom is a necessary step to transfer
these skills to the students. For example, teaching skills such as critical thinking requires
teachers to be taught in a manner that is reflective of that process through PDPs that involve
continuous learning and ongoing teachers’ reflection (Kim et al., 2019).
Additionally, one of the studies that explored the issue of implementing of 21st century
skills in teaching practices is done by Wilcox et al. (2017). They examined the extent to which
teachers tried to develop students’ 21st century skills in classrooms, and the extent to which
they believed students improved those skills in their classes. They also tried to know how
teachers effectively assessed these skills in their students. The results revealed that over third
of the teachers employed all or part of the best instructional techniques to help students’ 21st
century skills such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking, self-direction, and using
technology as a tool to learn. The results also showed that all three aspects which were attempt,
belief, and assessment could significantly predict the frequency of teaching students’ 21st
century skills.
Moreover, Weeks et al. (2020) examined school-based agriculture education programs to
report the instructors’ knowledge, ability, and necessity of incorporating 21st century skills into
the classroom. The study also attempted to provide a model for teacher education programs by
actively encouraging the development of these skills. The 21st century skills included in this
study were creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and technology skills.
After assessing teachers’ perceived knowledge, and ability, the data were analyzed to establish
the professional development requirements of school-based agriculture education instructors,
specifically 21st century skills. The most intriguing emerging result was the simultaneous
integration of several 21st century skills. According to the findings, professional development
was required to better educate and equip agricultural instructors with specific and applicable
ways for implementing critical thinking, communication, and technological literacy skills in
their classrooms.
On the same path, Sloan (2019) looked at how schools in an urban school system used
professional development to help instructors incorporate 21st century survival skills into
classroom instruction. These skills were classified as follows: critical thinking and problem
solving, cooperation across networks and influence, agility and adaptation, effective oral and
written communication, acquiring and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.
The data gathered on how effective previous professional development was at covering these
specific skills. According to the findings, current professional development seldom, if ever,
included anything about survival skills. At best, there were a few instances where a skill
was acknowledged but not explicitly shown; rather, it was more of an implicit idea. While
community business partners and other stakeholders agreed that the skills needed to be taught,
there was little indication that this was happening in these training sessions. Therefore, these
survival skills need to be incorporated in teachers’ PDPs clearly and with direct instructions
how to implement them in their teaching practices to aid students acquire and improve these
skills.

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656 In addition, Urbani et al. (2017) studied how and to what extent teacher education programs
for Pre-service teachers developed and modeled the 21st century skills. The evaluation included
three teacher education programs which were multiple subjects, single subject, and education
specialist. The results indicated that assignments given to the teachers during these training
programs greatly impacted their competence in creativity, critical thinking, communication,
collaboration, and information, media, and technology skills and in their ability to incorporate
these skills into their teaching practices.
Although many educational institutions attempt to develop teachers’ activation of
21st century skills their students’ acquisition of these skills, few studies have explored the
improvement of teachers’ instructional practices to develop these skills after participating in
PDPs. Furthermore, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, there is still a lack of studies
conducted in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to examine the correlation between teachers’
activation of 21st century skills and their students’ acquisition of these skills. Thus, more studies
are needed to examine how teaching practices are changed as a result of PDPs in activating
21st century skills and consequently developing students’ acquisition of these skills in order to
ensure that they are capable to work after graduation.
General Background
This study adopted a mixed method approach with explanatory sequential design.
This design included two phases: quantitative data collection and in-depth qualitative data
collection. In the quantitative phase, two questionnaires were collected from EFL teachers and
their students at Taif University English Language Center (TUELC). In the qualitative phase
semi-structured interviews with EFL teachers were conducted as a next step to help explain the
quantitative results.
The current study was limited to in-service teachers who teach English as a foreign
language (EFL teachers) at Taif University English Language Center (TUELC) in Saudi Arabia
and their students during the second semester of the academic year 2020-2021. TUELC offers
a PDP every semester to its EFL teachers that is why the researcher chose them to be the
participants of this study.
Moreover, the current study focuses in the 21st century skills that were developed by
Hixson et al. (2012). It includes eight dimensions which are critical thinking, collaboration,
communication, creativity and innovation, self-direction, global connections, local connections,
and using technology as a tool for learning.
Sample
There were two target populations based on the research questions. The first population
was EFL teachers at TUELC. They are 109 from various nations and holding a variety of
degrees. Those teachers are teaching English Language courses as general subjects to the first-
grade students at Taif University (TU). That is why those students were also selected to be the
second population. They are 5017 students from four Colleges at TU. Under each college there
are 12 sub-colleges.
In the quantitative phase, for the teachers’ population, 44 EFL teachers were selected
randomly according to the stratified random selection of the students’ classes as shown in
Table 1. Therefore, for the students’ population, stratified random sampling was applied. First,
the students were divided into four groups according to their main colleges. Then, they were
divided into 12 subgroups according to their 12 sub-colleges. After that, 44 classes were selected

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randomly according to the formula of proportionate stratified sampling technique which was 657
(Sample Size*Stratum Size/ Population Size) (Nori, 2013). Finally, a random sample was
selected within these 44 classes.
Table 1
The Stratified Random Selection of Classes
Formula Number of
Sub-college Sample
(Sample Size*Stratum Size/ Population Size) Classes
College of Medicine (880*90 /5017) = 15.79 20 1
College of Pharmacy (880*91 /5017) = 16.38 20 1

College of Applied Medical
Sciences (880*209 /5017) = 36.66 40 2
College of Education (880*355 /5017) = 62.26 60 3
College of Art (880*378 /5017) = 66.30 60 3
College of Applied Studies (880*800 /5017) = 140.32 140 7
College of Sharia’&
(880*466 /5017) = 81.74 80 4
Regulations
College of Business
(880*680 /5017) = 119.27 120 6
Administration
College of Sciences (880*920 /5017) = 161.37 160 8
College of Engineering (880*89 /5017) = 15.61 20 1
College of IT (880*462/5017) = 81.04 80 4
College of Home Economics (880*477 /5017) = 83.67 80 4
Total 880 44
The sample size of the students’ population was determined based on the assumption
of sampling table in which Cohen et al. (2007) stated that normal sampling strategy uses a 95
percent confidence level and a 3 percent confidence interval. So, as if the population is (N)
5000, the ideal sample size is (S) 879. The sample size of each stratum was calculated by using
the formula of calculating a proportionate stratification as shown in Table 1. So, 20 students
were selected randomly from each class by using simple random sampling.
In the qualitative phase, a purposeful sampling with the criterion sampling technique is
used in this phase to choose some cases that meet a predefined criterion for this in-depth stage
(Palinkas et al., 2015). After examining the quantitative data, some criteria for choosing the
participants were established. These criteria were: involving in PDPs for 2 years and more,
having more than 5 years of teaching experience, and specializing in TESL/TESOL, English
language, or Linguistics Studies. The majority of books and publications that Guest et al. (2006)
studied said that the purposive sample size should be determined inductively, and that sampling
should continue until saturation. As the saturation point was achieved at teacher number eight,
the interview sample size was set at eight teachers.

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658 Research Instruments
The study’s data were collected using the following instruments:
• EFL Teachers’ Questionnaire

• Students’ Questionnaire
• EFL Teachers’ Semi-structured Interview
EFL Teachers’ Questionnaire
Teachers’ questionnaire contained two sections. The first one included the respondent’s
demographic information which was used in analyzing the data later. The second one was
utilized to identify the extent to which participation in PDPs helps EFL teachers activate 21st
century skills. This section was adapted from Hixson et al. (2012) and permission was sent
by email. This questionnaire included a total of 46 items which represented the 21st century
skills under eight dimensions. These items were assessed with a 5-point Likert scale with
1=Never, 2=Rarely, 3=Sometimes, 4=Often, and 5=All the Time. The EFL teachers were
invited to participate via email and the electronic questionnaire that was created by Google
form was distributed online. The questionnaires were anonymous to give teachers the freedom
to express their viewpoints; however, the group numbers were used later to facilitate the follow
up interviews.
In order to determine the content validity, a validation committee consisting of five
experts from Faculty of Education and Language Center analyzed the content of the items and
their appropriateness to the research objectives. Each member in the committee was asked to
examine the relevance of the items to the question that is supposed to be answered, the clarity of
the items regarding the vocabulary level, the language, and the structure, and the adequateness
of the content which means if the number of items is representative enough of each domain in
the questionnaire. For measuring the questionnaires’ reliability, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha
was calculated by using SPSS program, version 23, and it yielded .955.
Students’ Questionnaire
The second questionnaire was applied among students, and it was the same as the
teachers’ questionnaire, but with slight changes in the wording reflecting students’ different
perspectives. The first change was for the heading statement. It was changed to “After studying
English Language Course in my first semester at university, I am able to ...”. The second one was
for the 5-point of the Likert scale. They were changed to 1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree,
3= Neutral, 4= Agree, 5= Strongly Agree. Finally, the 46 items structure was also changed to
address the students, e.g., the item “Draw their own conclusions based on analysis of numbers,
facts, or relevant information.” was changed to “Draw my own conclusions based on analysis
of numbers, facts, or relevant information.”
In order to determine the content validity, the same validation committee of teachers’
questionnaire was given the students’ questionnaire. Also, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was
used to measure the questionnaires’ reliability, and it yielded .967.
EFL Teachers’ Semi-structured Interview
An interview guide was created, which included a list of subjects to be covered as well
as some open-ended questions. It was prepared following the analysis of quantitative data as
needed by the study’s explanatory sequential design. Because of the COVID-19 epidemic, EFL

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instructors were interviewed online using Zoom sessions. With the participants' agreement, all 659
interviews were audio-recorded, and 30 to 45 minutes were allotted for each interview session.
To validate the qualitative results of this study, two methods were used which were
member checking by which the interview transcripts with the emerging themes were returned
to four of the study participants and they provided their feedback, and a rich, thick description
which provides more in-depth details. As for the qualitative reliability, cross-checking for the
codes was used via asking another coder who is experienced with qualitative studies and coding
process to cross check an interview coding and emerging themes and give his feedback.
Research Procedures
As discussed earlier, the current investigation used an explanatory sequential design,

which is one of the most popular mixed methods designs in educational research (Creswell,
2014). It includes two phases: quantitative and qualitative which was implemented sequentially
as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1
EFL Teachers’ Activation of 21st Century Skills

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660 Data Analysis

Data analysis occurs in three stages in the explanatory sequential design: quantitative
data analysis, follow-up qualitative data analysis, and how the qualitative data serves to interpret
the quantitative results (Creswell & Clark, 2018).
Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) and Partial Least Squares - Structural
Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) were used for the quantitative data analysis. SPSS was used to
provide descriptive statistics on EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills, and the students’
acquisition of these skills. Descriptive statistics helps in organizing quantitative data and allows
researchers to summarize characteristics and distribution of values in a single or more datasets
(Lee, 2020). Mean and standard deviation for each statement in both questionnaires were
calculated.
PLS- SEM was used to analyze the data of research question 3 which aimed to identify the
correlation between EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills and their students’ acquisition
of these skills. Through SEM, researchers can explain the entire correlations between variables
by defining a model (Kumar & Upadhaya, 2017). The SEM is more appropriate for research
question number three in this study because it is well-known by three essential characteristics,
namely, the assessment of many dependence relationships, illustrating unobserved concepts in
these dependence relationships and correct the errors of measurements, and finally defining the
whole model that explains the entire relationships between variables (Hair et al., 2014; Kumar
& Upadhaya, 2017).
Thematic analysis, on the contrary, was employed for qualitative data analysis since
it delivers rich, comprehensive, and complicated data. Braun & Clarke (2006) defined it as a
process for detecting, analyzing, and reporting themes inside the data. Thematic analysis is
thought to be the most suited analyzing tool for any study that employs interpretations. It enables
the researchers to link the topic frequency to the entire material (Alhojailan, 2012). Qualitative
research thematic analysis may be broken down into five steps: joining, deconstructing,
reconstructing, analyzing, and concluding (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018).
Research Results
Research Question 1: EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills
To answer this question, the data were collected via questionnaire and interview. First,
teachers were given a questionnaire. Then, eight selected teachers were interviewed to help
explaining the quantitative results. As the questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale, the data
were interpreted by three levels based on the mean range as shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Mean Range Levels
Interval
Scale Lower Limit Upper Limit Range Level
Length
Never 1
1.33 1.00 2.33 1.00 – 2.33 Low
Rarely 2
Sometimes 3 1.33 2.34 3.67 2.34 – 3.67 Moderate
Often 4
1.33 3.68 5.00 3.68 – 5.00 High
All the Time 5

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After collecting all data, the responses were processed through descriptive statistical 661
analysis using SPSS to determine the mean and standard deviation for each item as shown in
Table 3.
Table 3
Mean and Standard Deviation for the Items of EFL Teachers’ Activation of 21st Century
Skills
Dimension N M SD
1 3.37 1.036
2 3.53 1.077
3 3.83 0.955
Critical thinking skills
4 3.57 0.996
5 3.47 1.055
6 3.68 1.017
7 4.40 0.739
8 3.74 1.094
Collaboration skills 9 3.49 1.033
10 4.18 0.971
11 4.06 1.114
12 3.46 1.129
13 3.82 1.116
Communication skills 14 3.91 0.936
15 3.97 1.005
16 4.15 1.073
17 4.00 0.976
18 3.91 1.019
Creativity and innovation skills 19 3.66 1.055
20 3.51 1.066
21 3.52 1.130
22 3.46 1.076
23 3.17 1.241
24 3.51 1.130
Self-direction skills 25 3.15 1.317
26 3.67 1.148
27 3.52 1.199
28 3.52 1.209
29 3.83 1.037
30 3.91 0.936
Local connections 31 3.14 1.287
32 2.84 1.247
33 3.13 1.283

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662 34 4.00 0.915

35 3.75 0.918
Global connections 36 3.34 1.076
37 3.83 1.002
38 3.45 1.108
39 4.09 1.063
40 4.06 0.981
41 3.59 1.177
42 3.16 1.380
Using technology as a tool for learning
43 4.02 1.034
44 4.03 0.994
45 3.10 1.414
46 3.67 1.158
Table 3 shows that the mean score range for all items in the questionnaire is 2.84 till
4.40. It could be seen that Item 7, which states “Working in pairs or small groups to complete
a task together.”, received the highest mean score of 4.40 (SD= 0.739). This skill belongs to
the Collaboration Skills dimension. The high mean score for this item signifies that teachers
activate this skill more than the other skills. It means that teachers always encourage their
students to work in pairs or in groups while completing a task. Teachers’ choice of this item
as the highest skill activated in the classrooms could be explained based on their expressions
during the interview as follows.
“I used to divide my students into groups and ask them to work in groups, and my job is to monitor
these groups, just to make sure that they work together and communicate in English. I praise them
when they when they come up with an innovative idea especially low-level student.” (Collabora-
tion skills > Working in groups> T1).
“Yes, of course, group works, I'm trying my best to make them work in groups because we teach
large number of students. This let them share their ideas and learn from each other.” (Collabora-
tion skills> Working in groups> T3).
On the contrary, the item that has the lowest mean is Item 32 with a mean score of 2.84.
It states that “Analyzing how different stakeholder groups or community members view an
issue.” and belongs to the dimension of Local Connections. This result means that teachers
seldom teach their students how to analyze different views of local community members. This
may be due to the topics included in English courses which are derived mostly from global
communities as Teacher 7 mentioned:
“The course let the students make Global Connections. The topic like for example Amazon is
not something that we always talk about like Ganaderiah or other local stuff, or camel race or
something like that. This is a different time in our lives. This is truly a global time in our lives and
our learners need to get used to that and trained for that because they learn a global language.”
(Activation of 21st century skills > Local and global connections> T7).
Therefore, the kind of topics included in the textbook could be a reason why the skill
of analyzing different views of local community is not always activated by teachers in EFL
classrooms. Sometimes, teachers depend only on the topics of English textbook and do not try
to connect the global issues with the local ones.

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Upon generating the means for individual items, the items were then computed according 663
to the eight dimensions of 21st century skills as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2
EFL Teachers’ Activation of 21st Century Skills
Figure 2 displays the mean scores for all eight dimensions which range from 3.37 to
3.97. The dimension of Collaboration Skills has the highest mean score with 3.97. This result
means that EFL teachers activated collaboration skills in the classroom all the time.
On the other hand, Local Connections got the lowest mean score with 3.37. According
to the mean range in Table 2, this result means that EFL teachers sometimes activate this skill.
The reading of the results for all dimensions of 21st century skills as presented in Figure
2 shows that PDPs help teachers to activate all 21st century skills in a moderate and high level.
This result is supported by teachers’ interview as follows.
“Yes, and most of them actually, like, for example, the use of technology inside classroom. In some
training sessions, we were presented to a lot of apps and websites that we can use inside the class.
Also, for the critical thinking skills.” (Activation of 21st century skills> T2).
“PDPs presented strategies that teacher can use to activate these skills inside the classroom.
Many strategies, and many techniques that I have learned and applied in my classroom. They
were talking about critical thinking, collaboration, and self-direction. So, these training sessions
talked about these skills, and we got benefit of it.” (Activation of 21st century skills> T5).
The excerpts above indicate that PDPs help teachers be aware of 21st century skills and
how to implement them inside their classrooms. T2 mentioned that some training sessions
provide her with apps and websites that enabled her to activate the skills of using technology.
In addition, T5 added that she has learned many strategies and techniques from PDPs which
helped her in activating skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, solving problems, and
self-direction skills.
Research Question 2: Students’ acquisition of 21st century skills
The students’ acquisition of 21st century skills was measured through students’
questionnaire and their teachers’ semi-structured interviews. The questionnaire uses a 5-point

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664 Likert scale with options, Strongly Disagree= 1, Disagree= 2, Neutral= 3, Agree= 4, Strongly
Agree=5. Thus, the higher the value, the larger the extent of 21st century skills acquisition by
the students. The data of this question was interpreted by three levels based on the mean range
as shown in Table 4.
Table 4
Mean Range Levels
Interval
Scale Lower Limit Upper Limit Range Level
Length
Strongly Disagree 1
1.33 1.00 2.33 1.00 – 2.33 Low
Disagree 2
Neutral 3 1.33 2.34 3.67 2.34 – 3.67 Moderate
Agree 4
1.33 3.68 5.00 3.68 – 5.00 High
Strongly Agree 5
As shown in Table 4, there are three levels: low, moderate, and high by which the means
will be interpreted. After that, mean and standard deviation for each item in the questionnaire
were produced. The results are presented in Table 5.
Table 5
Mean and Standard Deviation of Students’ Questionnaire
Dimension N M SD Total M and SD

1 3.77 0.931
2 3.80 0.864
3 4.04 0.895 M = 3.83
Critical thinking skills
4 3.86 0.896 SD = 0.663
5 3.75 0.930
6 3.77 0.966
7 4.07 0.988
8 3.97 0.995
M = 3.87
Collaboration skills 9 3.87 0.929
SD = 0.787
10 3.98 0.965
11 3.74 1.063
12 3.84 0.958
13 3.98 0.900
M = 3.82
Communication skills 14 4.05 0.891
SD = 0.780
15 3.59 1.141
16 3.63 1.137
17 3.86 0.937
18 3.95 0.842
M = 3.92
Creativity and innovation skills 19 3.92 0.870
SD =0.725
20 3.92 0.854
21 3.97 0.884

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22 4.13 0.884 665
23 4.02 0.851
24 4.04 0.887
M = 4.02
Self-direction skills 25 3.93 0.889
SD = 0.725
26 4.00 0.900
27 3.91 0.896
28 4.11 0.879
29 3.65 0.990
30 3.87 0.868
M = 3.71
Local connections 31 3.63 0.967
SD = 0.709
32 3.58 0.909
33 3.81 0.854
34 3.75 0.988
35 3.71 0.934
M = 3.67
Global connections 36 3.50 1.023
SD = 0.791
37 3.85 0.942
38 3.57 1.020
39 4.22 0.894
40 4.12 0.837
41 3.95 0.921
42 4.00 0.910 M = 4.08
Using technology as a tool for learning
43 4.19 0.850 SD = 0.716
44 4.09 0.884
45 3.98 0.914
46 4.10 0.906
It can be seen from Table 5 that all items have mean scores ranged between 3.47 and
4.22 which represent moderate and high levels of agreement. Item 39 received the highest
mean with a mean score of 4.22. Item 39 states that “Using technology or the Internet for self-
instruction (e.g., videos, tutorials, self-instructional websites, etc.).” This finding reveals that
the students acquired the skill of using technology for self-learning in their English classes. This
skill belongs to the domain of Using Technology as a Tool for Learning which also received the
highest mean score (4.08) among the eight dimensions of 21st century skills. This result is also
confirmed by teachers’ responses during the interview as follows.
“They did an amazing work. Even their videos when I asked them to do a speaking task and send
me a record or something of their speaking, they would send me videos that amazed me.” (Acqui-
sition of 21st century skills)> Using Technology> T1).
“I'm so happy that they are very skilled with technology and using it. You know, if I ask them to do
anything, they were doing it in a second and I was amazed.” (Acquisition of 21st century skills)>
Using Technology>T3).
Teachers mentioned some reasons behind this result in the interview as follows.

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666 “I think online classes during COVID-19 Pandemic enhanced some of the 21st century skills such
as using technology. The online classes were more effective in helping the students learn how to
use technology because they are forced to use it.” (Using Technology > Online classes> T2).
“I feel like some skills have been developed through online classes, especially technology. Stu-
dents started to send me everything through email, they started to share with me on Drive, and
create their own videos. They also started to use different websites for large size files.” (Using
Technology > Online classes> T4).
The above excerpts show that online classes helped students to acquire skills using
technology. Teaching and learning processes have been shifted from face-to-face into online
classes due to COVID-19.
In contrast, the item that received the lowest mean is Item 36 with a mean score of 3.50.
Item 36 states that “Discussing issues related to global interdependency (for example, global
environment trends, global market economy.)” This result reveals that the students agree with
this statement in a moderate level. It means that they rarely discuss the global interdependency
issues. This skill is related to the domain of Global Connections which also received the lowest
mean score (3.67) among the eight dimensions of 21st century skills.
In the interview when teachers were asked about the skills that their students acquired,
they mentioned all the skills except global connections. The following are some examples of
their responses.
“Using technology. This is number one, because they all had to use their devices regardless of
what device they are using. May be local connections because they had to be connected to the
teacher. Also, communication and collaboration with each other and with their teachers. Self-di-
rection skills, maybe but not in very high rates” (Students’ Acquisition of 21st skills> T6).
“Some courses help in developing critical thinking, they actually challenge students’ critical
thinking. So, some students have that critical thinking and innovation because of the courses they
are learning.” (Students’ Acquisition of 21st skills> T7).
It can be noted from the excerpts above that teachers 6 and 7 talk about the students’
acquisition of most of 21st century skills such as using technology, local connections,
communication and collaboration, self-direction skills, critical thinking, and innovation. None
of the teachers have pointed to global connections as an acquired skill by the students.
Research Question 3: The correlation between EFL teachers’ activation of 21st century skills
and their students’ acquisition of these skills
To explore the correlation between teachers’ activation of 21st century skills and their
students’ acquisition of these skills, measurement and structural model assessments were
applied via PLS-SEM.
Measurement Model Assessment
The measurement model assessment was evaluated by addressing Construct Reliability

using Composite Reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s Alpha, and Convergent Validity using Outer
Loadings and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) (Hair et al., 2017). Figure 3 presents the PLS
Algorithm results for the assessment of the measurement model.

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Figure 2 667
PLS Algorithm Results for the Measurement Model Assessment
Construct Reliability: Composite Reliability (CR) and Cronbach Alpha. Cronbach’s

Coefficient alpha shows the average correlation among all the items of the scale. According
to Pallant (2016), the acceptable value of Cronbach’s alpha is from 0.70 to 0.95. Regarding
the Composite Reliability (CR), Nunally and Bernstein (1994, cited in Hair, Hult, Ringle, &
Sarstedt, 2017) pointed out that the values ranging between 0.70 and 0.90 were acceptable
values of CR. Table 6 presents the values of Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability.

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668 Table 6
Results of Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability (CR)
Constructs Cronbach's Alpha Composite Reliability
Students’ Critical Thinking .820 .866
Students’ Collaboration .858 .899
Students’ Communication .832 .881
Students’ Creativity and Innovation .885 .916
Students’ Self-direction .919 .935
Students’ Local Connections .831 .881
Students’ Global Connections .865 .902
Students’ Using Technology .922 .937
Teachers’ Critical Thinking .842 .888
Teachers’ Collaboration .720 .801
Teachers’ Communication .713 .815
Teachers’ Creativity and Innovation .848 .893
Teachers’ Self-direction .805 .857
Teachers’ Local Connections .823 .877
Teachers’ Global Connections .821 .873
Teachers’ Using Technology .819 .863
Table 6 presents the values of Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability for all
constructs. The results show that all the values of all constructs are within the acceptable value
(0.70 – 0.95) according to Pallant (2016). This means that the items of these constructs are
internally consistent.
Convergent Validity: Outer Loadings and Average Variance Extracted. In order to test
the convergent validity, the outer loading of the indicators and the average variance extracted
(AVE) from the constructs should be considered. According to Hair et al. (2014) the value of
0.50 and above are considered significant. Therefore, the indicators with low outer loadings
must be removed from the scale. AVE is the other common measure to test the convergent
validity of the constructs level. Hair et al. (2017) cited that the AVE value of 0.50 and above
is acceptable. Besides, Fornell and Larcker (1981) stated that if AVE is less than 0.50 but
the composite reliability is higher than 0.6, the convergent validity is still acceptable. Table 7
presents the outer loadings and the AVE of students’ and teachers’ questionnaires.

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Table 7 669
Outer Loadings and AVE of Students’ and Teachers’ Questionnaires
Students Teachers
Dimensions Items
Loading (>0.5) CR AVE Loading (>0.5) CR AVE
CT1 0.629 0.750
CT2 0.735 0.710
Critical Thinking Skills CT3 0.687 0.866 0.366 Deleted 0.888
0.529 0.614
(CT) CT4 0.790 0.849
CT5 0.769 0.830
CT6 0.740 0.768
COL1 0.812 0.585
COL2 0.853 0.770
Collaboration Skills 0.386 0.801
COL3 0.838 0.899 0.641 0.472
(COL) Deleted
COL4 0.824 0.749
COL5 0.663 0.723
COM1 0.777 0.635
COM2 0.786 0.539
Communication Skills 0.815
COM3 0.796 0.881 0.596 0.681 0.580
(COM)
COM4 0.777 0.725
COM5 0.723 0.824
CR&IN1 0.794 0.676
Creativity and CR&IN2 0.849 0.871

0.916 0.893
Innovation Skills CR&IN3 0.848 0.685 0.750 0.626
(CR&IN1) CR&IN4 0.823 0.830
CR&IN5 0.822 0.816
SDS1 0.825 0.725
SDS2 0.796 0.601
SDS3 0.829 0.625
Self-Direction Skills 0.935 0.857
SDS4 0.842 0.674 0.792 0.466
(SD)
SDS5 0.839 0.805
SDS6 0.801 0.538
SDS7 0.815 0.646
LC1 0.749 0.563
LC2 0.794 0.749
0.877
Local Connections (LC) LC3 0.745 0.881 0.596 0.838 0.593
LC4 0.773 0.840
LC5 0.798 0.825

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670 GC1 0.796 0.645

GC2 0.816 0.738
Global Connections 0.902 0.873
GC3 0.809 0.649 0.823 0.580
(GC)
GC4 0.824 0.809
GC5 0.783 0.780
UT1 0.813 0.717
UT2 0.835 0.702
UT3 0.752 0.635
Using Technology as a UT4 0.806 0.642
0.937 0.649 0.863 0.443
Tool for Learning (UT) UT5 0.844 0.658
UT6 0.819 0.689
UT7 0.771 0.545
UT8 0.800 0.717
Table 7 presents the outer loadings for the items that belong to the variable of students’
acquisition of 21st century skills. The results indicated that there was no deleted item because
the outer loadings for all items were more than 0.5. Also, the results from the table above
indicated that all the dimensions of the 21st century skills had high values of AVE. All values
were 0.50 and higher, which means that the dimensions clarify more than half of the variance
of their indicators.
Furthermore, Table 7 indicates that two items from teachers’ questionnaire have been
deleted because their outer loadings were less than 0.5. These items were CT3 and COL3.
Additionally, the results from Table 8 displayed that all the constructs of teachers’ activation
of 21st century skills had acceptable values of AVE according to Fornell and Larcker (1981).
All values were 0.50 and higher except for the Collaboration Skills, Self-Direction Skills, and
Using Technology as a Tool for Learning in which AVE was less than 0.50 but their CR was
higher than 0.6.
Structural Model Assessment
Assessment of Collinearity (VIF Values). This assessment is conducted to check if there

are critical levels of collinearity between every set of the predictor variables. Each construct
should have a VIF value below (5.) and any threshold value higher than (5.) means there is a
collinearity problem (Hair et al., 2017). The VIF values were checked and presented in Table 8.

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Table 8 671
Values of VIF
Dimensions VIF
Student Critical Thinking 1000
Student Collaboration 1000
Student Communication Skills 1000
Student Creativity and Innovation Skills 1000
Student Self-Direction Skills 1000
Student Local Connections 1000
Student Global Connections 1000
Student Using Technology 1000
Teacher Critical Thinking 1000
Teacher Collaboration 1000
Teacher Communication Skills 1000
Teacher Creativity and Innovation Skills 1000
Teacher Self-Direction Skills 1000
Teacher Local Connections 1000
Teacher Global Connections 1000
Teacher Using Technology 1000
The results from Table 9 find that all values of VIF are below 5. This means that there is
no collinearity problem because collinearity does not reach critical levels in any construct of the
model. Therefore, the values of VIF in the current study are acceptable.
Path Coefficients of Structural Model. The values of path coefficients that are close to
+1 indicate a strong positive statistically significant correlation between the constructs. The
values of path coefficients that are close to -1 refer to the strong negative statistically significant
correlations between the constructs. The values that are very low and close to 0 are commonly
considered not significantly different from 0 (non-significant) (Sarstedt et al., 2017). The results
of the path coefficient (β) for the direct correlation of the structural model are presented in Table
9.
Table 9
Structural Model Results: Direct Correlation
Path Coefficient
Direct Correlation between Variables
(β)
Teachers’ Activation of 21st Century Skills -> Students’ Acquisition of 21st Century Skills 0.024
The results from the table above indicate that Teachers’ Activation of 21st Century
Skills has no significant direct correlation with Students’ Acquisition of 21st Century Skills as
the standard coefficient (β) (0.024) is below 1 and close to 0. Therefore, there was no direct
correlation between the tested variables.
As the previous result looked at the correlation as a whole, the correlation in every
dimension of the 21st century skills was also examined using Pearson Correlation Coefficient
via SPSS. The interpretation of Pearson Correlations was based on description of correlation
strength as follows: < .20 very weak, .20 - .39 weak, .40 - .59 moderate, .60 - .79 strong, >.80
very strong (Lehman, 2005). Table 10 shows the results Pearson Correlation Coefficients.

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672 Table 10
Pearson Correlation Coefficients Results
Pearson Correlation
21st Century Skills
r p-
Critical Thinking Skills .237** .0001
Collaboration Skills .135** .0001
Communication Skills .086* .011
Creativity &Innovation Skills .074* .028
Self-Direction Skills -.055 .104
Local Connections -.059 .080
Global Connections .086* .011
Using Technology as a Tool for Learning .023 .495
**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
Table 10 presents the results of Pearson Correlation Coefficients for the teachers’
activation of 21st century skills and their students’ acquisition of these skills. It could be seen
that there was a significant correlation for the category of Critical Thinking Skills (r = .237,
p < .01), Collaboration Skills (r = .135, p < .01), Communication Skills (r = .086, p < .05),
Creativity & Innovation Skills (r = .074, p < .05), and Global Connections (r = .086, p < .05).
As the correlations values were less than 0.20, the strength of the correlations was very weak
in all these skills except for critical thinking in which the correlation value was more than 0.20
which indicated a weak correlation. These findings revealed that the students’ acquisition of
these skills was likely linked with their teachers’ activation of these skills. The more teachers
implemented these skills inside the classrooms, the more their students can acquire them.
On the other hand, there was no significant correlation for the category of Self-Direction
Skills, Local Connections, and Using Technology as a Tool for Learning. This means that the
students’ acquisition of these skills had no correlation with their teachers’ activation of these
skills.
Discussion
The results of the first question revealed that teachers have activated all 21st century
skills dimensions with different levels of activation. The two dimensions that got the highest
level of activation were the collaboration and communication skills. This means that most of
the training sessions have incorporated these two skills more than other skills. It also signifies
that teachers activate this skill in English classrooms almost all the time. This means that
teachers always encourage their students to work in pairs or in groups while completing a task.
They use this skill to facilitate learning English through group working and exchanging ideas
between students. This kind of interacting helps students in higher education to learn the skills
of collaboration which indeed enhances their learning and social engagement (Menggo et al.,
2019). This result is consistent with Wilcox et al. (2017) in which collaboration skills were the
most frequently used inside the classrooms to enhance students’ 21st century skills.
On the other hand, the two least activated dimensions were the local connections and the
self-direction skills. This reveals that the training sessions of PDPs paid little attention to those
two skills. Therefore, the designers of these programs should concentrate on all the dimensions

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of 21st century skills with the same amount of focus in order to avoid concentrating on some 673
dimensions and neglecting the others. It also indicates that teachers seldom teach their students
how to analyze different views of local community members. Therefore, they need to pay more
attention to it as this is one of the most important life and career skills for adults as categorized
by Hixson et al. (2012).
The reading of the results for all dimensions of 21st century skills shows that PDPs
help teachers to activate all 21st century skills in a moderate and high level. This result is also
supported by teachers’ excerpts from the interview. They indicated that PDPs helped them be
aware of 21st century skills and how to implement them inside their classrooms. This is in line
with Alamri’s (2020) study that emphasized the implementation of professional development
courses to enhance the activation of 21st century skills. Besides, Garcia (2021) mentioned ten
areas that EFL teachers should focus on to make their instruction in line with 21st century
approaches. One of these areas was teachers’ professional development. This means that PDPs
can promote teachers’ implementation of 21st century skills.
The results of the second question demonstrated that students acquired all 21st century
skills with different levels. The dimension that got the highest level of acquisition was using
technology as a tool for learning. This means that teachers encouraged their students to use
technology inside and outside the class when they were asked to complete certain home tasks.
One reason behind acquiring the skill of using technology more than other skills is
that leaners have been shifted to be digital generation as mentioned by Yang et al. (2021).
Therefore, it was easy for them to implement the technical skills especially in higher education.
It is also mentioned in the study of Manuel et al. (2021) that Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) is a crucial life’s tool in the 21st century. That is why current learners pay
more attention to it.
The other reason is the emerging trends of online learning as a result of COVID-19
pandemic. Yang et al. (2021) mentioned that the digital learning abilities are becoming a key for
learners’ success in the period of pandemic as the students learn independently. Teaching and
learning processes have been shifted from face-to-face into online classes due to COVID-19.
This result is supported by Vargo et al. (2021) as they concluded that most of the instructors
and students chose to use online classes and platforms to continue their education during the
pandemic. Furthermore, the study of Batez (2021) revealed that students evaluated their level
of ICT skills as being higher for online education during COVID-19 period.
On the other hand, the least acquired dimension by the students was global connections.
This result means that they rarely discussed global issues inside English classrooms. This result
is in line with Ghaith’s (2010) study where he stated that the awareness about global and cross-
cultural issues was ranked as the lowest achieved skill in higher education, and consequently
needed more focus in different courses instructions.
The third research question involved finding out if there was a correlation between
teachers’ activation of 21st century and their students’ acquisition of these skills. The results
of the standard coefficient (β) in the SEM revealed that teachers’ activation of 21st century
skills had no significant direct correlation with students’ acquisition of 21st century skills.
Accordingly, this result was in line with Fischer et al. (2018) which demonstrated that teachers’
engagement in PDP was favorably connected with instructors’ classroom practice. However,
the observed parts of instructional practices had a very minor effect on students’ performance in
the predicted direction. This indicated that participation in PDP might influence instructors to
improve their teaching practices, but the correlation between instructional aspects and student
achievement was very weak.
Lastly, Pearson Correlations Coefficients were used to look at the correlation in every
construct (dimension) of the 21st century skills. The results showed that there was a significant
correlation for the category of Critical Thinking Skills, Collaboration Skills, Communication

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674 Skills, Creativity & Innovation Skills, and Global Connections. This means that the students’
acquisition of these skills was likely linked with their teachers’ activation of these skills. Çınar
(2021) claimed that every component of 21st century skills become a requirement for English
language instruction in order to promote students’ requirements and learning differences.
On the contrary, there was no significant correlation for the category of Self-Direction
Skills, Local Connections, and Using Technology as a Tool for Learning. This means that the
students’ acquisition of these skills had no relationship with their teachers’ activation of these
skills. This result supported the idea that learning approach nowadays is learner-centered in
which students learn by themselves. Also, online learning helped them to develop their self-
direction skills without depending too much on their teachers. A study has been conducted by
Gómez-Parra (2021) on the development of the 21st century skills via face-to-face or online
teaching. The results revealed that autonomy skills have been developed better through online
learning. However, teachers need to practice these skills with their students inside the classrooms
to help them develop these skills. Yue (2019) stated that higher education institutions need
to focus on 21st century skills, such as problem solving and critical thinking, creativity and
innovation, cross-cultural understanding, and ICT literacy.
Conclusions and Implications
This study aimed to explore the influence of PDPs on EFL teachers’ practices in
activating students’ acquisition of 21st century skills. It also aimed to examine the correlation
between teachers’ activation of 21st century skills and their students’ acquisition of these skills.
The data were collected using tow questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The results
revealed that teachers have activated all 21st century skills dimensions with different levels of
activation. Moreover, the results demonstrated that students acquired all 21st century skills with
different levels too. Furthermore, the results of the standard coefficient (β) in SEM revealed
that teachers’ activation of 21st century skills had no significant direct correlation with students’
acquisition of 21st century skills. Lastly, the results of Pearson Correlations Coefficients which
were used to look at the correlation in every dimension of the 21st century skills, showed that
there was a significant correlation in the category of Critical Thinking Skills, Collaboration
Skills, Communication Skills, Creativity & Innovation Skills, and Global Connections. On the
other hand, there was no significant correlation in the category of Self-Direction Skills, Local
Connections, and Using Technology as a Tool for Learning.
This study provides theoretical and practical implications for various stakeholders related
to PDPs in higher education, namely PDPs designers, university administration, and EFL
teachers. Since it was found that PDPs have influenced teachers’ practices, it is recommended
to offer online PDPs during flexible times besides the onsite ones. Some teachers do not
have enough time to go for onsite trainings. Thus, offering online trainings allows teachers
to participate in settings that suit their work time and lifetime. Therefore, teachers will focus
more on the presented training sessions. So, universities should pay attention to their teachers’
workload and their free time to plan the PDPs timings accurately. Teachers need to attend
these programs with fresh minds in order to focus and learn in a way that enables them to
transfer what they have learned to their classrooms to enhance their students’ achievement.
Additionally, universities are in consistent need for additional funding to support PDPs and
make it as an ongoing lifelong process for their teachers.
Furthermore, as we live in a globalized, technological world, PDPs developers at higher
education should integrate 21st century skills that help students to cope with this developed era.
Curricula plays an important role in facilitating the acquisition of these skills as resulted in this
study. Therefore, having such skills in the students’ curricula will help teachers enhance them
and then acquire by the students. The 21st century skills framework on which this study was

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based was developed with input from teachers, education experts, and business leaders to define 675
and explain the skills and knowledge students need to be successful in their life and work, and
to illustrate the support systems that are necessary for 21st century learning outcomes. Thus,
all the eight dimensions that were included in this study should be learned and acquired by the
students to be prepared well for their future career.
Since this study did not examine gender differences among teachers and students at
higher education and whether these differences have an impact on EFL teachers’ educational
practices in enhancing students’ acquisition of the 21st century skills, it is worthwhile to study
this issue further. Moreover, the current study covered all the eight dimensions of the 21st
century skills as reported in the framework of 21st century skills. Thus, it would be interesting
to conduct a study that concentrates on one dimension of the 21st century skills. This will make
the findings more detailed and focused.
To sum up, English language teachers need to be professionally competent with the latest
changes in this 21st century. Changes in the educational environment have made teacher training
programs complex and difficult. Therefore, it is hoped that teachers’ responses in this study
regarding the activation of 21st century skill provide the administrators with recommendations
about ways to implement 21st century skills in their PDPs. This feedback may help the PDPs
planners to pay more attention to the skills on which teachers need more training sessions.
In addition, as the students at university are getting ready for the workplace, they need
to be well equipped with knowledge and skills which will enable them to succeed in their work
and life. One of these skills is 21st century skills. Thus, this study may provide EFL teachers
an opportunity to better understand the importance of enhancing students’ 21st century skills to
prepare them for the future challenged life.
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Received: July 14, 2022 Revised: August 12, 2022 Accepted: October 10, 2022

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678
Cite as: Alzahrani, M. A., & Nor, F. M. (2022). Professional development and EFL teachers’
practices in activating learners’ acquisition of 21st century skills. Problems of Education in
the 21st Century, 80(5), 652-678. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.652
Mona Abdullah Alzahrani PhD, Assistant Professor, English Language Center, Taif University, Aljifaijif Street,
(Corresponding author) Taif, 26525, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: mona2007za1428@hotmail.com
Faizah M. Nor PhD, Associate Professor, University Technology Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
E-mail: m-faizah@utm.my

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DISTANCE 679
EDUCATION: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE

REVIEW OF BRAZILIAN STUDIES
Samuel de Oliveira Durso, Eucidio Pimenta Arruda
Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil
E-mail: sodurso@gmail.com, eucidio@gmail.com
Abstract
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is changing the way people live in society. New technologies powered by AI
have been applied in different sectors of the economy and the educational context is no different. AI has
been considered a key to the development of learning strategies, especially in distance education. In this
sense, this research aimed to identify the current state of Brazilian literature on AI applied to distance
education. The Higher Education market in Brazil, which is the biggest in Latin America regarding the
number of individuals able to enroll in a program, is still developing and distance education has grown
rapidly. To reach the purpose of this paper, it was performed a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) to
find the research conducted in graduate programs that investigate the subject of AI applied to distance
education. The final analysis used a total of 63 studies – 26 master’s theses and 37 doctoral dissertations.
The main results show that most of the research on AI in distance education in Brazil was conducted in
Computer Science (56%) and Engineering (27%). Only 6% of the studies reviewed are from masters’ or
doctoral programs in Education. The result also shows that limited attention is paid to critical topics
related to the growing introduction of AI in distance education, as such teachers’ employability and
technological training or the ethical implications of using AI for the educational process. As a result of
this SLR, it was possible to suggest research opportunities considering the international agenda on AI.
Keywords: artificial intelligence, distance education, educational technology, systematic literature
review
Introduction

Each period is marked by a technological development that seeks to meet the needs
of individuals. New solutions are proposed and implemented to solve the existing problems,
facilitating and improving some aspects of people’s lives. In the last decades, society has
witnessed technological revolutions in several sectors, impacting production, sales, and jobs
(Albuquerque, 2019). The so-called 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR) has been the focus of
analysis of several researchers (Schwab, 2017; Xu et al., 2018) and it is considered a strategy
to improve competitiveness in business production (Gázquez et al., 2021). Described in 2016
by Klaus Schwab, the founder of the European Symposium of Management, the precursor of
the World Economic Forum, the 4IR refers to the context in which the offline world interacts
directly and constantly with the online world.
Powered by innovations arising from the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, and AI,
among other innovations, the 4IR is already showing its impacts on the job market in several
areas (Eberhard et al., 2017). According to specialists, the current technological changes,
unlike previous revolutions, may not generate new jobs in the same proportion as they reduce
the existing occupations (Gleason, 2018). Researchers have drawn attention to the risk of the
implementation of these new technologies creating a mass of qualified unemployed people
around the world (Bessen, 2020; Peters, 2017; Peters & Jandric, 2019, Teng et al., 2019).

Samuel de Oliveira DURSO, Eucidio Pimenta ARRUDA. Artificial intelligence in distance education: A systematic literature review
of Brazilian studies
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680 The more standardized the task is, the more likely it is to be replaced by AI technology
(Eberhard et al., 2017). AI has different definitions, depending on the area in which it takes
place. Some experts define it as the creation of intelligent agents, which represent systems
that perceive their environment and perform actions aimed at maximizing the cases of success
(Russel & Norvig, 2019). Others consider AI as the developed technology that provides
interaction between humans and machines, either by coupling artificial intelligent systems to
the biological organism or by the virtual connection between these agents (Kaufman, 2020). It
is also defined by the literature as the study of how to make computers do things that humans
are currently better at (Ertel, 2018).
Despite the bias that many researchers have of transferring a human aspect to AI, it is
important to clarify that all technologies represent the product of human ideas (Pinto, 2005).
They are created by individuals to solve the challenges that they face when in contact with
the environment. Therefore, it is not possible to understand AI as an alive agent that has its
own will. The claim that robots will control humanity only belongs on the movie screens.
Nevertheless, AI might be implemented in some production processes by the desire of a specific
group that can generate adverse consequences for the masses. However, in this context, it is
not the technology that has the power of destruction, but rather a privileged social group that
controls the productive forces.
AI has been used in the educational setting for more than 30 years, but little is known
about the effects of these technologies on teaching and learning in higher education. Previous
surveys have shown that most of the research about AI comes from Computer Science and deals
with its application in four areas: i) Profiling and Prediction; ii) Assessment and Evaluation;
iii) Adaptive Systems and Personalization; and iv) Intelligent Tutoring Systems (Zawacki-
Richter et al., 2019). Among the positive points that came with application technology in higher
education is the greater support and tutoring for students. On the other hand, there are still
controversial points about the use of AI in education such as the ethical problems regarding the
use of machines, the threat to the employability of teachers (Peters & Jandric, 2019; Wogu et
al., 2019; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019) and the mismanagement of educational data to power
AI (Figaredo, 2020).
In distance education, in particular, AI has more applicability. This is because the
operation of distance learning in its essence requires a basic technological structure that can
be easily combined with AI through Machine Learning (ML) techniques and more specifically
with Deep Learning (DL) methods (Yu et al., 2017). DL can be understood as a representation
learning method that allows the ML use of complex and multi-layer representations (LeCun
et al., 2015). In this sense, the broad set of information available in online environments, such
as the time spent by students on materials, participation in forums, and grades, among other
possibilities, represents a great opportunity for the introduction of AI for various purposes.
In addition, the application of AI in distance learning has been considered important to
improve teachers’ performance. Since 2016, with the first assistant teacher created through AI
to assist in the educational process in a course at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Goel &
Polepeddi, 2016), many tutoring proposals carried out by machines have been applied around
the world, from application in the assistance provided on online forums to the evaluation of
activities (Kim et al., 2020). AI defenders argue that these technologies can free teachers from
basic manual tasks, allowing them to dedicate themselves to activities that demand greater
critical capacity and creativity (Goel & Polepeddi, 2016).
However, recent evidence around the world suggests that the number of teachers may be
reduced by the implementation of AI technology (Kim et al., 2020; Melim & Moraes, 2021).
Technological innovations represent a possibility of reducing costs, which makes the introduction
of AI for profit-based private Higher Education Institutions (HEI) a must for the maintenance
and/or increase of economic results (Ramble, 2014). For HEIs that belong to conglomerates

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with shares traded on the market, the pressure for the adoption of AI technologies may occur 681
even more strongly, given the need for accountability to shareholders.
In Brazil, the educational context may encourage HEI to introduce AI strategies. Brazilian
higher education is the largest in Latin America with almost two million students completing
high school each year and who can enroll in an undergraduate program (MEC, 2022). The
Brazilian government’s goal for 2024 is to achieve a gross enrollment rate in higher education
of 50% and a net rate of 33%. In 2019, these parameters were 37.4% and 21.4%, respectively.
In this sense, the distance education modality has been used by the Brazilian Government to
accelerate the number of graduates and AI has been considered essential for reaching a greater
number of students and maintaining the quality of education (Torres et al., 2019). In 2020, for
the first time, the number of freshman students on the distance education model was higher than
the face-to-face undergraduate programs in Brazil (MEC, 2022).
In this way, the general research question that guided this study was: What is the current
state of research on AI that is applied to distance education in Brazil? In this sense, the objective
of this paper was to identify the current state of Brazilian literature on AI applied to distance
education. To do this, it was conducted an SLR, based on the following questions:
(1) Where does Brazilian research on AI in distance education come from?

(2) What are the main topics covered by the Brazilian literature on AI in distance
education?
(3) What are the theoretical bases used in Brazilian studies on AI in distance education?
(4) Which results do Brazilian research suggest on the use of AI in distance education?
Understanding how Brazilian researchers are addressing this theme is important

to identify the trends, gaps, and opportunities of research in distance education. Given the
relevance of the Brazilian education market for Latin America, research evidence may be useful
for several other countries that face similar issues regarding their educational structure. The
development and implementation of educational technologies should be based on scientific
evidence to introduce best practices to the learning process. Otherwise, when the academy is
not utilizing technologies that have been implemented in educational practice, it can lead to
inefficacy and inequality in the learning process.
General Background
The research aimed to identify the current state of Brazilian literature on AI applied to
distance education. In this sense, it is characterized as exploratory because it deals with a topic
still little explored by Brazilian researchers in the field of Education. It is also classified as
bibliographic research, as it performs an SLR to answer the proposed research question. Finally,
the data were analyzed using qualitative strategies to interpret the results and quantitative
metrics to present the findings.
Procedures
The SLR conducted in this study used the five steps indicated by Klun et al. (2003). To
know: i) framing questions for a review, ii) identifying relevant work, iii) assessing the quality
of studies, iv) summarizing the evidence, and v) interpreting the findings. For the first step, the
questions formulated should enable achieving the objective stated, which was to identify the
current state of Brazilian literature on AI applied to distance education. As mentioned in the
introduction topic, four questions were addressed to achieve the paper’s objective.

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682 To cover the second step, it was used the database named Brazilian Digital Library of
Dissertations and Theses (known as BDTD in Portuguese), which contains all of the master’s
theses and doctoral dissertations of the most important Brazilian HEIs. The reason for using
theses and dissertations is due to the research question that guides this study. In this sense,
through the review of theses and dissertations produced in Brazilian graduate programs, it is
possible to identify the solidity of the research on the subject. By analyzing the theses and
dissertations on this subject it is possible to identify research groups and projects that are
developed in graduate programs, which reveal the state of research on AI that is applied to
distance education in Brazil.
Data Collection and Analysis
Using the BDTD database (https://bdtd.ibict.br/vufind/), it was applied a protocol

of research that was composed of the combination of the following codes of search (all in
the Portuguese language): “artificial intelligence” with “teaching”, “distance education”,
“education”, and “learning”. The codes were used for the titles, abstracts, and keywords of
theses and dissertations registered in the BDTD. By this protocol, it was possible to find the
first amount of 519 studies. Table 1 shows the results of this search. In this first sample, 241
studies appeared more than once. After excluding the repeated research, it was analyzed the
content of each study and applied the excluding protocol. With this process, it was possible to
select a final sample of 63 studies to conduct the SLR. Of this total, 26 are master’s theses and
37 doctoral dissertations.
Table 1
Results of Theses and Dissertations Collected on BDTD
Research Data
Codes Total
Keywords Title Abstract
“Artificial Intelligence” & “Teaching” 0 0 4 4
“Artificial Intelligence” & “Distance Education” 0 0 30 30
“Artificial Intelligence” & “Education” 51 2 154 207
“Artificial Intelligence” & “Learning” 54 4 220 278
Total 105 6 408 519
The excluding protocol was processed as follows:
(a) 105 studies were discarded because they were related to the use of AI at some level
of education but not in the context of distance education.
(b) 60 theses and dissertations collected dealt with AI but were not directly applicable to
teaching at any level or modality.
(c) 14 studies analyzed were not directly related to AI and were also excluded from the
final study sample.
(d) 36 studies were not available for consultation on the platform of their respective
graduate programs when the analysis was conducted, either due to a link failure or
because the file was unavailable for consultation.
The data collection, which represents the second step of our SLR, was done between
March 2021 and June 2021.
For the third step of SLR, it was analyzed the format of the studies collected. The topic
covered by this SLR is multidisciplinary, so it was common to find a different theoretical basis

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and methodological procedures. Despite this diversity, it was possible to consider all of the 683
results found well supported by the research conducted. In this sense, it was not necessary to
discard any more research.
The fourth step was covered by qualitative analysis, as such a codification process. In this
stage, the main parts of the theses and dissertations were read, making it possible to understand
the topic as it related to the results. The codification was conducted using the themes identified
by Zawacki-Richter et al. (2019). Furthermore, throughout the process, three new codes were
added, as the themes that emerged from the data were not found in the previous research.
Finally, the fifth and last step of the SLR, shown in the last section of this paper, provides
our conclusion about the stage of Brazilian literature in AI, identifying the maturity of the
research in this field, highlighting the gaps existing, and suggesting trends for future research.
Research Results
The Programs that the Studies Came from
Figure 1 shows the distribution of 63 theses and dissertations collected in the SLR by
the year of publishing. The first study analyzed was published in 1994 and the last in 2020.
In almost this entire period at least one study was published on AI in Brazilian HEIs. The
exceptions were 1995, 1996, 1998, 2012, and 2015. Figure 1 also indicates that, from 2001 to
2004, it was the period with more studies on AI, representing 26 occurrences (41%). Despite
said evidence, the last four years analyzed (2017-2020) also showed an improvement in the
number of theses and dissertations on AI with 13 occurrences (21%).
Figure 1
Number of Studies Collected in SLR by the Year of Publishing
Table 2 shows the HEIs in which the selected studies were developed. It also presents
the type of graduate program that the theses and dissertations were carried out. The first
evidence it brings is the relevance of Brazilian public HEIs to the research developed on AI.
From 63 theses and dissertations, only three studies were carried out at private institutions
(International University Center - UNINTER, University of Vale do Rio dos Sinos – UNISINOS,
and Presbyterian Mackenzie University - UPM). All of the other studies came from public
institutions, that is, organizations maintained by the Brazilian government.

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684 Table 2 also shows that the two HEIs with the most research selected were the Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS) and Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC)
with 15 studies each. The following is the Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG) with
nine studies. The fourth is the State University of Campinas (Unicamp), with seven selected
studies. The next three HEIs appeared with two occurrences, which are the Federal University
of Amazonas (UFAM), Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), and Federal University of
Pelotas (UFPEL). In total, 18 HEIs had at least one thesis/dissertation on AI applied to distance
education. However, 11 HEIs appeared with only one study, which indicates that this subject
may not be a strong research topic for these institutions.
Table 2
Programs in Which the Studies Were Developed
Absolute
HEI Graduate Program
Frequency
UFRGS 15 Computer Science (12) / Multidisciplinary (3)
UFSC 15 Engineering (12) / Computer Science (3)
UFCG 9 Computer Science (9)
Computer Science (3) / Engineering (2) / Portuguese Language and Literature (1) /
Unicamp 7
Education (1)
UFAM 2 Computer Science (2)
UFPE 2 Computer Science (2)
UFPEL 2 Portuguese Language and Literature (1) / Computer Science (1)
UFAL 1 Computer Science (1)
UFMA 1 Engineering (1)
UFPA 1 Engineering (1)
UFPB 1 Education (1)
UFRN 1 Computer Science (1)
UFV 1 Computer Science (1)
UFVJM 1 Education (1)
UnB 1 Arts (1)
UNINTER 1 Education (1)
Unisinos 1 Portuguese Language and Literature (1)
UPM 1 Engineering (1)

Note. Number of occurrences in parentheses
In addition, Table 2 also shows that the theses and dissertations published in Brazilian
graduate programs came from diverse backgrounds. This is important evidence, as the AI
subject requires a multidisciplinary perspective. However, it was also possible to identify a

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predominance of Computer Science programs with 38 studies (56%), followed by Engineering 685
with 17 studies (27%). Theses and dissertations from Education programs represented only four
occurrences (6%).
The Topics Covered by the Selected Studies
Table 3 shows the topic covered by the studies selected in the SLR. It was possible
to classify all the research into seven codes: (i) Intelligent Tutoring Systems, (ii) Adaptive
Systems and Personalization, (iii) Assessment and Evaluation, (iv) Profiling and Prediction,
(v) Development and Management of Educational Content, (vi) Virtual Learning Environment,
and (vii) Theoretical and Empirical Basis for Educational Software Development.
Table 3
Topics Covered by Selected Studies
Relative
Topics Covered Absolute Frequency
Frequency (%)
Intelligent Tutoring Systems 28 44
Adaptive Systems and Personalization 11 18
Assessment and Evaluation 9 14
Profiling and Prediction 5 8
Development and Management of Educational Content 5 8
Virtual Learning Environment 3 5
Theoretical and Empirical Basis for Educational Software Development 2 3
Total 63 100
The most frequent topic in the selected Brazilian theses and dissertations was the
“Intelligent Tutoring Systems”, with 28 occurrences (44%). In this type of research, it was
possible to find AI propositions and assessments created to help teachers and students in the
process of teaching-learning. The second most frequent topic, in turn, was “Adaptive Systems
and Personalization”, with 11 studies (18%). In this type of research, it was common to present
solutions to help students with their own needs in the educational process. The third most
common topic in the Brazilian theses and dissertations on AI applied to distance education was
“Assessment and Evaluation”, with 10 cases (16%). These studies usually presented solutions
to improve strategies for valuing students’ achievement.
Together, these three first topics represented an amount of 76% of selected studies
in this SLR. Therefore, despite the other four occurrences, it was possible to notice that the
Brazilian literature on AI applied to distance education selected in this SLR was concentrated
on only a few themes. The “Profiling and Prediction” and “Development and Management of
Educational Content” represented each 8% of the occurrences. Finally, the last two topics were
“Virtual Learning Environment” with five studies (5%) and “Theoretical and Empirical Basis
for Educational Software Development” with only two cases (3%).

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686 The Theoretical Bases Used in Selected Studies
Table 4 shows the educational theories most used by the theses and dissertations selected
to support the phenomenon studied. The result indicated that the three highlighted theories are
centered on students’ learning process.
Table 4
Educational Theories Commonly Used in Selected Studies
Theories Brief Explanation Authors

It elucidates the different aspects of student’s learning process,
Learning Styles David Kolb
assuming that different individuals have different learning styles
Self-Regulated It explains how students self-manage their thoughts, feelings,
Barry Zimmerman
Learning and actions to achieve their personal goals and objectives
Cognitive Learning Explains the mental process related to the learning process and Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky,
Theories shows how it is influenced by internal and external factors and Reuven Feuerstein
Although many studies from different areas have used important educational theories,
it was possible to identify theses and dissertations that did not support their research from the
perspective of education. In addition, it was possible to perceive that little attention is given
to the teachers’ perspectives on the use of AI. As many studies focused on the implementation
of AI to (direct or indirectly) improve the teachers’ work, it is important to understand how
AI changes the teaching process. A critical theoretical perspective on the use of AI was also
neglected in the studies selected. The use of technologies in the educational process might
cause negative impacts on the society that must also be investigated through a critical lens,
highlighting points that go beyond improving student learning.
Exemplification of Research on the Use of AI in Distance Education
As highlighted before, this SLR found that a large part of the theses and dissertations
reviewed could be classified as related to the topic of “Intelligent Tutoring Systems” (44% of the
total). Although the subject investigated in this area is diverse, it was possible to identify that,
in this group, the methodology usually employed by authors was related to the development
and/or testing of new technologies powered by an AI solution. Intelligent tutoring systems can
be implemented at the educational level for many users: students, teachers, educational staff,
and administrators. In this SLR, almost all 28 studies analyzed from the “Intelligent Tutoring
Systems” group were applied at the student level.
An example of research collected in this SLR and classified in this group was the
doctoral dissertation of Jaques (2004), developed in the Computer Science program at the
Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. This study proposed an intelligent tutoring system
to support students affectively. The mediator agent developed in this study acted according to
students’ emotions, which was structured based on cognitive learning theories (see Table 4). To
do this, the system proposed used events that had occurred in the virtual environment, such as
the type of answer given by students (right or wrong) and whether the student was up to date or
not with the activities or content of the course. Despite the proposition of this mediator agent,
this research did not evaluate the effectiveness of the AI proposed.
Another example of research classified in the “Intelligent Tutoring Systems” group in
this SLR was the master’s thesis carried out in the Portuguese Language and Literature program
by Moro (2019) which analyzed the adequacy of a software program, named Skylar, which
automatically transcribes and translates speech. Skylar was used in a video class for the MBA

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in Agrobusiness from the University of São Paulo, which used the format of distance education. 687
To allow the internationalization of the program, experts from different countries were invited
to participate in the classes. In this sense, AI such as Skylar becomes important to help students
with gaps in international languages to understand what is being said during classes. Using a
mixed methods approach, this research found that the AI analyzed was positive in expressing
what the speaker said. Nevertheless, the system showed gaps when the context of the sentences
was analyzed.
Even though the majority of studies from the “Intelligent Tutoring Systems” group in
this study were applied to the student level, it is necessary to highlight that one study was
conducted at the administrative level. This was the case of the dissertation of Lucena (2018),
which was carried out in a Computer Science program. It studied an intelligent agent built
to manage distance learning courses based on previous problems and solutions detected in
distance education courses at the Federal University of Amazonas. After the development of
the system (called iDE) by the researcher, using the framework of jCOLIBRI 2, it was validated
by ten specialists in distance education. The results of this validation showed that the proposed
technological solution was positively evaluated and considered relevant for the management of
distance courses.
The second most frequent topic of this SLR was the “Adaptive Systems and
Personalization” with 18% of all of the cases. An example of study from this group was the
master’s thesis of Ferreira (2018), carried out in the Computer Science program at the Federal
University of Pernambuco. This research developed and tested an AI solution to recommend
learning activities to students from distance education courses based on autoregulated patterns
available in the virtual environment. In this sense, the software proposed allowed for: (i)
analyzing the students’ performance; (ii) extracting the behavioral characteristics that influence
their performance, and (iii) recommending actions to improve it. This AI was tested with more
than 30,000 students from a Brazilian university and the results showed that the technological
solution was capable of properly capturing the students’ learning styles and their behavioral
characteristics. With this good fit, the software was efficient in recommending additional
training (texts and/or videos) to students according to their performance.
The third most recurrent topic that emerged from this SLR was “Assessment and
Evaluation” with 16% of all the research. Among this group was Riedo (2020), a dissertation
from the Education program at the State University of Campinas. It is important to remember
that only 6% of theses and dissertations selected in the present SLR came from Education
programs, despite the importance of the phenomenon analyzed in this area. In this sense, the
aforementioned dissertation aimed to develop and test an AI program able to evaluate students’
texts in the context of distance education, given to participants’ immediate feedback. To test
the AI solution proposed in this research, the author used data from three courses offered by
the State University of Campinas in the Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) model. Using
a total of 8,788 essays, the study was able to confirm the ability to qualitatively differentiate
the analyzed texts, indicating that this AI solution had wide applicability in distance education.
In general, the theses and dissertations analyzed in this study confirmed the ability of AI
to transform the distance education system, despite some points of attention. More importantly,
these studies explicitly detailed the current presence of AI in the context of distance education.
In addition, since the most used methodology in the selected studies consisted of carrying out
tests for AI-based solutions, it was possible to predict some impacts of these technologies on
the educational process.

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688 Discussion
The introduction of AI in the education field has the potential to transform the way society
learns (Bregant & Abersek, 2011). As in many other areas, AI solutions in the educational
environment can transform jobs and impact teaching activities. In this sense, the SLR carried
out in this research makes it clear that AI is already an alternative to improve the distance
learning environment in Brazil since many theses and dissertations from Brazilian graduate
programs develop and evaluate technologies powered by AI.
However, corroborating with previous research (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019) despite
the relevance of this topic for the present, most Brazilian theses and dissertations on AI
applied to distance education came from Computer Science and Engineering. This evidence
is concerning as it shows that the Education field is not as engaged with the subject related to
the application of AI in distance education as other areas of knowledge and this phenomenon
may have some roots. Despite the expressive growth of the distance education system in Brazil
in the last decade, and especially during the Covid-19 pandemic, this modality still presents
resistance within the field of Education (Machisotti, 2022). This finding may also reflect the
teachers’ fear that technological solutions might replace them, making AI research undesirable
in the Education graduate programs.
The timid participation of Education graduate programs in this topic can have
consequences for the field. First, it can delay the improvements AI can generate to the learning
process in distance education. It is important to note that this modality of education has the
potential to reach individuals who have no other possibility of studying, which in a continental
country like Brazil, it is a significant portion of the population. In this sense, the delay in
improving the quality of distance learning has direct economic and social impacts on society.
Additionally, the absence of the Education area in the discussion of AI applied to distance
education can also make technological solutions developed in other fields (like Computer
Science and Engineering) pedagogically fragile (Aberšek & Kordigel-Aberšek, 2011).
Additionally, it was also possible to identify that the topics covered by Brazilian research
on AI are concentrated on just a few themes. Just three topics represent an amount of 76% of
selected studies in this SLR. Many of the studies reviewed, especially from Computer Science,
propose and analyze a new educational innovation. Technology represents a demand from society
to solve the problems that people face in the environment (Pinto, 2005). With the development
of the Internet, computer, and other technologies, new demands are made by society, including
for distance education (Chen et al., 2020), and AI has been considered a key tool to solve these
issues (Ertel, 2018). In this sense, the attention paid by the Brazilian researchers to restricted
topics may limit the capability of innovation of AI applied to distance education. The greater
the diversity of themes on AI, the more likely it will be that new disruptive technologies can be
implemented in distance education.
Another important evidence of this SLR is the predominance of the “Adaptive Systems
and Personalization” topic in Brazilian theses and dissertations. As highlighted by Zawacki-
Richter et al. (2019), there is no agreement in the literature on the definition of an adaptative
system and sometimes it is coincident with intelligent systems. Although the studies classified
in this group by this SLR also showed many approaches, all of the research collected was related
to the possibility of providing individualized education through AI solutions, which makes this
kind of investigation a specific topic of research. Adaptative systems for the personalization of
the learning process have been considered important to all educational levels, but especially to
distance education due to its heterogeneity (Maghsudi et al., 2021). For developing countries
like Brazil, which still have large socioeconomic disparities, personalized education has the
potential to improve the learning environment.

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Through this SLR, it is possible to suggest some trends for future research, considering 689
the international agenda on AI applied to distance education. The first one is the need to better
understand the impact of AI on changes in teachers’ work. Many new technologies already
implemented in the educational market are changing the teaching process, demanding teachers
to learn new skills and reducing their job opportunities in the market. A critical approach may
be needed for a deep understanding of these changes, including the ethical implications of using
AI in distance education.
Conclusion and Implications
This research aimed to identify the state of Brazilian literature on AI applied to distance
education. In this sense, an SLR was carried out using the BDTD database, which contains theses
and dissertations from Brazilian HEIs. Following the five steps suggested for an SLR, it was
possible to select 26 master’s theses and 37 doctoral dissertations (63 studies in total). Through
this procedure, it was possible to reach some conclusions and point out some implications.
The first evidence is that studies on AI applied to distance education in Brazil come
mostly from different areas of knowledge, such as Computer Science and Engineering. Only
6% of the selected studies in this SLR came from the Education field. This might represent
a significant gap related to research in distance education of Brazilian Education graduate
programs, as AI represents an important instrument already used in virtual courses in Brazil.
Other important evidence of this SLR is that the production of the theses and dissertations
on AI applied to distance education in Brazil is mainly concentrated on a few HEIs, all of
which are public institutions. This also represents a risk regarding the development of the
topic since AI implementation should be encouraged from a multidisciplinary perspective. The
more concentrated it is, the less chance there is of innovation. Therefore, the most common
themes were also focused on three topics: “Intelligent Tutoring Systems”, “Adaptive Systems
and Personalization”, and “Assessment and Evaluation”. The concentration of themes is also
a risk for the literature on AI applied to distance education since many problems already faced
by society with the introduction of technological innovation may not be investigated in this
research.
Finally, the SLR shows that the theoretical approach of many selected studies is flawed.
Despite the use of some important frameworks that explain the learning process from students’
point of view, little is discussed about teachers’ interaction with AI in distance education. This
is also important, as almost all of the selected theses and dissertations propose and analyze new
technological solutions that will impact the teaching process and, possibly, the teaching career.
It is important that the Education area becomes more familiar with the topic of AI
applied to online education. Only a few works collected in this SLR came from a program in
Education in Brazil, which is evidence that agrees with the findings of international literature.
For studies developed in areas other than Education, it is important to improve the theoretical
framework, deepening theories that explain the whole phenomenon that affects the teaching-
learning process in distance education.
Although this SLR analyzed the Brazilian context, its results are in line with the previous
research carried out in different contexts. In this sense these findings can also contribute to
the development of international research, adding the Brazilian evidence to the international
literature on AI applied to distance education.
Additionally, Brazil has some specificities that make its educational system an important
case to analyze. First, this country represents the biggest educational market in Latin America,
with many individuals still without access to an HEI, which is also the reality of many developing
countries. Moreover, in the Brazilian private educational market, there has been a concentration
in the last years with a few private higher education companies controlling a significant part of

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690 the distance education market. In this sense, the research developed in the Brazilian graduating
programs reflects these complexities, searching for solutions for the problems researchers
perceive in their educational context.
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692
Received: September 14, 2022 Revised: October 12, 2022 Accepted: October 20, 2022
Cite as: Durso, S. D. O., & Arruda, E. P. (2022). Artificial intelligence in distance education:
A systematic literature review of Brazilian studies. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
80(5), 679-692. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.679
Samuel de Oliveira Durso Professor, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil.

(Corresponding author) E-mail: sodurso@gmail.com
Eucidio Pimenta Arruda Professor, Faculty of Education, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
E-mail: eucidio@gmail.com

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A MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING 693
PERCEPTION SCALE FOR SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS: A VALIDITY AND
RELIABILITY STUDY
Mehmet Ersoy, Miray Dağyar
Akdeniz University, Türkiye
E-mail: pisagorersoy@gmail.com, mdagyar@akdeniz.edu.tr
Abstract
Determining students' perceptions of problem-solving is an important step to improve their mathematical

problem-solving skills. For this reason, the aim of this study was to develop a scale to determine secondary
school students’ perceptions of mathematical problem solving. In the study conducted in a basic research
model, a scale application, one of the quantitative research methods, was used. The sample of the study
consisted of 325 secondary school students. Validity and reliability analyses were made with the data
obtained on the sample. Five sub-dimensions of the scale were determined through exploratory factor
analysis. Confirmatory factor analyses were performed for these 5 sub-dimensions, and the fit indices
were found to range from acceptable to excellent. The explained variance of the “Mathematical Problem-
Solving Perception Scale” was 66.15%, and the Cronbach alpha value for the whole scale was .93. It
was concluded that the scale would reveal the perception levels of secondary school students towards
mathematical problem solving in a valid and reliable way.
Keywords: mathematics, perception, problem solving, scale development, secondary school students
Introduction
Besides the ability to acquire and learn mathematical knowledge, it is of great importance
for the individual to be able to use this mathematical knowledge in solving various problems
he/she encounters. In the 21st century, with the development of technologies for accessing
information, it has become easier to obtain information and the need for information to be readily
available to the individual has decreased. Instead, the importance of determining solutions for
problems that are encountered and of putting these solutions into practice has increased. In
addition, nowadays, in accordance with the philosophy of progressive education (Dewey, 1997)
arising from the philosophical movement of pragmatism, which affects education systems, the
view is widespread that the individual’s possession of information that he/she will rarely or
never use throughout his/her life will not provide him/her with any benefit. According to this
view, it is considered important to develop the ability to cope with situations and problems
that an individual may encounter throughout his/her life. Therefore, it is of great importance
that individuals are equipped with problem-posing and problem-solving skills in the education
process.
Rather than raising individuals who accept ready-made knowledge by memorizing it,
knowledge societies aim to raise individuals who know how to put learning into practice, what
and how to learn and where to use this learning, and who can produce new knowledge based
on this information (Güven & Kürüm, 2008). Accordingly, in today’s knowledge societies,
problem-solving skills are among the most important skills that individuals need to acquire in

Mehmet ERSOY, Miray DAĞYAR. A mathematical problem-solving perception scale for secondary school students: A validity and
reliability study
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694 their educational life. Problem-solving skills have an important place not only for the education
lives of individuals, but also for their whole lives. By using problem-solving skills, individuals
can overcome all kinds of problems that they may encounter during their lives.
A problem is the conflict that an individual experiences when he/she is prevented from
achieving a goal (Morgan, 1995). Olkun and Toluk (2004) define problems as situations which
awaken the desire in a person to solve them, but which, because the solution procedure is not
ready, the person can solve by using his/her knowledge and experience. For an individual to
solve a problem that he/she encounters, he/she should be able to use basic problem-solving
skills such as the ability to establish relationships and differences between concepts, to think
algorithmically, and to analyse and approach the problem from different perspectives. These
skills constitute the individual’s problem-solving skills as a whole. Therefore, one of the main
goals of education and training programmes is to raise individuals who can keep pace with the
age they live in and solve the problems they encounter in a beneficial way. Accordingly, it can
be said that organising curriculum development efforts in a way that focuses on the objectives
for problem-solving skills will contribute to the development of the individual and society.
The general trend in mathematics teaching in Türkiye in recent years has been to give
weight to problem-solving and problem-posing activities, and to frequently use problem-
based instruction and cooperative teaching approaches (Ministry of National Education
[MoNE], 2022). Therefore, it can be said that problem posing is not the next step after problem
solving, but that there is a spiral relationship between them rather than a hierarchical one.
The implementation of problem-solving and problem-posing activities in mathematics teaching
within the framework of this spirality can make the process more efficient and effective.
In mathematics teaching, the individual’s analysis of events within the framework of
logic, establishment of cause-effect relationships, and determination and implementation of the
necessary process steps are among the learning outcomes of the mathematics curriculum (MoNE,
2022). Since these stated outcomes are directly addressed in problem-solving instruction,
it can be said that it is important to include studies that focus on problem-solving skills in
mathematics teaching in the literature. The goal of contemporary education systems should be
to raise individuals with advanced problem-solving skills (Bayazit & Aksoy, 2010). Therefore,
it is important for the individual to be trained in order to produce knowledge throughout his/
her education life and to find solutions to problems he/she will encounter by producing new
knowledge.
The skills of reasoning, estimation, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, which are
metacognitive skills, are target behaviours included in problem-solving and problem-posing
instruction. It is possible to find a solution to a commonly encountered mathematical problem
by associating it with a problem with previously known solutions. However, the individual’s
ability to find a solution to a problem unlike any that he/she has encountered before can be
achieved by applying the steps of separating the components of that problem, making a plan,
implementing the plan appropriately and describing what he/she has achieved. It is possible
to foster the metacognitive skills included in these steps by teaching mathematical problem
solving and problem posing.
Students’ perceptions of problem solving have an active place in any kind of study
to be made for developing students’ mathematical problem-solving skills. For this reason, it
is important for studies to be made to determine the level of students’ perceptions towards
problem solving. In the literature, there are measurement tools that measure students' attitudes
towards mathematics (Eskici et al., 2017; Gülburnu & Yıldırım, 2021; Tezer & Özcan, 2015),
their attitudes towards problem solving in mathematics lessons (Aydın, 2020), and their
perceptions towards social problem solving (Hawkins et al., 2009). However, there is no scale
in the literature that aims to determine students' problem-solving perceptions in mathematics
lessons. Therefore, it can be said that the scale developed in this study has unique value for

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the literature. In addition, it can be said that the reason for the limited number of studies in the 695
literature that investigate students’ mathematical problem-solving perceptions (Ersoy, 2022) is
due to the absence of a measurement tool that reveals secondary school students’ perceptions of
problem solving. In line with this need, the “Mathematical Problem-Solving Perception Scale”
developed by the researchers aims to determine the mathematical problem-solving perceptions
of secondary school students.
Model
This study, whose aim was to develop a valid and reliable measurement tool that will
determine secondary school students’ perceptions of mathematical problem solving, was
prepared in a basic research model. In the research, 5-point Likert-type scale development,
validity and reliability studies were carried out.
Population and Sample
In order to ensure the construct validity of the perception scale consisting of 33 items,
which was prepared by the researcher and whose content validity was ensured by obtaining
expert opinion, a pilot study was conducted. A total of 2412 secondary school students studying
in Antalya, Türkiye, made up the population of the study. Due to the COVID-19 measures,
the pilot implementation was carried out in the online environment because the students could
not be found in face-to-face education. In all, 325 secondary school students were included
in the pilot study with the simple random sampling method. According to Balcı (2018), in
the simple random sampling method, it is independently and equally likely that each sub-unit
of the population with which the study is conducted will be the research sample. With the
data obtained, exploratory factor analyses (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were
performed within the scope of the construct validity studies.
The sample consisted of 325 secondary school students who participated in the pilot
implementation in the specified population of the study in the fall semester of 2021-2022. The
demographic information of the secondary school students included in the sample is given in
Table 1.
Table 1
Information on the Sample of the Pilot Implementation Study for the Mathematical Problem-
Solving Perception Scale
Number (f) Percentage (%)

Female 180 55
Gender Male 145 45
5 Grade
th
50 16
6th Grade 77 24
Grade 7 Grade
th
99 30
8 Grade
th
99 30
General Secondary School 291 89
İmam Hatip Secondary 11 4
Type of Secondary School School
Attended
Regional Boarding 3 1
Secondary School
Private Secondary School 20 6

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696 As seen in Table 1, among the secondary school students included in the research sample,
180 (55%) were girls and 145 (45%) were boys. Fifty (16%) of the students were in 5th grade,
77 (24%) were in 6th grade, 99 (30%) were in 7th grade, and 99 (30%) were in 8th grade.
Among the types of schools they attended, 291 (89%) were general secondary schools, 11 (4%)
were imam hatip secondary schools, 3 (1%) were regional boarding secondary schools, and 20
(6%) were private secondary schools.
Measurement Tool
In this study, a “Mathematical Problem-Solving Perception Scale” was developed

for secondary school students. In the study, the process of seeking answers to the question
“What are secondary school students’ perceptions about learning problem-solving skills in
mathematics?” was begun with a literature review. As a result of the literature review, the item
pool was discussed within the scope of the following sub-dimensions: Students’ perceptions of
willingness and voluntariness, perceptions of fear and hesitation, and perceptions of importance
and value related to mathematical problem-solving skills.
In the sub-dimensions stated above, the scale items were created for the feeling of
happiness, the feeling of fun and pleasure, the feeling of insistence and determination for success,
the feeling of sadness and distress, the feeling of interest, the feeling of fear and hesitation
(avoidance), the feeling of giving up, and the feeling of pride. Opinions were obtained about
the appropriateness of the prepared items by two experts from the department of curricula and
instruction and by one expert from the department of measurement and evaluation in education.
In line with these opinions, the scale items were finalised. The “Mathematical Problem-Solving
Perception Scale” includes statements graded on a 5-point Likert-type scale in the form of (1)
“Strongly disagree”, (2) “Disagree”, (3) “Undecided”, (4) “Agree”, and (5) “Strongly Agree”.
Data Collection Tool
The pilot implementation of the “Mathematical Problem-Solving Perception Scale” was

made online via a website opened by the researcher. After obtaining the necessary permission
from the Antalya Provincial Directorate of National Education, students who volunteered to
respond to the scale were enabled to complete the scale online via the specified website.
Data Analysis
For data reliability, the results of the Cronbach alpha test, and for EFA, the results of
the Bartlett test and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test were examined. In the EFA, items with
overlapping factor loadings were removed and Varimax rotation analyses were repeated. CFA
was performed on 24 items and 5 sub-dimensions obtained as a result of the EFA and fitted
t-values were obtained. These analyses were carried out with the SPSS 23.0 and LISREL 8.8
software programs.
Research Results
Model
Exploratory factor analysis (EFA): Prior to the EFA, which was carried out to ensure the
construct validity of the problem-solving perception scale, the Bartlett test of sphericity was
performed, and the KMO value was found to determine the suitability of the data obtained from
the sample. As a result of the analysis, it was determined that the KMO value (0.905) was greater

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than 0.60, and it was concluded that the data were suitable for factorisation (Büyüköztürk, 697
2018).
When the factor loadings obtained with the varimax rotation technique were examined, it
was determined that the factor loadings were above 0.40, and that there were 7 items with high
loading values in more than one factor and the difference between these values was below 0.1.
After assessing whether these items would cause a significant loss in terms of content validity
of the scale, the items, which were determined to be overlapping, were removed from the scale.
After the determined items were removed from the scale, EFA was repeated on the remaining
24 items. As a result of the analysis, a five-factor structure with an eigenvalue greater than 1 and
representing the theoretical structure was obtained. The data obtained as a result of the factor
rotation are given in Table 2.
Table 2
Final Factor Rotation Results
Items Factor-1 Factor-2 Factor-3 Factor-4 Factor-5

Item-19 .831
Item-28 .830
Item-31 .799
Item-33 .762
Item-8 .745
Item-18 .741
Item-15 .721
Item-27 .706
Item-23 .650
Item-24 .743
Item-20 .701
Item-22 .675
Item-25 .658
Item-16 .604
Item-21 .752
Item-10 .723
Item-12 .713
Item-11 .685
Item-1 .827
Item-2 .820
Item-6 .621
Item-3 .591
Item-26 .827
Item-13 .757

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698 When the factor rotation results given in Table 2 are examined, it can be seen that items
19, 28, 31, 33, 8, 18, 15, 27 and 23 are in the 1st factor, items 24, 20, 22, 25 and 16 are in the
2nd factor, items 21, 10, 12 and 11 are in the 3rd factor, items 1, 2, 6 and 3 are in the 4th factor,
and items 26 and 13 are in the 5th factor. In the literature, there is a common view that the
number of items in the dimensions should be at least two (Çokluk et al., 2012). Therefore, it
was determined that the number of items in the factors included in the scale was appropriate.
Among the items divided into sub-dimensions as a result of the EFA, items 8, 13, 15, 18, 19,
23, 26, 27, 28, 31 and 33 contain statements expressing negative perceptions. The other scale
items refer to positive perceptions.
The sub-dimensions of the scale are named: (1) Fear and hesitation towards problem
solving, and becoming distressed in problem-solving activities, (2) Showing interest in problem
solving in class and feeling proud because of this, (3) Interest in problem-solving activities
outside of class and feeling happy because of this, (4) Willingness for problem-solving
activities in class and feeling happy because of this, and (5) Giving importance to problem-
solving activities.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA): CFA were conducted to check the construct validity
of the 5 sub-factors obtained as a result of the EFA of the problem-solving perception scale.
CFA is a type of analysis that should be used in the scale development process to examine the
latent structure of a measurement tool (Brown, 2006).
Using the data collected from the study group, first-order CFA was performed to test
whether the structure consisting of 24 items and five factors obtained from the EFA was
confirmed. Regarding the obtained fit indices, the generally accepted “excellent fit criteria” and
“acceptable fit criteria” regarding goodness-of-fit in the literature (Kline, 2011; Schumacker &
Lomax, 2010; Tanaka & Huba, 1985) were taken into account. The fit index values obtained
from the CFA and the results that emerged in this direction are given comparatively in Table 3.
Table 3
Fit Indices Obtained from CFA
Fit Index Excellent Fit Measures Acceptable Fit Measures Measure Result
χ2/df 0 ≤ χ2/df ≤ 2 2 ≤ χ2/df ≤ 5 3.12 Acceptable

GFI .95 ≤ GFI ≤ 1.00 .85 ≤ GFI ≤ 95 .85 Acceptable
CFI .97 ≤ CFI ≤ 1.00 .95 ≤ CFI ≤ .97 .95 Acceptable
NFI .95 ≤ NFI ≤ 1.00 .90 ≤ NFI ≤ .95 .93 Acceptable
NNFI .97 ≤ NNFI ≤1.00 .95 ≤ NNFI ≤ .97 .95 Acceptable
IFI .95 ≤ IFI ≤ 1.00 .90 ≤ IFI ≤ .95 .95 Excellent
RMSEA .00 ≤ RMSEA ≤ .05 .05 ≤ RMSEA ≤ .10 .081 Acceptable
SRMR .00 ≤ SRMR ≤ .05 .05 ≤ SRMR ≤ .10 .065 Acceptable
AGFI .95 ≤ AGFI ≤ 1.00 .50 ≤ AGFI ≤ .95 .68 Acceptable
When the fit indices obtained as a result of the CFA in the study are examined, it can
be seen that they are: χ2/df = 3.12 (2 ≤ χ2/df ≤ 5) “Acceptable”, GFI = .85 (.85 ≤ GFI ≤
.95) “Acceptable”, CFI = .95 (.95 ≤ CFI ≤ .97) “Acceptable”, NFI = .93 (.90 ≤ NFI ≤ .95)
“Acceptable”, NNFI = .95 (.95 ≤ NNFI ≤ .97) “Acceptable”, IFI = .95 (.90 ≤ IFI ≤ .95)
“Excellent”, RMSEA = .081 (.05 ≤ RMSEA ≤ .10) “Acceptable”, SRMR = .065 (.05 ≤ SRMR
≤ .10) “Acceptable”, and AGFI = .68 (.50 ≤ PGFI ≤ .95) “Acceptable”. One of the fit criteria not
included in the table is the “critical N” value, in which the adequacy of the research sample is

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evaluated. In SEM, a sample size of 200 or more is accepted as an indicator of adequate model 699
fit in terms of the critical N statistic (Bollen, 1989). Therefore, it can be said that the sample size
of 325 used in the research was adequate (Çelik & Yılmaz, 2016).
When the RMSEA descriptive fit index, which is based on the difference between the
estimated covariance matrix for the model and the sample covariance matrix, was evaluated,
it was determined that the model showed an acceptable fit. When the other fit criteria are
considered, it is seen that the model is significant as a whole. The factors of the CFA model, the
factor loads, and the t-values of the items are given in Table 4.
Table 4
Factors, Factor Loads, and t-values of Items in the CFA Model
Factor-1 Factor-2 Factor-3 Factor-4 Factor-5

Item CFA CFA CFA CFA CFA t-value
8 1.08 14.50
15 1.06 15.40
18 1.04 14.53
19 1.18 16.84
23 1.01 13.89
27 1.04 14.69
28 1.13 17.33
31 1.18 16.71
33 1.18 16.16
16 .74 12.01
20 .83 11.66
22 .87 14.59
24 .80 12.51
25 .99 16.02
10 1.02 19.33
11 1.07 19.42
12 .81 18.36
21 .81 12.65
1 .99 20.35
2 1.00 20.27
3 .72 12.13
6 .59 10.51
13 1.13 8.70
26 .79 7.28
As can be seen in Table 4, “it is significant at the level of 0.05 if the t-value exceeds 1.96,
and at the level of 0.01 if it exceeds 2.56” (Schumacker & Lomax, 2010). Meaningless ones
should be removed from the scale.

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700 Reliability
The item-total correlations of the items in the scale are calculated in Table 5.
Table 5
Item-Total Correlation Coefficients
Item Item-Total Correlation Item Item-Total Correlation
Item-1 .629 Item-19 .647
Item-2 .603 Item-20 .516
Item-3 .629 Item-21 .574
Item-6 .306 Item-22 .665
Item-8 .479 Item-23 .415
Item-10 .693 Item-24 .451
Item-11 .664 Item-25 .692
Item-12 .571 Item-26 .618
Item-13 .678 Item-27 .590
Item-15 .595 Item-28 .570
Item-16 .419 Item-31 .462
Item-18 .601 Item-33 .516
As can be seen in Table 3, as a result of the item-total correlation analysis, it was

determined that the item factor loadings of the scale were higher than the accepted cut-off value
of .30 (Büyüköztürk, 2018).
Cronbach’s alpha reliability test was used for the reliability analysis of the 5 sub-
dimensions obtained as a result of the EFA. The results of the Cronbach’s alpha reliability
analysis of the total scale and its sub-dimensions are given in Table 6.
Table 6
Internal Consistency (Reliability) Coefficients of the Total Scale and its Sub-dimensions
Sub-Dimension (Factor) Cronbach’s Alpha
1st Factor .920

2nd Factor .817
3rd Factor .857
4th Factor .828
5th Factor .610
Total Scale .938

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As can be seen in Table 6, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, which shows the internal 701
consistency of the scale, is .938 for all items, while according to the sub-dimensions, it takes
values between .920 and .610. According to the obtained findings, it was determined that the
measurements obtained for the total scale were highly reliable (Özdamar, 2004).
Correlation Values between Factors
The correlation values between the sub-dimensions of the problem-solving perception

scale are given in Table 7.
Table 7
Correlation Coefficients Between Factors
Factors Factor-1 Factor-2 Factor-3 Factor-4 Factor-5
1st factor 1 .301** .422** .328** .349**
2nd factor .301** 1 .647** .647** .094*
3rd factor .422** .647** 1 .612** .096*
4th factor .328** .647** .612** 1 .084
5th factor .349** .094* .096* .084 1
As can be seen in Table 7, the correlation coefficient between the 5th factor and the 2nd
factor is r = .094 (r < .30), the correlation coefficient between the 5th factor and the 3rd factor is
r = .096 (r < .30) and the correlation coefficient between the 5th factor and the 4th factor is r =
.084 (r < .30), while the correlation values between the other factors vary in the range of .30 < r
< .80. The fact that the correlation coefficient is between .30 and .80 indicates the expected level
of correlation between the sub-dimensions of the scale (Büyüköztürk, 2018). On the other hand,
since the correlation coefficient between the 5th factor and the 2nd, 3rd and 4th factors was not
in the range of .30 < r < .80, and by considering that the reason for the low correlation between
the 5th sub-dimension and the other sub-dimensions might be that the scale items were not
fully understood by the sample, it was decided to conduct a second pilot study. The expressions
included in the 13th and 26th items, which were thought to be the reason for the low correlation
of the sub-dimension named “Giving importance to problem-solving activities” with the other
sub-dimensions, were corrected. In the second pilot implementation of the perception scale, the
13th and 26th items were included as follows:
Item 13 (previous form): I do not mind whether a large number of problem-solving

activities are included in the mathematics lesson.
Item 13 (latter form): I do not mind whether more or fewer problem-solving activities are
included in the mathematics lesson.
Item 26 (previous form): I do not mind whether there are problem-solving questions in
the exams I will take.
Item 26 (latter form): I do not mind whether there are a few or a lot of problem-solving
questions in the exams I will take.
The sample of the second pilot implementation, which was determined by convenience
sampling, consisted of 252 secondary school students studying at a secondary school in Antalya.

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702 As a result of the second pilot implementation, the same factor structure was confirmed, and it
was again verified that the scale was valid and reliable. Correlation analysis was also repeated
to determine the levels of correlation between the sub-dimensions of the scale. The findings
obtained as a result of the analysis are given in Table 8.
Table 8
Correlation Coefficients between the Sub-dimensions of the Scale According to the Second
Pilot Study
Factors Factor-1 Factor-2 Factor-3 Factor-4 Factor-5

1st factor 1 .380** .495** .453** .636**
2nd factor .380** 1 .655** .658** .523**
3rd factor .495** .655** 1 .594** .549**
4th factor .453** .658** .594** 1 .568**
5th factor .636** .523** .549** .568** 1
As can be seen in Table 8, it was determined that the correlation values between
the sub-dimensions of the scale ranged between .30 < r < .80. Accordingly, it can be said
that the correlations between the sub-dimensions of the scale are significant and acceptable
(Büyüköztürk, 2018).
Discussion
In this study, a scale was developed to determine the perception levels of secondary school
students towards mathematical problem solving. In the literature, numerous measurement tools
have been developed to determine students’ attitudes towards mathematical problem solving
and the effects of these attitudes on their academic achievement (Aydın, 2020; Russo & Minas,
2020). However, the great majority of these studies consists of achievement tests aimed at
problem-solving (Fidan, 2008; Turhan, 2011). Students' attitudes towards problem-solving in
different courses were also explored (Erdemir, 2009; Mason & Singh, 2016). In the Adesoji’s
(2017) study, the effect of problem-solving strategies on students’ attitude toward chemistry
was investigated. As a result of the study, it was suggested that teachers adopt problem solving
strategies in their chemistry teaching. On the other hand, scales for determining students’ social
problem-solving skills can also be found in the literature (Hawkins et al., 2009; Yaman & Dede,
2008). Ekici and Balım (2013) conducted a scale development study to determine the general
problem-solving perceptions of secondary school students. The scale they developed differs
from the scale in this study in that it aims to determine individuals’ perceptions about solving
the problems they encounter in their lives.
The sub-dimensions of the “Mathematical Problem-Solving Perception Scale”: Fear and
hesitation towards problem solving, showing interest in problem solving in class, interest in
problem-solving activities outside of class, willingness for problem-solving activities in class,
and giving importance to problem-solving activities. In the fear and hesitation dimension,
which is the first sub-dimension of the perception scale for mathematical problem solving, the
perception of fear and hesitation that students feel during problem-solving activities in lessons,
and the levels of distress associated with these, are measured. Indeed, in studies in the literature,
it is reported that the subject of mathematics creates fear and anxiety in students (Alkan, 2011;
Keklikçi & Yılmazer, 2013; Öztop & Toptaş, 2017). Ufuktepe (2009) stated that factors related
to the subject were effective in the emergence of fear of mathematics in students, and that

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students’ thinking processes were interrupted due to the stress they experienced especially in 703
solving mathematical problems.
In the in-class interest dimension, which is the second sub-dimension of the scale, the
students’ perception levels of being interested in problem-solving activities in class and feeling
proud of themselves due to their success in the activities, are measured. In studies investigating
students’ attitudes towards the subject of mathematics in the literature (Altuntaş & Erişen, 2021;
Uygun, 2010), the subject of mathematics and the problem-solving process were considered
together, and it was stated that students’ perceptions of problem solving in mathematics lessons
affected their interest in and enjoyment of the lessons.
In the dimension of extracurricular interest, which is the third sub-dimension of the scale,
students’ level of interest in studies outside the classroom, such as problem-solving homework
and projects, is measured. Problem-solving skills are considered important in order to be
successful in daily life as well as in mathematics class (Özcan, 2016). For this reason, directing
students’ problem-solving process towards extracurricular activities may be beneficial in terms
of increasing students’ achievement in class and problem-solving success in life. Similarly,
students’ perceptions of their extracurricular problem-solving responsibilities, as well as their
perceptions of taking part in problem-solving activities in class, can play a decisive role in
their success in the subject and in life. Studies revealing that students have positive attitudes
towards solving mathematical problems (Özgen et al., 2017; Taşpınar, 2011) also report that
students’ encounters with mathematical problems in their daily lives and their beliefs in the
benefit and necessity of problem solving are effective. For this reason, in the willingness and
giving importance sub-dimensions of the scale, students’ desire to participate willingly in in-
class problem-solving activities and the level of importance they attach to problem-solving
activities in the learning process are measured.
Conclusions
Determining students' perceptions of problem-solving is an important step to improve their

mathematical problem-solving skills. For this reason, in this study, the “Mathematical Problem-
Solving Perception Scale” was developed to determine secondary school students’ perceptions
of mathematical problem solving. The trial form of the 33-item scale was implemented with
the participation of 325 secondary school students studying in the determined population.
Following EFA and reliability analysis, 9 items were removed from the scale. CFA was also
performed for 24 items and 5 sub-dimensions. The correlation between the sub-dimensions
was examined, but the correlation of one sub-dimension with the other sub-dimensions was
found to be low. For this reason, a second application was made in a different sample consisting
of 252 secondary school students. In line with the analyses made, it was calculated that the
“Mathematical Problem-Solving Perception Scale” consisted of five factors, the explained
variance was 66.15%, and the Cronbach alpha value for the whole scale was .93. Consequently,
it was concluded that the scale would reveal the perception levels of secondary school students
towards mathematical problem solving in a valid and reliable way.
The study contains some limitations. Although the sample size is adequate, it was
prepared only for secondary school students. Considering that mathematical problem solving is
important for students studying at all levels, it can be recommended that similar scales suitable
for different education levels be developed. Moreover, the study includes only quantitative data.
It can be said that the findings obtained from this scale development study can be supported by
studies based on the interview method, with the aim of determining students’ perceptions about
problem solving.
For the future studies, it can be recommended to develop the Mathematical Problem-
Solving Perception Scale on different education levels. The scale can be used in descriptive

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704 studies to reveal students' current situation regarding mathematical problem-solving perceptions.
Moreover, it can be suggested that the scale be used as a data collection tool in experimental
research to improve students' mathematical problem-solving perceptions.
Note
This study was produced from the master's thesis of the first author.
Research and Publication Ethics Statement
The study was approved by “Akdeniz University Rectorate Social and Human Sciences
Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Committee” (Date: 31.12.2020; Number: 138704).
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Received: September 14, 2022 Revised: October 12, 2022 Accepted: October 20, 2022

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707
Cite as: Ersoy, M., & Dağyar, M. (2022). A mathematical problem-solving perception scale
for secondary school students: A validity and reliability study. Problems of Education in the
21st Century, 80(5), 693-707. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.693
Mehmet Ersoy Graduate Student, Department of Educational Sciences, Institute of Education

Sciences, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Türkiye.
E-mail: pisagorersoy@gmail.com
Miray Dağyar PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Faculty of

(Corresponding author) Education, Akdeniz University, 4. Kat Ablok/424 Konyaaltı/Antalya, Türkiye.
E-mail: mdagyar@akdeniz.edu.tr

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708
TOWARDS THE DIFFERENT: A CASE
STUDY OF A SYRIAN ASYLUM SEEKER IN
CROATIAN SCHOOL CONTEXT
Irena Klasnić, Marina Đuranović
University of Zagreb, Croatia
E-mail: irena.klasnic@ufzg.hr, marina.duranovic@ufzg.hr
Marina Lucin
Primary School Jure Kaštelana, Croatia
E-mail: marinalucin.zg@gmail.com
Abstract
Migrations and migrants have been in the focus of interest and activities of many governments,
organizations, and institutions, both worldwide and in Croatia. According to international policies,
children who seek or are under international protection have the right to education. To access the
education system of the Republic of Croatia more easily, they are given the opportunity to attend Croatian
language preparatory or remedial classes.
The research aim was to determine the needs and challenges posed by the inclusion of a Syrian asylum
seeker in a Croatian primary school. The qualitative approach was applied. The case study presents a
ten-year-old Syrian girl, attending a primary school in Zagreb. The data were gathered with the use of
semi-structured interviews with the girl's sister, teachers in the primary school, and her classmates. In
order to gain a deeper insight into the girl's functioning in the school context, notes made by teachers
during observation of the girl’s performance in the course of the educational process were gathered and
analysed. Guidelines and recommendations were developed that could have a positive impact on quality
inclusion of children refugees and asylum seekers in the Croatian education system.
Keywords: children asylum seekers, educational process, qualitative research
Introduction
According to the global estimate by the International Organization for Migration (IOM),
the UN agency for migration, the total number of child migrants amounts to 31 million, out
of which approximately 13 million children are refugees, 936,000 are asylum seekers and 17
million have been internally displaced (IOM, 2019). It has been estimated that out of the total
number of international migrants in 2020, 13% were children under the age of 18 (Migration
Data Portal, 2021). The term migration is usually associated with voluntary departure from
the country, and in this case, return to the country is allowed. However, refugees and asylum
seekers are forced to leave their countries. The 1951 Refugee Convention (The Geneva
Conventions) is the key legal document that defines the term and rights of refugees (Bourgonje,
2010). According to this document, refugees have the right to education, and they will receive
fair treatment.
Smooth integration of children who are asylum seekers into the education system
poses a great challenge, both due to the lack of flexibility in the offered services and due to
language and cultural barriers (European Commission, 2020). Karabacak (2020) mentioned
that Syrian refugee students in Turkey come across behavioral, academic, socio-cultural, and

Irena KLASNIĆ, Marina ĐURANOVIĆ, Marina LUCIN. Towards the different: A case study of a Syrian asylum seeker in Croatian
school context
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family barriers. Essomba (2017) pointed out that although the EU member states have laws 709
which guarantee the right to education for children and young people from migrant families,
these rights are jeopardized, and even violated. Most countries face the similar challenges and
problems in the process of integration of migrant students into the education system, but there
are differences between them (Stasiūnaitienė et al., 2020).
The Croatian legal framework, adjusted to international regulations, states that children
who are seeking or have been granted the right to international protection (child migrants or
asylum seekers) have the right to primary and secondary education, on equal terms with Croatian
citizens (Law on International and Temporary Protection, Official Gazette 70/15, Article 58).
The same article of this law states that a child will be given an opportunity to attend school
within 30 days after filing a request, and to attend preparatory or remedial Croatian language
classes (if a child does not speak Croatian well or does not speak it at all). Remedial classes
in other subjects will be organized as well if there should be a need for that. The way in which
child migrants and asylum seekers are integrated into the education system in the Republic of
Croatia is regulated by the Ordinance on the manner of implementing the programme and tests
of knowledge of asylum seekers, asylees, foreigners under temporary protection and foreigners
under subsidiary protection, for the purpose of joining the education system of the Republic
of Croatia (The Official Gazette, 89/08). For these children, educational institutions have an
obligation to organize Croatian language learning classes lasting between three to six months.
At the same time, a student can attend regular classes with students of the same age or those
who attend roughly the same grade. Children who are seeking or have been granted international
protection often attend classes with children who are younger, and not with their peers, because
they enrol in school based on the results of verbal tests whose validity is, under the given
circumstances, questionable (Bužinkić, 2017). Croatian language curriculum for preparatory
classes was designed for pupils who do not speak Croatian language well or who do not speak
it at all. The planned number of lessons is 70 (The Official Gazette, 151/11). The aim of such
curriculum is to help these pupils attend school, find their place in the school environment, and
communicate well within and outside their community. The following skills are included in the
curriculum: listening, speaking, reading, writing and mediation, which included participation
in conversations, writing e-mails or text messages (Official Gazette, 151/11). It is questionable
whether children can learn a new language adequately in 70 lessons and whether they can be
relatively smoothly integrated into the educational process. It should be taken into account that
a significant number of child migrants and asylum seekers have not used the Latin alphabet, but
the Arabic alphabet, which is read and written from right to left.
The European migrant crises broke out in 2015 and a large number of refugees have
been arriving in Europe ever since. The Republic of Croatia does not have a long tradition of
receiving migrants from third countries and is not a desirable destination for permanent stay
for migrant families. In most cases, Croatia is just a stop on their way to Central European or
Scandinavian countries. According to the data available from the Ministry of the Interior of the
Republic of Croatia – MUP for 2021, the countries from which the largest number of migrants
to Croatia originate are Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria (MUP, 2021).
In order to prevent the segregation of child migrants, it is necessary to promote
intercultural openness, a positive multilingual policy, zero tolerance to discrimination,
inclusion of culture-sensitive teaching content, active participation of parents, intercultural
training for the teaching staff in which the quality of teachers is more significant than their
number (European Commission, 2020). In most European countries, student migrants usually
exhibit lower academic achievement and give a lower estimate of the benefits they have of the
educational process than domestic students (Eurydice, 2019). According to the same source,
there are statistically significant differences between primary school students who speak the
language in which the teaching process is conducted in their home environment as well and

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710 those who do not speak it at home. The students who do not speak that language at home have
a weaker sense of belonging to school and state that they are exposed to bullying by their peers
(ibid). An increase in the number of children refugees in the past few years makes this topic
extremely important and current. Quality inclusion implies integration of a person into all areas
of the society of the country to which a refugee has arrived, and in this paper, the focus area is
education.
Research Aim and Research Questions
The aim of the research was to determine the needs and challenges posed by the inclusion
process of a Syrian asylum seeker in a Croatian primary school.
The research questions examined in this research were:
1. What are the challenges posed by the inclusion of asylum seekers in a Croatian
primary school?
2. What are the suggestions for a more quality inclusion of asylum seekers in the
Croatian education system?
Case Study
The case study was used in the research in order to present the level of inclusion of a
girl named Lamija1 in a Croatian primary school. Case study is dominated by naturalist, holistic
and hermeneutic phenomenological interests (Halmi, 2005). An intensive study of an entity (an
individual, a group, class, family, local community or even entire nation or culture) can provide
numerous descriptions. In this process, a strong emphasis is placed on the subjective dimension
and understanding, while entity is studied in real life situations. Data were collected in real life
circumstances in order to show the complex environment in which the girl is growing up and in
which she is receiving education.
One of the case study types is observational case study which is frequently focused on
a student, teacher or a smaller collective, and the main methods of collecting empirical data
are various forms of observation and in-depth interviews (Halmi, 2005). The process in which
interviews are conducted can be open or semi-structured, and its aim is to get the respondents
express their attitudes, feelings, opinions, and reasons for their behaviour spontaneously (Halmi,
2005). In order to achieve a meaningful interpretation of qualitative data, the researcher must
possess knowledge and skills, and be disciplined and ready to invest effort. One of the challenges
posed by qualitative analysis is finding a way for a creative synthesis of data (Patton, 2015).
Qualitative analyses within the case study aim at establishing the causality using timeframe in
order to recognize the phenomena which preceded a certain event or behaviour (Milas, 2005,
p. 605).
Participants
In the current research, purposeful sample was used. Lamija, a Syrian asylum seeker,
attended the third grade of primary school in Zagreb, the Republic of Croatia, in the school
year 2019/2020. There were 24 students in the class, and Lamija was the only asylum seeking
student. All other students were Croatian citizens. Lamija did not have a learning support
assistant.
1 In the paper, the names of the people are pseudonyms, in order to ensure their anonymity.

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Professional and scientific papers were studied first, and then semi-structured interview 711
forms were prepared. The data on the family background were provided by the girl’s sister,
since their parents do not speak Croatian (or any other world language) at all. The girl’s sister
is a secondary school student, and she understands and speaks Croatian fluently. She also
translated to her parents the purpose of the research and its implementation. It was pointed out
that anonymity would be granted and that they could change their mind and withdraw from
the research at any time. Parents provided their consent to conduct the research and publish its
results.
Participant's Profile
Lamija was born in Iraq, in the city of Anbar. Her family left the country due to war.
The family has 7 members – parents and five children. Lamija is the second child in the family
and is 10 years old. They came to Croatia in 2016, when Lamija was five. She enrolled in the
kindergarten but did not attend it because her parents did not take her there. She says she cannot
remember her childhood there much. With the help of volunteers, the girl started learning
Croatian soon after their arrival. In the second grade, she started attending Croatian language
classes for beginners - 70 lessons altogether. She attended the first and the second grade in
another primary school. However, when the family moved house, she transferred to a new
school, the one she is currently attending. In the first two grades, she attended after school
care programme and stayed there after regular classes to study and do her homework. She is
currently a third-grade student in a new primary school, where after school care programme is
not organized for students in the third grade or older. The parents do not plan to stay in Croatia
since they perceive it only as a transit country in which they plan to stay until they become
eligible to enter Austria.
In the Republic of Croatia, primary school is obligatory for all children who turn 6 by
April 1 of the current year. It lasts 8 years and is organized into classroom teaching (Grades 1 –
4) and subject teaching (Grades 5 – 8). In the first four grades, pupils are taught by one teacher
- class teacher, who teaches Croatian Language, Maths, Nature and Society, Arts, Music, and
Physical Education. However, the class teacher does not teach a foreign language and optional
subjects, such as Religious Education. Students who attend Grades 5 – 8 are taught by subject
teachers.
Adults (school staff) included in the research were also selected on purpose. They were
formally asked to participate in the research and were provided with its description. They were
asked to give their contribution by participating in interviews and making observation notes.
In that way, all the teachers who were teaching Lamija took part in the research. The class
teacher, who conducts most of the teaching, spends most time in school with her (about 18
hours per week). Both English Language teacher and Islamic Religious Education teacher have
two lessons per week in the class which Lamija attends. In order to collect data on how Lamija
performs at school from different sources, two students who spend time with Lamija during
breaks and after school were also interviewed.
Data Collection Tools

In this qualitative research, the semi-structured interview method was applied, as well
as participant observation. Triangulation of several data collection methods and multiple
perspectives (those of Lamija, her sister, teachers, and classmates) obtained from the participants
made it possible to create a more comprehensive picture (Yin, 2012) about inclusion of the girl,
a Syrian asylum-seeker, in the Croatian school context.

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712 Interview
A semi-structured interview is an interview form composed of a series of questions

designed to obtain specific responses from the respondents (Fraenkel et al., 2012). On the one
hand, a semi-structured interview was used to set guidelines, and on the other hand to create
enough space for the respondents to express their thoughts, feelings, wishes and attitudes. In this
way, a part of the interview was in fact an informal discussion, which enables a deeper insight
into situations that take place in a certain classroom on an everyday basis (Martone et al., 2018).
The questions were designed after the relevant literature had been studied, in cooperation with
two experts who had had experience with inclusion of child migrants in schools.
The interviews with the girl’s sister and teachers lasted for about 30 minutes, while the
interview with the girls who spend time with Lamija was shorter (lasting about 15 minutes).
All interviews were carried out in a one-to-one form, after the classes, in the school premises
and at the previously arranged time. During the interview with Lamija’s sister, data were
collected about the family’s migration to Croatia, the functioning of the family in Croatia (with
emphasis placed on the usage of Croatian language in the family context, and involvement of
parents and other family members in school obligations), the problems the family had faced
and support they had received. The interviews with teachers were focused on how Lamija
functions in school (achievement of the learning goals and fulfilling school obligations, such as
doing homework and communicating with adults and peers). The purpose of conversations with
Lamija’s schoolmates was to collect data on her socializing with peers at school and outside
school, their communication, common experiences, and feelings while hanging out.
Participant Observation
Apart from conducting the interview, all class teachers were involved in participant
observation process and made field notes that they considered relevant for Lamija’s performance
in school. The class teachers made notes during classes (but also during the breaks and before
and after the classes) in order to track as closely as possible Lamija’s activity, her teaching
content comprehension, interaction with other students and school staff, and verbal and
nonverbal patterns of behaviour. The purpose of the notes was to gain a deeper insight into
Lamija’s behaviour and to check to what extent the information obtained in the interviews
matches the notes.
Data Analysis
The interviews were recorded and transcribed to textual notes. The data obtained in the
interviews and the notes were analysed using the content analysis method. Patton (2015, p. 790)
pointed out that “content analysis refers to any qualitative data reduction and sense-making
effort that takes a volume of qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and
meanings”, and that “case studies, for example, can be content analysed”.
While analysing the content of the interviews, each of the three researchers designed a
coding scheme independently, and the codes were later compared in order to carry out analytical
triangulation (Patton, 2015). By reducing, connecting, and putting into correlation the obtained
data, the researchers created categories. Patton (2015) pointed out two criteria that should be
taken into account in the process of category creation: internal and external heterogeneity. To
meet the first criterion, the data within a certain category were connected, while in order to
meet the second criterion, a clear distinction between the categories was made. Reliability was
obtained through collaborative teamwork of all researchers.

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Patton (2015) pointed out that case study enables the integration of all data obtained in 713
the interviews into a coherent story about a person. In order to obtain the maximum reliability,
some original statements of the respondents are presented in the paper. Furthermore, notes made
by the teachers during participant observation process were analysed and coded according to
the categories designed during the interview analysis.
The data obtained in this study were organized in four challenging categories, using
selective coding. Besides posing a challenge, these categories create an opportunity for the
integration of child migrants in Croatian primary schools. The categories are: Communication,
Teaching Process, Peer Relationships and Obstacles and Recommendations.
Research Results

The results are presented according to the obtained categories. The purpose of reporting
on the categories mentioned above is to present the views of various participants in this process
on the challenges of the integration process of asylum seekers in primary education.
Communication
One of the obstacles for inclusion of asylum seekers in Croatian primary schools is
communication. It is extremely important, both for their integration into Croatian society in
general and for their performance in school. As the teaching process is conducted in Croatian
language, the understanding of spoken and written language is of utmost importance for
children’s inclusion in classroom activities. Although the girl had finished two grades of primary
school in Croatia, communication in Croatian language seemed to be a crucial problem.
The class teacher pointed out:
On the first day of school, the girl stood in front of the class, looking happy and with a smile on
her face. We played a game in which students introduced themselves to her and she introduced
herself to them. She was answering their questions using short sentences, which made it clear to
me that she did not understand Croatian very well. It was necessary to design activities which she
would understand and in which she would participate without having to use Croatian too much.
Her father works at a car wash and does not understand Croatian much. He does not come to
school. Her mother takes children to school and kindergarten in the morning, but she does not
communicate with anyone because she does not speak Croatian, although she has been living
in Croatia for four years. Children often translate conversations between the mother and us,
teachers. However, the translation process may not be reliable, since children do not have a good
command of Croatian either. In fact, in most cases, I am not sure if the child has interpreted all
the important information correctly.
Throughout the year, the class teacher noticed and recorded the following:
She understands Croatian only partially, especially after holidays, because they speak only Arabic
and watch TV programmes in Arabic in the family environment.
It is difficult to find out from Lamija herself what it is that she does not understand. And she does
not understand much more than the words which are explained in the textbook below a certain
text… She often says herself that she knows what she would like to say, but she cannot remember
the exact words in Croatian (for example, we were doing an exercise in which it was necessary to
think of an adjective or verb that she would use with a noun ‘dance’).
In addition to communication in Croatian language, there is also communication in

English, during English Language classes. The English Language teacher (a subject teacher)
noted:

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714 The girl sometimes understands the instructions in English, but sometimes she does not. When
I ask her if she understands, she almost always says she does, but she does not. When I check
her work later, I see that she has not done everything. She rarely asks if she does not understand
something.
I think that for her, learning both Croatian and English is a matter of foreign language learning.
Lamija attends Islamic Religious Education classes and the subject teacher pointed out:
At the beginning of the school year, I covered a lot of the teaching content with the girl in Arabic.
Islamic religion has a lot of Arabic prayers. I am familiar with the basics of Arabic, so with
asylum seeking children (I teach several such children) I tried to establish communication in that
language. At the end of each lesson, we teach them Croatian, while they teach us Arabic.
I noticed that she speaks and understands a lot of Arabic, but unfortunately, she is not acquainted
with the Arabic alphabet. Since I am, sometimes I spent some time during the class to work on
that. However, her curiosity did not last long.
The student was very self-confident in reciting the prayers and showing what she had learnt,
but this self-confidence would disappear when she was supposed to acquire the knowledge in
Croatian language.
Lamija is aware of the difficulties she has in communicating in Croatian, but she still
speaks it better than some members of her family:
I know what I would like to say, but I cannot remember the exact Croatian words to say it.
I often accompany my mother when she goes somewhere, because in that way, my mother feels
safe, and I translate something to her if necessary.
The Teaching Process
The aim of the teaching process, as a systematic and organized activity involving both
students and teachers, is to achieve the learning outcomes. These are the outcomes the students
are supposed to achieve in each school subject and are prescribed at the national level. Teachers
have autonomy in creating and adapting the teaching content to their students’ needs. What was
observed in the analyses of all interviews was the achievement of the learning goals and attitude
towards the activities.
The class teacher describes Lamija’s participation in the teaching process during the
school year, noticing the following:
She does not speak Croatian and she participates in the classes with great difficulties during the
first semester. She does her homework and studies at school because there is nobody who can
help her with it at home, since her family members (mother, father, brothers and sisters) do not
speak Croatian. She rarely does homework at home, although she marks the assigned tasks. An
additional problem is the fact that she does not have a habit of reading at home. Sometimes, a
volunteer from “Are You Syrious” association comes to her home and helps her catch up with the
tasks she has failed to do, helps her learn the new content or do her homework.
The class teacher tried to relate some parts of the teaching content to the child’s previous
experience, but it did not yield success. The girl showed no progress, says the class teacher:
… For example, during a Music lesson, I asked her to sing a chant in Arabic, but she could not do
that. Her parents did not help her either. When we were analysing the symbols of the Republic of
Croatia, I asked her to present the symbols of Iraq (the flag, coat of arms, anthem), but she was
not prepared for the task, as she did not have any support at home.

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Furthermore, the class teacher points out that the child is very successful in some subjects 715
where artistic abilities and expression are very important.
Lamija is very successful in Music and Visual Arts classes. She has a sense of rhythm and melody,
and can express herself through visual arts beautifully, meeting all task criteria.
In the first grade of primary school in Croatia, apart from their mother tongue, students
start learning a foreign language. Most frequently, it is English. English Language teacher,
speaking about Lamija’s attitude towards school, made the following note:
From the very first lesson, it was obvious that Lamija is a quiet, extremely polite girl. However,
I was hoping that she would open up and participate in the lessons more actively. Unfortunately,
that has not happened. Lamija rarely volunteers to say anything. She will speak a few words
only when I ask her specifically. Sometimes she looks for the correct answer in her classmate’s
notebook or waits for the class to read the answers and then she writes them down. She always has
a smile on her face and never shows dissatisfaction, anger or that she is having a difficult time.
Islamic Religious Education teacher noted:
In the classroom, Lamija was mostly quiet, shy, and withdrawn. She would say something only
when I asked her a question. I have to say that she had a very positive attitude to work, that
she was hard-working and wanted to make progress. She did her tasks regularly and neatly and
achieved the learning outcomes completely.
I used to let her listen to religious songs in Arabic. She remembered the words and the tune and
sang them happily.
Speaking about the teaching and learning process, Lamija points out:
Of all school subjects, I like Maths, Visual Arts and Music most. I like the coursebooks, especially
Music coursebook. For me, Nature and Society is the most difficult subject, because I don’t really
understand it. I think it is more difficult for me to understand what I read on my own than what I
hear and what the teacher tells and shows me.
In the mosque, I am learning to read and write Arabic. I can write Arabic better than speak it.
There are many differences between Croatian and Arabic in the shape of the letters and writing
direction. I think my knowledge of Croatian is better than my knowledge of Arabic. I learn Arabic
through Croatian – when I started learning Arabic, I used Croatian words, because I could not
say or explain something in Arabic.
Zana, Lamija’s classmate, who attends Islamic Religious Education classes with her,
noticed the following:
During Islamic Religious Education classes, Lamija seems to be more relaxed. Her brothers are
there, too, and the teacher lets them answer in pairs and complete each other’s sentences.
Peer Relationships
Socializing with peers is an important segment in the process of growing up. Children’s
well-being is achieved, among other things, through quality relationships with peers.
The class teacher, reflecting on the relationships between the girl and other students in the class,
says:

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716 Several girls in the class offered to sit with Lamija and help her in the first days at school. On the
first day of school, they gave her a tour of the school and showed her the classrooms… It has been
several months since Lamija came to our class, but she still never approaches a group of children
on her own. I used to encourage her to join them or ask the girls to include her in the games. She
built a closer relationship with 3 or 4 girls in the class, one of whom attends Islamic Religious
Education classes with her. However, she always keeps to herself and does not join them unless
they invite her. She does not hang out with children from the class outside school, does not come
to their birthday parties, does not visit anyone, and does not invite anyone to her home.
English Language teacher:
There are several girls in the class who are happy to help her when they finish their work. Lamija
accepts their help gladly.
Islamic Religious Education teacher:
Lamija shows a great wish and is thrilled to teach her friends in Islamic Religious Education
classes how to say something in Arabic. She converses happily with her classmate, they often chat,
play, and laugh.
Lamija:
In my first school, I became friends with a girl named Ana. One weekend this winter, I went to her
house with my younger sister and stayed there till the evening. We had a great time!... I rarely go
out to play because my mother and father are worried that something might happen to me. I never
go out with friends, but only with my younger brothers, for a short time… I like Zagreb and life in
Croatia very much and I do not want to leave, but my parents are talking about going to Austria.
Lamija’s classmates, the girls who spend more time with her than other children, notices
similar patterns of behaviour in the school context, but outside it as well.
Zana:
At the very beginning of the school year, I noticed that Lamija has a beautiful smile, but that she is
much more shy than other girls. I thought it was because she was a new student in our class, but
Lamija has not changed. During the breaks, Katarina, Lamija and I spend time together. When I
come to school, I approach Lamija and we start talking. I have never played with her outside, in
our free time, because Lamija does not come outside to play.
Katarina:
I wanted to help Lamija so she would not feel alone and to help her get to know other students
from the class more easily. At the beginning, Lamija was very quiet and shy, and she always waited
for us to invite her to play with us. She used to accept whatever other girls suggested, but she
would never suggest playing any game herself.
I invited Lamija to come to my home several times, or to come outside and play. However, she
never came. I did not ask her why, but she told me that she is allowed to go out only sometimes,
with her brother and sister, and that she can stay outside only for a very short time.
Obstacles and Recommendations
During the analysis of the personal accounts and notes, it was noticed that some participants
express concerns about the quality of the inclusion process. Obstacles and shortcomings were
noticed both at the micro and the macro levels. The mere fact that they were noticed can be
taken as an indicator pointing toward possible future activities and actions.

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The class teacher’s observations point to the difficulties and identify support options necessary 717
in working with refugee and asylum seeking children:
Children in the class were able to explain who asylum seekers are; they have heard about the
wars in Iraq and Syria, as well as about the asylum seekers who have travelled for a long time
having fled their countries, sailing the seas in boats, and losing their lives… I was surprised to
learn how much some of them knew. When I asked them where they had heard all those things,
they said they had seen it all on TV. Luckily, Lamija did not have such a terrible experience
leaving her country. However, before she came to our school, I knew nothing about her journey to
Croatia. I spent a lot of time thinking about what and how to ask her about such things, without
triggering some bad memories or trauma… Luckily, Lamija did not experience anything of the
kind. The greatest support was exchange of experiences with colleagues from other schools, who
have already taught asylum seeking children. On the other hand, support from the Ministry of
Education and the Teacher Training Agency is insufficient, and there are no appropriate training
sessions for teachers who work with such children.
Islamic Religious Education teacher:
I know that other colleagues mentioned communication as the biggest obstacle for the full
adjustment and quality work with asylum seeking children, but I have not felt it that way teaching
my subject. I ascribe it to the fact that Islam is something close and familiar to them. A great part
of the teaching content is in Arabic.
Reflecting on the entire school year, I would say that the biggest problem asylum seeking children
are facing is the sense of not belonging anywhere. They are foreigners in their own country,
among their own people and culture (because they do not speak the language, they do not know
the alphabet, and are unfamiliar with the customs and religion), and they feel even more like
foreigners in a new environment, the customs of which they are yet to learn and adjust to.
For Lamija, the most difficult moment was when the school transferred to online teaching,
that is, when distance learning started:
The worst period for me was distance learning. Although I was not afraid of anything while being
at home, it was still difficult for me, and I missed school and my friends. The teacher was not there
to help me when I did not understand something or when I did not know how to do something. My
sister could not help me either, because she had a lot of her own work to do.
Discussion
This study focuses on needs and challenges posed by the inclusion process of a Syrian
girl, an asylum seeker in a Croatian primary school. Based on the findings of the present study,
four categories were created: Communication, Teaching Process, Peer Relationships, and
Obstacles and Recommendations.
The results indicate that, although the girl had attended Croatian language preparatory
classes (70 hours), it was not sufficient for her successful involvement and activity in class
work. The girl herself points out that sometimes she finds it difficult to find the right words to
express her opinion. Language is probably the most significant factor that enables a student to
understand what is going in the classroom and to assess whether the content is relevant to him/
her or not (Chen & Gay, 2020). Successful mastery of a language, both its written and spoken
form, is a precondition for successful inclusion in society and functioning in everyday situations.
Communication is the basis of inclusion of students in the class, and inclusion of family in the
neighbourhood and local community. Aydin and Kaya (2017, p. 13) thought that teaching the
language spoken in a country is the priority in educating migrants and refugees around the

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718 world. Inadequate knowledge of Croatian language makes communication and participation in
the teaching process difficult, which results in reduced activity in the class, partial achievement
of the learning goals and lack of motivation. Aydin and Kaya (2017) analysed educational needs
and barriers encountered by Syrian refugee students in schools in Turkey. They pointed out that
integration depends on their level of knowledge of Turkish language and that it takes 3-4 years
to achieve verbal fluency, while it might take 4-7 years to achieve academic fluency. Other
researchers have obtained similar results, pointing out that in the optimum circumstances, it
takes between three and five years to develop oral language proficiency, while it takes between
four and seven years to achieve academic proficiency in English language (Collier, 1989, 1995;
Hakuta et al. 2000; according to Miller, 2009). Teaching migrant students, the language in which
the teaching process is conducted poses certain challenges because this language is frequently
the second or additional language they need to master at a high level, in order to be able to learn
other subjects (Eurydice, 2019, p. 11). In order to facilitate second language acquisition, it is
necessary to design appropriate programmes, to have support of the relevant institutions and
to maintain partnerships between all participants in the educational process (Pavličević-Franić,
2011). Better linguistic preparation of migrant students would facilitate the work of teachers,
who also face difficulties in communication. Some of the concrete suggestions for language
learning and education of migrant children were based on the results of research carried
out in Croatia within the project “Supporting the integration of third-country nationals who
need international protection”. These suggestions are: organize adequate Croatian language
preparatory classes in schools; prepare a starter coursebook for Croatian language learning
and translate it into three languages most frequently used and understood by asylum seekers
(Arabic, Farsi and Kurdish); employ more teaching assistants to help asylum seeking children
in the teaching and learning process; allow for more hours for learning Croatian language in
schools, and provide financial support for the specific school needs of asylum seeking children
(Ajduković et al., 2019, p. 97).
The main findings about the teaching process reveal that the girl manages to achieve the
learning outcomes, but at different levels. She is not equally successful in all school subjects.
Quality cooperation between the school and the girls’ parents has not been achieved, because
the girl’s mother avoids school, does not take part in any activities related to school, does not
help her child with homework and it is obvious that the family does not provide support for
the girl with school tasks. The girl is able to acquire more quickly those parts of the teaching
content which correlate to her previous experience, and which are associated with positive
events in her life. In these cases, she is more active and motivated to work. A significant
number of immigrants wish to maintain their social identities and cultural engagements,
which include language (Baysu et al., 2011). However, in order to participate in the teaching
process successfully, it is necessary to acquire the language of the country they are currently
living in. Weiss et al. (2018) emphasize concerns expressed by teachers and schools regarding
academic achievements of migrant children, their behaviour in society and a possibility of
quality interaction between schools and parents. Migrant children frequently have difficulties
with cultural, social, and academic requirements in school, and sometimes even with their own
unrealistic expectations (Miller et al., 2005). Students in compulsory education need education
full of strong emotions and a strong affective component; however, schools and teachers are not
prepared for offering this kind of support (Essomba, 2017).
As discovered in this study, teachers estimated the girl’s participation in the teaching
process differently. They generously shared their observations with us, hoping they would shed
light on some aspects of inclusion of migrant and asylum seeking children in our schools.
This would be a step towards a quality inclusion process. It should be pointed out that the
girl functioned better in Islamic Religious Education classes, probably because the subject is
culturally and linguistically closer to her. Another reason might be the fact that the Islamic

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Religious Education teacher is in contact with a greater number of refugee and asylum seeking 719
children, as most of them attend these classes. An encouraging and supportive relationship
between teachers and migrant children might have a key role in these children’s adjustment to
the school context and have multiple benefits for them (Hoti et al., 2015). Apart from that, Hoti
et al. (2019) presented the results of the research they had carried out with 1,106 students and
their teachers in Switzerland. They pointed out that students are more satisfied with school if
they share the common values and attitudes towards cultural diversity. The specific problem was
online teaching, organized for the last three months of the school year, due to the COVID-19
pandemic. For most teachers, as well as students, online education during the pandemic posed
a great challenge (Osmanović Zajić et al., 2022). During that period, the girl lost live contact
with the teacher and students, and the support she received in the family environment was
inadequate.
The results do not draw attention only to the academic needs of the girl, but also to her
emotional and social needs (socializing with peers). Unfortunately, although the girl is in the
third grade, she has already changed school because her family moved to another flat. Therefore,
the continuity in her education was disrupted, while going to another school, in already unstable
conditions in which her family has been living (gaining a certain status and moving to Austria),
made her socialization process more difficult. The school year 2019/2020, in which the girl’s
work was observed, was her first year in the new school. It seems that she did not manage to
make any close friendships with other students. Other students took the initiative, and their
socializing was pleasant. However, socializing takes place only in the time before coming to
school and during the breaks. In her free time, the girl does not spend time with other children
due to her parents’ rules, although she would like to. Makarova and Birman (2016) stressed the
importance of measures and strategies which promote interaction between migrant children and
native speakers, and which enable successful adaptation.
The results of this study pointed to certain difficulties and a need for systematic and
coordinated support for all participants in the educational process: migrant children, teachers,
school staff and parents. Unfortunately, national and school curricula do not include programmes
for acquiring linguistic skills and social competencies that are necessary for successful
integration of migrant children into society. During their initial education, the teachers are not
acquainted with the ways to provide support for such children. Teachers and school staff are not
given systematic support and an opportunity to develop the necessary competencies to accept
and include these children into school. Teacher education programmes do not train teachers in
line with the key concepts of multicultural education (Gorski, 2009), and it is not surprising that
teachers feel unprepared for and insecure in work with such children (Sinkkonen & Kyttälä,
2014). Pugh et al. (2012) stressed the importance of providing the teachers with guidance and
support through various continuing professional development programmes, in order to make
them competent to overcome diverse obstacles they can come across while teaching migrant
children. School as an institution cannot meet the needs of migrant and asylum seeking children
on its own. Pastoor (2017) believed that participation of migrant children in various types of
environment and activities outside the school context creates more opportunities for meaningful
learning, promotes their social inclusion, improves the educational process, and facilitates
psychological and social adjustment. According to the report by European Commission (2020),
Croatia has a solid policy framework for promoting children’s rights and well-being. However,
it lacks good coordination of various bodies and agencies at all levels, in order to achieve the
set goals.

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720 Conclusions and Limitations
The findings of this study demonstrate that insufficient knowledge of Croatian language
is a great obstacle in achieving quality communication, both with adults and peers. It makes
active participation in the teaching process difficult and prevents successful achievement of the
learning goals. Croatian Preparatory Language Learning and Latin script learning programmes
for child refugees and asylum seekers should be intense and comprehensive in order to enable
students not only to communicate when necessary, but also to enable them to participate easily
in the learning and teaching process. The current 70-hour Croatian Preparatory Language
Learning Programme is inadequate and does not enable students to overcome the language
barrier. It is necessary to design quality Croatian language learning courses, but also to
train teachers for work with migrant children and asylum seekers. Teachers need systematic
support to help them ensure smooth inclusion of such children in the classroom. Furthermore,
cooperation with parents should be given more attention in order to facilitate adjustment of
children to new circumstances. Local communities should also become involved, in order
to make sure the migrant family is not left on its own, isolated and confined within its own
four walls. Civil society organizations could be helpful in ensuring quality inclusion of child
refugees and asylum seekers, not only in the education system of the host country, but also in
other spheres of social life.
Migrant crises, no matter in which part of the world they start, and regardless of the
cause, result in displacement of children, who then need to be included in education systems
of the countries in which they find themselves. Frequently, these are the countries in which
a different language is spoken, a different type of alphabet is used, and different secular and
religious laws are obeyed. Croatian education system has not so far experienced the inclusion
of third-country refugee children and it has no previous experience in creating the necessary
programmes. Refugee and asylum seeking children are vulnerable groups and need to be given
an opportunity to meet all their specific needs and develop their full potential. It is necessary
to organize a more comprehensive exchange of experiences between experts in various fields
(teachers, pedagogues, psychologists, linguists, social and health care workers, etc.) in the
country, but also create opportunities for networking at the international level, in order to
facilitate quality inclusion of children. This case study is unique in the Croatian context, but
its results can be applied in other countries which receive child refugees and asylum seekers. It
also enables a better understanding of some challenges posed by inclusion of child refugees and
asylum seekers in schools in host countries. Future research should focus on identifying other
indicators of successful inclusion.
Since this was a type of research in which only one participant was observed, we are aware
that it is not possible to make any generalizations. However, it does present a way of collecting
valuable data illustrating the inclusion of asylum seeking children in compulsory primary
school. In order to minimize potential faults in the application of case study, triangulation of
the methodological approaches was applied. The methods used were participant observation
and interviews. Furthermore, we are aware that the availability of the collected data is limited
because the girl finds it difficult to express her thoughts and feelings in Croatian/English
language. That is why the inclusion of teachers who speak the same language as the girl or
teachers who have competencies for teaching Croatian language as a foreign language might
facilitate understanding.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all research participants, Lamija and her family, and all
teachers and school staff who invested effort and showed care about the girl’s well-being, her
holistic development, and inclusion in Croatian primary school.

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Declaration of Interest 721
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723
Received: July 22, 2022 Revised: September 02, 2022 Accepted: October 15, 2022
Cite as: Klasnić, I., Đuranović, M., & Lucin, M. (2022). Towards the different: A case study of
a Syrian asylum seeker in Croatian school context. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
80(5), 708-723. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.708
Irena Klasnić PhD, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb,
(Corresponding author) Savska 77, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail: irena.klasnic@ufzg.hr
Marina Đuranović PhD, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb,
Savska 77, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail: marina.duranovic@ufzg.hr
Marina Lucin Primary School Teacher, Primary School Jure Kaštelana, Ruždjaka 2a, 10 000
Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail: marinalucin.zg@gmail.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2625-942X

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724
DRIVERS OF CONTINUANCE INTENTION
TO USE THE ONLINE LEARNING
PLATFORM AFTER THE COVID-19
PANDEMIC
Costin Pribeanu
Academy of Romanian Scientists, Romania
E-mail: costin.pribeanu@gmail.com
Gabriel Gorghiu, Elena-Ancuța Santi

Valahia University of Târgoviște, Romania
E-mail: ggorghiu@gmail.com, santi.anca@yahoo.ro
Abstract
With the start of the COVID-19 pandemic period, the need to continue the educational process imposed
the exclusive move to the online environment - a new and insufficiently prepared experience, which
generated controversies, but also reflections, and adaptation for teachers, students, decision-makers, and
even parents. The major concern of the academic community was related to the quality of the educational
process and how the student-centered education paradigm can be introduced in the online environment.
The students and teachers of the post-pandemic generation are no longer the same, this period has
strongly impacted society, mentalities, and the school's future. Analyzing online education from multiple
perspectives, the advantages, and opportunities generated by the integration of ICT in the teaching
process are obvious. However, many variables have an impact on the effectiveness of e-learning, and
many unanswered questions, yet. This research aims to analyze the key drivers of technology acceptance
and the role played by three external variables: content adaptation, facilitating conditions, and ease of
access in the context of exclusive online education. For this purpose, an extended technology acceptance
model has been conceptualized and tested on a sample of Romanian university students. The results
illustrate that content adaptation represents an important predictor of both the perceived ease of use and
usefulness. The model explained a lot of variance in the continuance intention which is due to the positive
attitude towards using the online learning platform in the future.
Keywords: distance education, TAM, COVID-19 pandemic, online learning platform, learning motivation
Introduction
With the new reality imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, online education has become
a viable alternative and an open door to the future, in which school will no longer be just face-
to-face, in a traditional format, but will effectively be capitalized by educational platforms,
resources, and means of modern technology, to produce creative and innovative learning, to
stimulate and maintain students’ motivation, interest and desire for knowledge.
Although the implementation of the online teaching-learning process has been achieved
with effort, risks and difficulties, in many cases it has also brought satisfaction and success,
constituting a bridge over the physical distance between teacher and students and mediating
learning. Analyzing several studies from the pre-pandemic period, Nguyen (2015) stated that,
if properly designed, online courses can be as effective as traditional ones.

Costin PRIBEANU, Gabriel GORGHIU, Elena-Ancuța SANTI. Drivers of continuance intention to use the online learning platform
after the Covid-19 pandemic
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But the pandemic context, with implicitly imposed strong emotional load and restrictive 725
social measures, with isolation in many situations, unpredictability, and full of anxiety,
generated negative effects on education - stress, low interest, lack of motivation, delays, low
productivity, and reduced engagement in the online learning process. In this respect, not all
students responded positively to the implementation of online learning (Duraku, 2021).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, students’ behavior and attitude toward online learning
are influenced by many factors, as mentioned by several researchers (Boca, 2021; Um, 2021).
However various studies have shown that students have gained knowledge through online
education during this period, an appropriate pedagogy and suitable content are important
variables of students’ learning motivation (Boca, 2021; Hamdan & Amorri, 2022).
A wide range of course and learning management systems (CMS / LMS) are used in
education - platforms that offer synchronous or asynchronous support and include advanced
features for facilitating student access to resources and learning materials, mediating
collaboration and communication, evaluating and providing feedback, and many other
facilities: Moodle, Google Classroom, Edmodo LMS, CANVAS LMS, Schoology, Sakai,
EdApp, Thinkific, ZoomLearn, Teachable (https://research.com/software/best-free-learning-
management-systems).
Anyway, in the context of the pandemic, the shift to exclusive online education represented
a challenge not only for educators but also for researchers interested in explaining the adoption
and usage of e-learning systems. In this sense, the technology acceptance model (TAM)
developed by Davis (1989) stated that the intention to use a given technology is determined by
two users’ beliefs: the perceived ease of use and the perceived usefulness. The influence of the
two beliefs is mediated by attitude, which has been defined as affective or evaluative feelings
about behavior (Azjen, 1991).
This research aimed to analyze the determinants of the acceptance of an online learning
platform by university students and the role played by three external variables: content
adaptation, facilitating conditions, and ease of access. For this purpose, an extended TAM-
based model has been conceptualized and tested on a sample of Romanian university students
(N = 156).
Background and Conceptualization
Background
TAM considered that the behavioral intention to use a computer system is driven by the
attitude towards usage which, in turn, is influenced by two beliefs: perceived ease of use (PE)
and perceived usefulness (PU). Extant literature shows a large variety of technology acceptance
models as well as a large diversity of conceptualizations as regards the main drivers and their
antecedents (Lee et al., 2003; Granik & Marangunic, 2019).
As an example, the study of Pal and Patra (2020) integrated the technology acceptance
model with the task-technology fit model (TTF) by conceptualizing TTF as an antecedent of
the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of online video-based learning. The task-
technology fit has been conceptualized as a latent variable with two antecedents: technology
characteristics and individual characteristics, the last one having a larger influence on TTF. The
influence of TTF on the perceived ease of use was higher than the influence on the perceived
usefulness.
The task-technology fit has been also included in a TAM model by Mo et al. (2021).
They tested an extended TAM model including three external variables (task-technology
fit, instructor attitude, and family support) on a sample of 552 university students. The task
technology fit was the only significant antecedent of the perceived usefulness. All external

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726 variables were significant antecedents of the perceived ease of use. The model explained a
55.9% variance in the continuance intention.
Baber (2021) analyzed the intention to use an online teaching and learning system (Zoom
+ LMS) during the pandemic. He developed and tested a hierarchical model having three
second-order formative constructs that are measuring instructor features (attitude, competency,
interaction), student features (motivation, collaboration, and student mindset), and technology
acceptance (perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness). The intention to use was mainly
influenced by the instructor's characteristics and the student's characteristics. The influence of
technology acceptance was smaller. Overall, his model explained 76% variance in the intention
to use.
Mailizar et al. (2021) examined the behavioral intention to use e-learning in a university
in Indonesia. They conceptualized an extended TAM model featuring two external variables:
system quality and e-learning experience. Their results showed that attitude was the only
predictor having a crucial influence on the behavioral intention to use. As regards the external
variables, only system quality had a significant influence on the perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness. The model explained a 57% variance in the intention to use.
Akuratiya and Meddage (2020) analyzed the IT students’ perceptions of online learning
in Sri Lanka. They found a high perception of online learning (79%) and a high agreement
to integrate online learning in the future. Most of the students found online learning useful
(77%), effective (67%), comfortable (53%), and enjoyable (51%). Baczek et al. (2021) reported
similar perceptions of medical students in Poland: comfortable (54%), learning at their own
pace (64%), access to online material (68%), and enjoyable (73%).
Analyzing the students’ acceptance of e-learning in academic studies, by considering
a modified TAM model that takes into account the instructor characteristics, computer
self-efficacy, course design, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and intention to use,
95 undergraduate students from Malaysia expressed that computer self-efficacy, perceived ease
of use, and intention to choose the e-learning format for study, represent crucial factors that
affect the students’ use of e-learning in higher education (Ibrahim et al., 2017).
Anyway, the development of comprehensive TAMs allows research on e-learning
acceptance. A positive example is coming from UAE, where 435 students from 5 universities
participated in research that illustrated a significant impact on the perceived ease of use of
the e-learning system, influenced by the quality of the system, computer self-efficacy, and
computer playfulness. Near the abovementioned variables, the quality of information, perceived
enjoyment, and accessibility proved to induce a favorable influence on the perceived ease of use
and perceived usefulness of the e-learning system (Salloum et al., 2019).
Research Model and Hypotheses
In this study, an extended TAM is proposed that includes two main beliefs influencing
the behavioral intention to use (BI) through the attitude toward use (AT): perceived ease of use
(PEU) and perceived usefulness (PU). It has been hypothesized that the perceived ease of use
and perceived usefulness are influenced by two external variables: content adaptation (CA) and
the ease of access to online activities (EA). The research model is presented in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 727
Research Model
The ease of access refers to the new opportunities created by online education: the ubiq-
uitous and fast access to the educational activities and educational resources stored on the
platform (Lamanauskas & Makaraskaite-Petkevitciene, 2021; Manea et al., 2021). Therefore, it
has been hypothesized that the ease of access is positively influencing the perceived ease of use.
H1 Ease of access has a positive influence on the perceived ease of use (EA→ PEU)
Facilitating conditions refer to the availability of resources, such as computers, Internet

access, and the knowledge needed to use the online platform. It is expected that facilitating
conditions will positively influence the perceived ease of use and the perceived usefulness
(Almayah et al., 2020; Clark et al., 2020)
H2 Facilitating conditions have a positive influence on the perceived ease of use (FC→ PEU)
H3 Facilitating conditions have a positive influence on the perceived usefulness (FC→ PU)
Content adaptation refers to the suitability of the content for online presentation and the
suitability of assignments for online learning. On the one hand, suitable content has a positive
influence on the perceived ease of use since it minimizes the information density on the screen,
makes it easier to read and/or follow, and reduces cognitive load. On another hand, suitable
content favors an easier and better understanding of the learning content thus having a positive
influence on the perceived usefulness while a lack of content adaptation makes it difficult for
students to keep their attention and concentrate on the learning task (Lamanauskas & Makaras-
kaite-Petkevitciene, 2021).
H4 Content adaptation has a positive influence on the perceived ease of use (CA→ PEU)
H5 Content adaptation has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness (CA→ PU)
Davis (1989) defined the perceived ease of use (PEU) as “the degree to which a person
believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989). It is expected
that students will find an easy-to-use platform more useful for learning (Lee et al., 2005; Pal &
Patra, 2020). It is also expected that the perceived ease of use will make learning more pleasant
for students (Lee et al., 2005) and will make them more interested to use the learning platform
(Yi & Hwang, 2003).
H6 Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on the perceived usefulness (PEU→ PU)
H7 Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on the attitude toward use (PEU→ AT)
H8 Perceived ease of use has a positive influence on the intention to use (PEU→ BI)

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728 Perceived usefulness has been defined by Davis as a belief that using a given technology
will improve job performance (Davis, 1989). It is supposed that the perceived usefulness will
positively influence the attitude toward using the system and the intention to use it (Lee et
al., 2005; Lazar et al., 2020; Raza et. al, 2020; Baber, 2021). In turn, a positive attitude will
influence the intention to use (Azjen, 1991; Davis, 1989).
H9 Perceived usefulness has a positive influence on attitude (PU → AT)

H10 Perceived usefulness has a positive influence on the intention to use (PU → BI)
H11 Attitude has a positive influence on the intention to use (AT → BI)
General Background
The students enrolled in the university study programs benefited from the support of Moodle
as a course management system (CMS). In this respect, the platform provided management and
contact with all students and offered documentation for each discipline and communication
facility at the individual/group level. In addition, the platform offered possibilities for online
evaluation and is also interfaced with the Microsoft Teams application, which allows student-
teacher interaction, online development of courses, seminars, and application classes, as well as
organization of face-to-face evaluation (Bîzoi et al., 2017; Santi et al., 2020).
Instrument and Procedure
The instrument designed for evaluation has been developed considering previous
research related to online learning during the pandemic (Lamanauskas et al., 2019; Pribeanu et
al., 2020), and also by adapting existing scales in the TAM literature (Azjen, 1991; Davis, 1989;
Davis et al., 1992; Lee et al., 2005).
The model was tested with Lisrel 9.3 for Windows (Mels, 2006), using the maximum
likelihood estimation method. Before model testing, an exploratory factor analysis (maximum
likelihood with varimax rotation) has been carried out that revealed several items with poor
factor loading. Therefore, these items have been eliminated from the scale. Table 1 presents the
constructs and the remaining items.

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Table 1 729
Measures
EA Ease of access
EA1 I can access the online learning platform anytime from anywhere
EA2 Logging on to the online platform is easy
FC Facilitating conditions
FC1 I have the resources to use the online learning platform
FC2 I have the knowledge to use the online learning platform
CA Content adaptation
CA1 The content is adapted to online presentation
CA2 Students’ assignments received are adapted for the online learning platform
PEU Perceived ease of use
PEU1 Using the online learning platform is simple
PEU2 Learning how to use the online learning platform is easy
PEU3 My interaction with the online platform is clear and understandable
PU Perceived usefulness
UU1 Using the online platform will improve my learning performance
UU2 Using the online platform makes it easier for me to study
UU3 Using the online platform makes learning more productive
AT Attitude
AT1 I believe that using the online learning platform is interesting
AT2 I believe that using the online learning platform is pleasant
BI Behavioral intention to use
BI1 I intend to use the online learning platform in the future
BI2 I will use the online learning platform if it is available after the pandemic
Convergent validity has been assessed according to the recommended thresholds from
the literature (Fornell, & Larcker, 1981; Hair et al., 2010): loadings magnitude greater than
0.5, composite reliability (CR) greater than 0.70, and average variance extracted (AVE) great-
er than 0.5. Discriminant validity has been assessed through the squared correlation test (For-
nell & Larcker, 1981).
The model fit with the data has been assessed by using the following goodness of fit in-
dices (Hair et al., 2006): chi-square (χ2), degrees of freedom (df), χ2/df, comparative fit index
(CFI), the goodness of fit index (GFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA),
and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR).
Sample
The data has been collected during the university year 2021-2022. The instrument
designed for evaluation purposes has been applied to third-year students enrolled in the
psycho-pedagogical study module (initial training for future teachers) at Valahia University in
Targoviste, Romania.
A total of 161 undergraduate students answered the questionnaire. The data has been
analyzed for incomplete data and 5 cases have been eliminated thus resulting in a working
sample of 156 cases (46 men / 110 women). As regards the background, students were coming

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730 from several faculties, covering on a large scale the palette of Valahia University specializations:
education (50), physical education and kineto-therapy (27), music (20), sciences (17),
engineering (12), economics (11), theology (10), and other (9).
Research Results
Model Testing Results
The model has been analyzed for unidimensionality, the internal consistency of the scale
(Cronbach’s alpha), and convergent validity. The descriptive statistics and the standardized
factor loadings are presented in Table 2. The mean values for the ease of access and perceived
ease of use are high which suggests that university students are familiar with the online learning
platform. All item loadings are over 0.70, thus proving unidimensionality.
Table 2
Descriptive and Item Loadings (N=156)
Factor Item M SD Loading

EA1 4.38 1.07 .75
EA
EA2 4.38 0.99 .96
FC1 4.40 1.02 .87
FC
FC2 4.32 1.04 .98
CA1 3.97 1.08 .84
CA
CA2 3.97 1.17 .73
PEU1 4.27 1.03 .94
PEU PEU2 4.22 1.07 .93
PEU3 4.17 1.06 .93
PU1 3.64 1.21 .90
PU PU2 3.65 1.30 .93
PU3 3.49 1.30 .92
AT1 3.92 1.12 .93
AT
AT2 3.76 1.29 .92
BI1 3.60 1.42 .93
BI
BI2 3.49 1.52 .91
The scale reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity are presented in Table 3. The
Cronbach’s alpha is varying from .756 to .953, thus showing good reliability of the scales.

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Table 3 731
Scale Reliability, Convergent, and Discriminant Validity (N=156)
Alpha CR AVE CA EA FC PEU PU AT BI
CA 0.756 0.757 0.609 0.782
EA 0.836 0.850 0.742 0.346 0.861
FC 0.918 0.953 0.859 0.514 0.623 0.927
PEU 0.952 0.951 0.865 0.483 0.845 0.730 0.933
PU 0.939 0.938 0.834 0.600 0.335 0.477 0.437 0.913
AT 0.943 0.949 0.903 0.455 0.336 0.415 0.456 0.735 0.950
BI 0.916 0.917 0.847 0.351 0.225 0.377 0.360 0.768 0.955 0.934
Note: The bold diagonal numbers represent the square root of AVE
The composite reliability (CR) and average variance extracted (AVE) are over the cut-off
values of 0.7, respectively 0.5 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) thus proving the convergent validity.
The discriminant validity is acceptable, since (with two small exceptions) the correlation
between factors is smaller than the square root of AVE.
The model fit with the data is excellent, as shown by the goodness of fit (GOF) indices:
nonsignificant χ2, df=90, χ2/df=1.165, CFI=0.994, GFI=0.922, RMSEA=0.032, SRMR=0.0293.
The model estimation results are presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Model Estimation Results (N = 156)

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732 The paths from FC to PU, from PEU to PU, and from PEU to BI are not significant so
the hypotheses H3, H6, and H9 are not supported. This suggests that the ease of access and
ease of use are taken for granted in an online learning context and therefore not relevant for the
perceived usefulness. In the same way, it is explained the nonsignificant influence of PEU on
the intention to use.
The hypotheses H1, H2, H4, H5, and H7 are supported since the paths from EA to PEU
(β = 0.63, p < .001), FC to PEU (β = 0.27, p < .001), CA to PEU (β = 0.50, p < .001), CA to PU
(β=0.46, p<0.001), and PEU to AT (β = 0.16, p = .018) are significant. This shows that content
adaptation is a relevant variable for both perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness.
PU has a significant positive influence on AT (β = 0.66, p < .001) and BI (β = 0.17, p =
.010) so hypotheses H8 and H10 are supported. The influence of AT on BI is also significant (β
= 0.89, p < .001) so hypothesis H11 is also supported.
The model explains 79.2% variance in the perceived ease of use (PEU), 39.2% variance
in the perceived usefulness (PU), 56.0% in the attitude (AT), and 93.1% variance in the intention
to use.
Discussion
This exploratory research contributes with an empirically validated model that explains
the contribution of the perceived usefulness and attitude to the acceptance of an online teaching
and learning platform by university students during the pandemic. The model explains a lot
of variance in the continuance intention towards online learning and brings insights into the
role played by the three external variables: Ease of access, facilitating conditions, and content
adaptation.
The findings are similar with the results reported by Pal and Patra (2020) and Mo et al.
(2021) as regards the contribution of the main predictors of behavioral intention. The content
adaptation is quasi-similar to the characteristics of the technology in the model of Pal and Patra
(2020). The difference as regards the variance explained by the model in the behavioral intention
(much higher in this study) is due to the different contributions of each external variable.
The ease of access had a significant influence on the perceived ease of use and an indirect
influence on the attitude and continuance intention. The ease of access, at any time and from
anywhere, to educational activities and resources is critical for the success of online learning
and has particular importance under the conditions of exclusive online education during the
pandemic. Although the facilitating conditions did not have a significant direct influence on the
perceived usefulness, they proved to be a significant antecedent of the perceived ease of use.
Content adaptation had a significant influence on both the perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness. Adapting the content to the specifics of delivery in the online environment
is an essential condition for the success of the didactic process, unanimously recognized by
teachers. According to Debarger et al. (2017), curriculum adaptation involves an intentional
effort to bring existing materials into line with new visions by adding, adapting, or transforming
materials. Technology-mediated online teaching-learning involves more than transferring
content from teacher to students or replicating it as in a face-to-face model, according to
recommendations proposed by the Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (https://ctl.
columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/teaching-with-technology/teaching-online/adapting-
your-course/). Since online learning requires a high degree of independence and the assumption,
commitment on the part of the student, the contents must be clear, understandable, attractive,
creative, useful, relevant, organized in a logical sequence. Games, ice breakers, digital content
(audio, video, images, articles, web links), structured discussions, reflection assignments
(https://blog.alo7.com/how-to-adapt-content-for-the-online-classroom/), as well as various
educational applications and resources can be used as open sources. Content that makes sense

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to the student, that stimulates their interest, becomes content relevant to their cognitive needs 733
and it is perceived as usefulness.
The influence of attitude is very high which is explained by the specific learning
conditions during the pandemic. There are several perceived benefits of online learning,
such as the commodity of ubiquitous access and learning from home, flexibility in learning,
time and money savings (especially for nonresidential students), and safety (Akuratiya &
Meddage, 2020; Baczek et al., 2021; Manea et al., 2021). These benefits make students feel
comfortable using the online learning platform. Distance education also has disadvantages,
such as concentration difficulties, frustration, lack of motivation, and even stress (Gorghiu et
al., 2021; Lamanauskas & Makarskaite-Petkeviciene, 2021) which could be compensated if
online learning is interesting and pleasant, catch students’ attention and keep them engaged
with the online courses and seminars. This is consistent with the relatively high perceptions of
attitude items (3.92 and 3.76).
The overall perception of the online platform is positive which is explained by the
familiarity of students with the LMS which has been currently used before the pandemic for
downloading learning content and assignments and uploading homework. It is also explained
by the fact that the participants are enrolled in a psycho-pedagogical module which may favor
a better understanding of the benefits of online learning.
This study has multiple implications for academic staff, as online teaching-learning will
continue post-pandemic, alternating or complementing the traditional format. The analyzed
variables show that learning becomes relevant for the student in the online environment when
conditions are met such as content adaptation, use of appropriate LMS, and perceived online
learning usefulness has a positive impact on learners' attitude toward e-learning (also confirmed
by Um, 2021).
Also, considering the online learning situations, the students have more responsibility
for achieving academic success than in the context of conventional face-to-face classes. Thus,
a proactive, self-managing attitude and behavior in the learning process can stimulate intrinsic
motivation for one’s training.
The three rejected hypotheses suggest reconsidering the TAM-based conceptualization
in future studies. It seems that ease of use is less and less relevant for the intention to use an
e-learning platform which explains why several studies did not test a direct path from PEU to
BI. On another hand, exploring antecedents of perceived usefulness is a promising research
direction.
As this represents an exploratory study, there are several inherent limitations. The first
limitation is related to the small number of items of five constructs. In the near future, the scale
will be revised accordingly. The second limitation is related to the sample size, which is rela-
tively small. Also, the participants are from only one university. Another limitation is related
to the external variables: although the existing research shows a plethora of antecedents of the
main drivers of the intention to use, this study included only three. Future work will investigate
other external variables that are relevant to the context of use and the purpose of the research.
Conclusions
Understanding the main factors that contribute to the integration of e-learning systems
represents a pre-condition for making the best decisions in education. In this respect, the
collected results open new perspectives on the factors that can contribute to the achievement
of an effective didactic process in the online environment. It is imperative that teachers know
and create relevant contexts for students to perform both in the classroom environment, but
also online. In an education system that values the paradigm of student-centered education, the
concern for optimizing the educational process must be continuous.

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734 The integration of modern technological means in education, the use of platforms
to deliver learning content, and unlimited access in time and space to valuable educational
resources, are not the exclusive result of the pandemic. In an academic environment, all of
those have existed and worked before. The merit of the pandemic is to open unimaginable
opportunities, accelerate transformative processes in education, and open minds and visions.
The high influence of the attitude on the continuance intention shows that university
students got used to learning from home and suggests extending the model in future research by
including specific antecedents of the main determinants.
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Received: September 12, 2022 Revised: September 28, 2022 Accepted: October 19, 2022
Cite as: Pribeanu, C., Gorghiu, G., & Santi, E. A. (2022). Drivers of continuance intention to
use the online learning platform after the Covid-19 pandemic. Problems of Education in the
21st Century, 80(5), 724-736. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.724
Costin Pribeanu PhD, Senior Researcher, Academy of Romanian Scientists, 3 Ilfov Street, sector 5,
(Corresponding author) 050044 Bucharest, Romania.
E-mail: costin.pribeanu@gmail.com
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Costin_Pribeanu
Gabriel Gorghiu PhD, Professor, Teacher Training Department, Valahia University of Targoviste, 35
Lt. Stancu Ion Street, 130105 Targoviste, Romania.
E-mail: ggorghiu@gmail.com
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gabriel_Gorghiu
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4026-345X
Elena Ancuța Santi PhD, Professor, Teacher Training Department, Valahia University of Targoviste, 35
Lt. Stancu Ion Street, 130105 Targoviste, Romania.
E-mail: santi.anca@yahoo.ro
Website: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Elena-Santi-2

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1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p. 48). The list of references should
be presented after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the names
and years in the text and those on the list. All the references should be listed in alphabeti¬cal order
by author’s name.
For the sake of accuracy, references should always be as updated as possible, also in the interest of
the readers and researchers on the topic the paper is dealing with.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APAstyle will be returned without review.
Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online”
or “monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource
locator (URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should al-ways
be referenced accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.
Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific quality. Obviously, they must
also comply with style and format requirements. The paper will not be subject to further review,
if the manuscript is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF LANGUAGE (all
manuscripts must be written in clear and grammatical English).
Note 4: Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, technical quality, potential
impact, and clarity of writing.
Note 5: All papers are checked by CrossCheck system.
Editorial Board
Updated: July 2018
Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 80, No. 5, 2022
GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS 739
NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION

ISSN 1648-939X /Print/, ISSN 2669-1140 /Online/
Dear colleagues,
GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS / NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION – is a periodical, peer reviewed,

scientific-methodical journal, issued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“ in cooperation with
Scientia Socialis Ltd. It is an international journal, wherein the scientific and methodical/applied
articles published in Lithuanian, English and Russian languages. This journal is intended for the
teachers of general education schools, the lecturers of higher educational institutions and all,
who are interested in the problems of natural science education.
The GU/NSE journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of
scientific and methodical (practical/applied) papers.
GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS / NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION
ISSN 1648-939X /Print/, ISSN 2669-1140 /Online/
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/gu/
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/gu/jr-online_article_submission/
http://oaji.net/journal-detail.html?number=514
Fast Publication This journal is abstracted / listed / indexed / cited in:

COPERNICUS INDEX , LIST OF SCIENCE EDUCATION JOURNALS, JOURNALS OF
Peer Reviewed
INTEREST TO CHEMICAL EDUCATORS, SKYLIGHT, OAJI, WebQualis (QUALIS/CAPES ),
Open Access MIAR, EuroPub, QOAM, ESJI, Crossref, DOI, Internet Archive.
Applied research/practical/methodical work. This type of submission is best suited for
practical/didactical work and reports, as well as position papers raising original and provocative
theoretical or practical discourses and questions (small-scale research, applied research,
didactical/methodical papers, case studies, best educational practices etc.). Each submission is
carefully reviewed by two independent reviewers and ranked based on: quality of preparation,
relevance to the educational community, didactical quality, originality, and importance of the
contribution.
Instruction for authors and other details are available on the journal`s website at:
http://gu.puslapiai.lt/gu/aut-info/
GU/NSE is an Open Access journal accessible for free on the Internet. Papers must be submitted
on the understanding that they have not been published elsewhere and are not currently
under consideration by another publisher. Optimal paper`s size: 8/12 pages. Partial article
processing charges are: 5-8 EUR per one A4 page.
For contacts, questions and papers submission: gu@gu.puslapiai.lt
Sincerely yours, Editorial Board

Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
Vol. 80, No. 5, 2022
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
English language proofreader Ilona Ratkevičienė
28 October 2022. Publishing in Quires 7.5. Edition 80.
Publisher Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: scientia@scientiasocialis.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668

Printing „Šiaulių spaustuvė“ Ltd.

9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 80, No. 5, 2022

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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 80, No.

A FEW POINTS ABOUT AXIOMATICS OF EDUCATION

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ DIFFICULTIES IN LEARNING

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND EFL TEACHERS’ PRACTICES IN

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DISTANCE EDUCATION: A SYSTEMATIC

A MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM-SOLVING PERCEPTION SCALE FOR SECONDARY

TOWARDS THE DIFFERENT: A CASE STUDY OF A SYRIAN ASYLUM SEEKER

DRIVERS OF CONTINUANCE INTENTION TO USE THE ONLINE LEARNING

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS .............................................................................. 737

NATURAL SCIENCE EDUCATION / GAMTAMOKSLINIS UGDYMAS ............................... 739

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624

Postulates of Theorems of Rules, principles, etc. of

Two examples can be given that illustrate this connection.

The first example

The second example

A child becomes independent by acting practically (axiom) → in order to develop the

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624

Broks, A. (2000). Izglitibas sistemologija [Systemology of education]. RaKa.

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.624 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Received: October 10, 2022 Accepted: October 15, 2022

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Huaru Alhassan Marifa

Jonathan Ayelsoma Samari, Philip Dorsah, Fatao Abudu

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT)

The Hybridisation Achievement Test (HAT) consisted of 15 open-ended questions on

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

The Semi-structured interview items were self-constructed. To ensure trustworthiness of

Data Collection Procedure

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634 Research Results

Learning difficulties students encounter in hybridisation

Difficulties in the Concept of Hybridisation

Learning difficulties Category Pre-test Post-test

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Researcher: Explain the term hybridisation.

Researcher: Explain the term hybrid orbitals.

Researcher: what is the effect of hybridization on bonds?

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630

Student 1 (wrong response): 4

Formation of Sigma and Pi bonds

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

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Researcher: Explain the type and number of bonds in ethyne.

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Types and Formation of Hybrid Orbitals

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640 NR 82 68.3 10 8.3

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Shapes of Molecular Compounds

Explain why CO2 is a linear molecule using hybridisation. NR 69 57.5 17 14.2

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

NR 92 76.7 17 14.2 643

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https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630

https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/22.80.630 ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

• draw electron orbital diagrams of some molecules, and 649

The authors declare no competing interest.