250 Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications

where Iω is the moment of inertia of the sectorial area (sectorial moment of inertia) defined as:

Iω = ω2 dA 8 12
A

By substituting previous equations, non-uniform shear stress τω can be expressed as:

Tω Sω
τω = 8 13
Iω t

Generally, with reference to non-uniform torsion, a new variable is conveniently introduced,

which is identified as bimoment (B).
With reference to the cantilever beam in Figure 8.3, beam flanges are forced to bend in their
plane. This bending generates clockwise rotation in one flange and anti-clockwise rotation in the
other one so as resulting effect two equal and opposite bending moments and rotations are gen-
erated. This force system, which is induced in the flanges by warping restraint, that is the bimo-
ment, is usually identified with symbol B, and is expressed as:
x
d2 θ
B = B x = Tω c dc = − E Iω 8 14a
dx2
0

Bimoment B has the measurement unit of force × length2 (moment × distance) and in the case
of the cantilever beam of Figure 8.3 can be expressed as:

F h
B=2 L−x 8 14b
2 2
Normal stress (σ x,ω) associated with the warping torsion can be also expressed as:
B
σ x, ω = ω 8 15
Iω

8.2.1 I- and H-Shaped Profiles with Two Axes of Symmetry

As previously mentioned, for I- and H-shaped cross-sections with two axes of symmetry, the
shear centre coincides with the centroid. By identifying with b and h the flange width and
the beam depth, respectively, alternative to Eq. (8.5a), torsional constant can be evaluated more
accurately as:

2 4
2 b− 0 63tb tf3 h −tf tw3 2tw r r + tw 2 2 + r + tf − r2
It = + + 0 145 + 0 1 8 16
3 3 tf tf 2r + tf

where r is the fillet radius and tf and tw are the thickness of the flange and of the web, respectively.
The sectorial area (ω) associated with each half flange, can be approximated as:

s
h −tf h− tf s
ω=ω s = ds = 8 17a
2 2
0
 Torsion 251

Functions Sω and Iω are given, respectively, by expressions:

s
h− tf s h −tf tf s2
Sω = tf ds = 8 18a
2 4
0
s 2 2
2 h − tf s h − tf tf s3
Iω = ω dA = tf ds = 8 19a
2 12
A 0

Figure 8.6 proposes the distribution of ω and Sω functions for the doubly symmetrical I- and
H-shaped profiles.
For design purposes, reference has to be made to the maximum value of these functions in order
to base the design on more severe verification conditions. By substituting with the variable s the
values of the relevant coordinates, which are referred to the midline of the cross-section (s = b), we
can obtain:

h− tf
ωmax = b 8 17b
4
tf h −tf
Sω, max = b2 8 18b
16
2 2
h −tf tf b3 h −tf
Iω = 4 ≈Iz 8 19b
12 8 2

where Iz is the moment of inertia along the weak axis of the cross-section.
By re-considering the example of the cantilever beam in Figure 8.3, the stress distribution and
the maximum value of σ x,ω and τω can be evaluated by simple considerations. In particular, tor-
sional moment T is due to the horizontal force and can expressed as T = F 2 h− tf , as it results
from the load condition in Figure 8.3c.
Bimoment B acting at the restrained cross-section end of the cantilever (x = L), where warping
is totally prevented, assumes the value B = T L and the maximum normal stress (σ x,ω,max) acting at
the flange boundary can be evaluated as:

(a) (b)

ω Sω

Figure 8.6 Distribution of ω (a) and Sω (b) in case of a bi-symmetrical I- and H-shaped profile.
252 Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications

B TL h −tf TL b
σ x, ω, max x = ω= 2
b = 8 20
Iω h− tf 4 Iz h − tf
Iz
2

Maximum shear stress (τω,max) corresponds with the centroid of the flange at the fixed canti-
lever end (where warping is totally prevented, being T = Tω) and assumes the value:

tf h −tf
T b2
T ω Sω 16
τω, max = = 2
8 21
Iω t h− tf
Iz tf
2

It should be noted that the design value of both σ x,ω and τω should also be obtained by applying
the bending beam theory to the beam flanges. With reference to the case in Figure 8.3, by approxi-
mating the moment of inertia of the beam flange in its plane Izf as Izf = tf b3 12 and neglecting the
presence of the corners between the beam flanges and the web, maximum normal stress (σ x,ω,max)
can be obtained as:

T b
b L
FL h − tf 2 TL
σ x, ω, max x = 2= =6 8 22
3
Izf tf b h − tf tf b2
12

In a similar way, by considering the shear distribution of a rectangular cross-section based on

the Jourawsky’s approach for the flange, the definition of the maximum shear stress (τω,max) is:

3 T 1
τω max = 8 23
2 h − tf b tf

It is worth mentioning that Eq. (8.22) coincides with Eq. (8.20) if Iz is evaluated neglecting the web
contribution (i.e. Iz = b3 tf 6). Under this assumption, Eqs. (8.21) and (8.23) are also coincident.

8.2.2 Mono-symmetrical Channel Cross-Sections

The case of a channel cross-section with one axis of symmetry is considered here with reference to
flanges and webs of different thickness (Figure 8.7). It can be convenient to evaluate, at first, the
shear centre location (point C), usually measured by the distance e from the midline of the web, on
the basis of the distribution of the shear stresses. By considering Jourawski’s theory, a shear force
Vz, applied to the cross-section in a direction parallel to the web, is balanced by a shear flow dis-
tribution (τ t), which is obtained by the product between the shear stress (τ) and the thickness (t).
As to τ t, a parabolic distribution acts on the web of resultant Vw and parallel to the web, and a
linear distribution is in each flange of resultant Vf and parallel to the flange. By considering the
equilibrium conditions, external force (Vz) is balanced by the shear stresses resultant (Vw), that is
Vw = Vz, and the resulting force on each flange generates a torsional moment.
As previously mentioned, the shear centre (C) is located where no torsion occurs when flexural
shears act in planes passing through that location. This definition is used to identify the position of
 Torsion 253

τf tf
b τw tw

Vz tw

Vw
O τwc tw
y h tf
C
z
Vf

e tf
b– tw/2 τf tf

Figure 8.7 Distribution of the shear stresses in a channel loaded on the shear centre.

the shear centre. In particular, the equilibrium condition with reference to the rotation of the
cross-section is satisfied if:

Vz e = Vw e = Vf h −tf 8 24a

As a consequence, distance e can be obtained directly as:

Vf h −tf
e= 8 24b
Vw

If Iy identified the moment of inertia with reference to the y–y axis of the cross-section, shear
stresses can be directly obtained by means of the Jourawsky approach. In particular, at the inter-
section between the flange and the web, due to the constant values of the shear flow (τj tj), it can be
assumed:

Vz b− tw 2 tf h −tf
τf tf = τω tw = 8 25a
Iy 2

where t is the thickness, subscripts f and w are related to the flange and the web, respectively, and h
and b are the width and the height of the channel, respectively.
At the centre of the web, in correspondence with the symmetry axis, the shear stress τwc is given
by expression:

2
Vz b −tw 2 tf h − tf Vz h −tf tw
τwc tw = + 8 25b
Iy 2 Iy 8

Resulting forces Vf and Vw can be expressed as

τf tf b− tw 2
Vf = 8 26
2
2
Vw = τf tf h − tf + τwc − τw tw h − tf 8 27
3
254 Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications

By substituting the expressions of the resulting forces in Eq. (8.24b) the shear centre position
can be identified on the basis of the sole geometry of the cross-section as:
3 b− tw 2 2 tf
e= 8 28
6 b− tw 2 tf + h −tf tw

As for the case of I- and H-shaped profiles, torsional properties can be easily evaluated for chan-
nel cross-sections. In Figure 8.8a,b the distribution of the sectorial area, ω, and the first moment of
the sectorial area, Sω, are indicated, which can be qualitatively associated with the distribution of
the normal stresses σ x,ω and shear stresses τω.
As to the distribution of the sectorial area in the key points of the cross-section, the following
values have to be considered:
h − tf tw
ωA = −eb− 8 29a
2 2
h − tf
ωB = − e 8 29b
2
As to the local values defining the distribution of the first moment of the sectorial area, the result is:
tw
tf b− h − tf b tw
SωB = 2 − −e 8 30a
2 2 4
2
tw e h− tf
Sω1 = SωB − 8 30b
8
tf h − tf tw 2
Sω2 = b− −e 8 30c
4 2

Second moment of sectorial area (warping constant) can be expressed as:

tw 3 tw
2
b− h − tf tf 2 h − tf tw + 3 b− tf
Iω = 2 2 8 31
12 tw
h − tf tw + 6 b− tf
2

(a) (b)
Sω2

ωB
SωB

ωA

ω
ω Sω1

ωB

ωA

Figure 8.8 Distribution for a channel section of: (a) sectorial area (ω) and (b) first moment of area of the sectorial
area (Sω).
 Torsion 255

8.2.3 Warping Constant for Most Common Cross-Sections

As already mentioned, in case of L-, T- and V-shaped profiles, that is a member with cross-sections
composed by thin plates having a common point of intersection that is the shear centre, the warping
constant is always zero (Iω = 0); otherwise it has to be computed. Warping constants are reported in
Table 8.3 for some of the most common shapes of cross-section in which the centroid coincides
with the shear centre, assuming that all the constituent plates have equal thickness t.
Table 8.4 proposes the warping constant Iω for some of the most common cross-sections with
one axis of symmetry, under assumption of constant thickness of plates forming cross-section.
Furthermore, with reference to the more general cases of cross-section composed of plates of
different thickness, a simplified procedure can be used to evaluate cross-section constants, which
requires division of the cross-section into n plates, each of them identified with a progressive num-
ber (from 1 to n). Nodes are inserted between the parts, which are numbered from 0 to n (Figure
8.9). As a consequence the generic plate i is defined by nodes i − 1 and i. Each node has coordinates
yi and zi and each part has a thickness ti, which is constant for the plate. In the following the
expression of the main geometrical properties relevant for torsional design are proposed:

• Area A is the sum of the area of plates forming the cross-section:

n n
2 2
A= dAi = ti yi −yi − 1 + z i − z i− 1 8 32
i=1 i=1

• Moments of inertia Sy0 , and Sz0 are defined with respect to original y0 - and z0 -axis:
n
dAi
Sy0 = zi + zi − 1 8 33a
i=1
2
n
dAi
Sz0 = yi + yi − 1 8 33b
i=1
2

• Coordinates zgc and ygc of the centroid:

Sy0
z gc = 8 34a
A
Sz0
ygc = 8 34b
A

Table 8.3 Warping constants when the centroid is coincident with the shear centre.

b h2 tb3 b h2 tb3 b + 2h
Iω = Iω =
t 24 12 2b + h
tw t
h h
O O

b tb2 b tb2
Iω = 8b31 + 6h2 b1 + h2 b + 12b21 h Iω = 8b31 + 6h2 b1
24 b1
24
t b1
+ h2 b− 12b21 h
h
h O
O
t
256 Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications

Table 8.4 Warping constants for mono-symmetrical cross-sections.

b h2 b3 t 2h + 3b
Iω =
12 h + 6b

h O
C

e
b h2 b2 b 2eb1 2b21
b1 + −e − + +
2 3 b h
Iω = t
O
h2 e 2 h 2b21 2b31 2
h + b + b1 + + + b+e
C 2 6 h 3
b1
e
b h2 b2 b 2eb1 2b21
b1 + −e − − +
2 3 b h
Iω = t
h2 e 2 h 2b21 2b31 2
+ b + b1 + − + b+e
O
2 6 h 3
h
C

e b1

b ta4 b3 4a + 3b
Iω = 3
a 6 2a3 − a− b
O
C

e
2tr5 3 sinα− αcosα 2
Iω = α −6
α
O 3 α− sinαcos α
C α
r

4 3
–
Z

t3 –
0 Y
t1
η Z
2 1
ξ
t2

5 6 α
α
7 Y
9
8
12 13
tn

10 11
Figure 8.9 Cross-section nodes.
 Torsion 257

• Moments of inertia Iy0 , Iz0 and Iyz 0 defined with respect to the original y0 - and z0 -axis:

n
dAi
Iy0 = z i 2 + z i − 1 2 + z i z i− 1 8 35a
i=1
3
n
2 2 dAi
Iz0 = yi + yi − 1 + y i yi − 1 8 35b
i=1
3
n
dAi
Iyz 0 = 2 yi− 1 z i − 1 + 2yi z i + yi − 1 z i + yi z i − 1 8 35c
i=1
6

• Moments of inertia, Iy, Izo and Iyz with respect to the y- and z-axis passing through the centroid:

Iy = Iy0 − A z 2gc 8 36a

Iz = Iz0 − A y2gc 8 36b

Sy0 Sz0
Iyz = Iyz 0 − 8 36c
A

• Principal axes:

1 2Iyz
α = arctan if Iz − Iy 0 otherwise α = 0 8 37
2 Iz − Iy
1 2 2
Iξ = Iy + Iz − Iz −Iy + 4 Iyz 8 38a
2
1 2 2
Iη = Iy + Iz + Iz − Iy + 4 Iyz 8 38b
2

• Sectorial coordinates:

ω0 = 0 8 39a
ω0i = yi− 1 z 1 − yi z 1− 1 8 39b
ωi = ωi − 1 + ω0 8 39c

• Mean values of the sectorial coordinate:

n
dAi
Iω = ωi − 1 + ωi 8 40
i=1
2

• Sectorial constants:

Sz0 Iω
Iyω = Iyω0 − =
A
n
dAi Sz0 Iω 8 41a
= 2 yi− 1 ωi − 1 + 2yi ωi + yi− 1 ωi + yi ωi− 1 −
i=1
6 A
258 Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications

Sy0 Iω
Izω = Izω0 − =
A
n
dAi Sy0 Iω 8 41b
= 2 z i− 1 ωi − 1 + 2z i ωi + z i − 1 ωi + zi ωi − 1 −
i=1
6 A
n
Iω2 dAi Iω2
Iωω = Iωω0 − = ωi 2 + ωi − 1 2 + ωi ωi − 1 − 8 42
A i=1
3 A

• Shear centre coordinates Iy Iz − Iyz2 0:

Izω Iz − Iyω Iyz

ysc = 2
8 43a
Iy Iz − Iyz
− Iyω Iy − Izω Iyz
z sc = 2
8 43b
Iy Iz − Iyz

• Warping constant (Iw):

Iw = Iωω + z sc Iyω − ysc Izω 8 44

• Torsion constants (It):

n
ti2
It = dAi 8 45
i=1
3

8.3 Member Response to Mixed Torsion

Member response to mixed torsion, in both statically determinate and indeterminate structures,
depends strictly on the torsional restraints at its end. Traditional ideal restraints of fixed ends,
typically used for members in bending, can be differently classified when torsion is considered.
In Figure 8.10 two types of torsional restraints are presented:

(a) simple torsional restraint (identified, for sake of simplicity as STR), which can absorb the tor-
sional end moment but cannot prevent warping and hence is completely free (i.e. no planarity
of cross-section is guaranteed by this restraint);
(b) fixed torsional restraint (FTR), which can absorb torsional end moment and prevent warping
completely.

As already mentioned, the applied torsional moment is resisted by a combination of uniform

and warping torsion. As results from Eq. (8.1), by substituting the definitions given by Eqs. (8.3)
and (8.11), we can obtain:

dθ d3 θ
T = G It − E Iω 3 8 46a
dx dx
 Torsion 259

(a)

Top flange
STR

y
Bottom flange

(b)
Plate B
Plate A Plate A

d FTR
L

Figure 8.10 Examples of torsional restraints: (a) simple support restraining torsion (warping is free) and (b) fully
fixed restraint to torsion (warping is prevented).

Reference can be made suitably to the torsion parameter λT, defined as λT = G It E Iω , which
indicates the dominant type of torsion. In case of uniform torsion, λT is very large, as for thin-walled
closed-section members whose torsional rigidities are very high (members with narrow rectangular
sections, angle and tee-sections, whose warping rigidities are negligible). On the other hand, if the
second component of resistance due to torsional loading completely dominates with respect to the
first, the member is in a limiting state of non-uniform torsion referred to as warping torsion. This
may occur when the torsion parameter λT is very limited, which is the case for some very thin-walled
open sections (such as light gauge cold-formed sections) whose torsional rigidities are very small.
By introducing the λT term, Eq. (8.46a) can be re-written as:

T dθ 1 d 3 θ
= − 8 46b
G It dx λ2T dx3

The differential equation permits the following general solution:

θ x = a + b sinh λT x + c cosh λT x + θp 8 47

where a, b and c are constants depending on the boundary conditions and θp is the particular
solution, associated with both loading and restraints conditions.
In case of the cantilever beam of length L represented in Figure 8.11, by considering a concen-
trate torsional moment applied at the free end (x = L) and the fixed end (x = 0) able to totally pre-
vent the restraint, the particular solution θp is:

T
θp = x 8 48
G It
260 Structural Steel Design to Eurocode 3 and AISC Specifications

T
FTR

z
Figure 8.11 Cantilever beam loaded by a torsional moment at the free end (x = L) with torsional restraint
preventing warping at the fixed end (x = 0).

Boundary conditions for this case are listed next:

• at the restrain location (x = 0), rotation is zero θ = 0 and warping is totally prevented
dθ
= 0 ; by considering the general solution expressed by Eq. (8.47), we can obtained:
dx
a+c=0 8 49a
T
λT b + =0 8 49b
G It
d2 θ
• at the free end, where the load is applied (x = L), the bimoment is zero
dx2
= 0 and hence, by
deriving the Eq. (8.47) twice, it results in:
b λ2T sinh λT L + c λ2T cosh λT L = 0 8 49c

The constants assume the following values:

T
a = −c = − tanh λT L 8 50
λT GIt
T
b= − 8 51
λT GIt

Rotation is expressed as:

T sinh λT L − x
θ x = λT x + − tanh λT L 8 52
λT GIt cosh λT L

T
At the free end the value of rotation is: θ L = λT L −tanh λT L
λT GIt
Pure torsional moment is expressed as:

cosh λT L− x
Tt = T 1− 8 53
cosh λT L

Warping moment is expressed as:

cosh λT L− x
Tω = T 8 54
cosh λT L