v The Characteristics, Strengths,

Weaknesses, and Kinds of Quantitative

Research

v The Importance of Quantitative

Research

v Kinds of Variables and their Uses

NATURE OF Image Credit: Best Animations

RESEARCH AND
INQUIRY
The systematic empirical Quantitative
investigation of social phenomena
using tools of mathematics and Research
statistics.
“
vquantitative – involves
measurements and numbers
Image Credit: Tenor

vempirical – concerned with

observable characteristics

vsocial phenomena – concerned

with people, communities, organizations,
and even behavior
Examples
▸ political surveys
▸ economic standing
▸ state of poverty Image Credit: Georgia Tech College of
Computing

Image Credit: Gifer

Image Credit: WebStockReview

Features of
Quantitative
Research

Image Credit: Interact Quiz Maker

1. Measurement and Quantitative Research

v for investigating human, v not all aspects or

social, behavioral, or characteristics of people
organizational aspects that can easily be quantified
can be measured - experiences
- dreams
- insights
- feelings
- thoughts
 The
Philosophies of
2. Empiricism and Positivism Quantitative
Research

v Empiricism – what cannot be v Positivism –

observed using the five senses authoritative knowledge
cannot be reasonably studied is believed to come from
empirical observation
and the use of logic
3. Scientific Method in the Social Sciences

Social research
projects should
meet the
standard of
replicability.
 Types of
Quantitative
Research

Image Credit: GreenBook Market Research

Descriptive Research
- generally concerned with
investigating, measuring, and
describing characteristics of groups,
communities, or phenomenon
- answers research questions that ask:
How many . . . ?
How much . . . ?
How often . . . ?
How long . . . ?
For example, a grade school principal is
interested in understanding the study
habits of students in the different grade
levels and sections within the school.
She might ask the class advisers to
survey the parents of their students on
how the children spend their time in a
typical week. Based on the responses,
the principal can learn about the average
time that the students in each section
and each grade level spends on
homework, projects, reviewing for
classes, watching TV, playing online
games, surfing the internet, and other
activities. She can prepare a detailed
report and present this information to
the parents and teachers with her
Correlational Research
- studies the relationship between two
or more characteristics of one or more
groups
- verification or negation
For example, a school head is interested
to know whether the time spent by
students playing online games affects
their academic grades. The school head
may perform a simple statistical test to
determine whether there is a significant
relationship between the number of
hours spent by students playing online
games and the trimestral grades of
students in different subjects. A positive
relationship means that the more hours
students spend on online games, the
higher their grades become. Conversely,
a negative relationship means that the
more hours students spend on playing
games, the lower their grades become.
Causal-comparative Research
- compares one or more measurable
characteristics of two or more groups
to find the similarities and the
differences between them
- causes and insights
For example, a principal might want to
know why students from two sections
that have the same teachers at the same
grade level in the same school perform
differently. One section is performing
well, while the other is performing poorly.
The teachers can collect information
about their socioeconomic background,
their study habits, diet, and other
activities. Once the data is collected, the
information can be compared to see if
there are systematic differences
between the two groups. Once the
differences between the two sections
are identified, they can proceed with
investigating which differences explain
the variance in academic performance.
Experimental Research
- attempts to approximate methods
used in the natural sciences while
actively manipulating conditions or
inputs to observe outcomes
- experimental research is subject to
more extensive ethical standards
For example, a physical education
teacher wants to know whether
exercising in the morning three times a
week affects the length of sleep of pupils
get at night. The teacher invites 100
school pupils from the same grade to
participate: 50 students exercise in the
morning for 45 minutes, three times a
week. Another 50 students do not
exercise for one month. The pupils are
asked to record how many hours they
sleep per night. After one month, the two
groups switch. The first group will not
exercise and the second group will do the
same exercise. Using data from this
experiment, the teacher can determine if
morning exercise leads to longer sleep at
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research

Strengths Weaknesses
- quantitative methods - some aspects of
offer breadth; easier to people, human behavior,
draw generalizable and interactions are
conclusions with enough often difficult or
samples and data impossible to measure
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research

Strengths Weaknesses
- easier to replicate; - emphasis on
results tend to be more generalizability and
consistent when the trends hinders the
same data and methods deeper examination of
are followed nuanced factors that
affect specific cases,
especially those that
deviate from the general
trend
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research

Strengths Weaknesses
- communicating data, - context and other
procedures, and results information that provide
are easier because the a richer understanding of
statistical terminologies, observed trends and
analytical techniques, patterns can get lost in
and procedures are the measurement and
generally consistent macroexamination of
across disciplines data
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research
Strengths
- it is generally easier to
summarize, describe,
process, and analyze
large volumes of
information when they
are numerical in form
Weaknesses
- errors in the
measurement or
modelling or the
omission of data can
easily lead to the
misinterpretation of
results
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative
Research

Strengths Weaknesses
- it is better for projects - some tools utilized in
where objectivity is this quantitative
desired research may yield
limited or even
inaccurate information
due to human nature
Quantitative Research
What is its importance
across fields?
politics, governance, and
public administration
- for political scientists and
practitioners of politics
An example is the study on the
effect of campaign advertising on
voters in an attempt to resolve
contending views. Some political
scientists argue that advertising has
little effect on voters, while others
suggested that campaign
strategies, including
advertisements, kindle the interests
of the voters, and increase the
voting turnout ( Johnson and
Reynolds, 2012 ).
business, management, and
economics
- often used to collect and analyze
information on customer preference
and product performance as well as
overall business performance
For example, companies who wish
to improve the sales of their
products typically hire research
specialists to collect information
on which products are in demand,
which groups tend to buy the
products, and what improvements
potential customers want to see in
their products. Using this
information, companies are able
to come up with better marketing
strategies and better products
and actually monitor if they are
successful.
Note: Women and men also respond differently to the
same stimulus, such as athletic imagery. Women
rarely think of themselves as athletes unless they are
playing a professional sport, whereas men have
images of themselves as athletes even if they do not
play professionally ( Wong, 2001 ). Therefore, an
image of an athlete, regardless of gender, is likely to
generate different responses from both men and
women ( google.com ).
environment and
development studies
- useful for measuring and studying
environmental issues such as the
depletion rate of forest covers, the
impacts of increasing greenhouse
gases, and even the status of
different animal species, among
others; the UN, member countries,
and concerned development
organizations become aware of their
performance and how close or far
they are in achieving their
development goals by conducting
surveys, censuses, and other data-
gathering activities.
education, sociology, and
psychology
- educational assessment; trends and
patterns in the behavior of individuals
or groups of people, as well as the
underlying rules that govern them;
psychometrics ( the measurement of
traits )
A sociodemographic example is the
study of Atkinson and Kintrea ( 2001 ).
They were interested to know what
living or working in a particular area does
to life chances and attitudes. The
researchers focused on underprivileged
people and asked, “Is the experience of
poverty worse if one lives in a poor area
than in an economically-mixed area?”
They surveyed the economically
disadvantaged people from poorer areas
and from socioeconomically mixed areas
in Glasgow and Edinburg. The
researchers concluded that it is indeed
worse to be poor in a “poor area” in
relation to areas with a mix of
socioeconomic classes.
 The Uses of Variables in Quantitative
Research

Variables
- central idea in quantitative research

- defined as characteristics or attributes that take on different

values ascribed to individuals, groups, or phenomenon being
studied

- variables are measurable that can vary for different cases

- attributes should be able to take on at least two distinct values

or have at least two distinct categories
Examples

gender – male / female

weight – 45 kg / 80 kg / 150 kg

Important: variables serve as a basis for

collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and
interpreting data
Four Types of Operational Variables

1. Independent Variables
- also called change, treatment, antecedent,
manipulated, or predictor variables

- cause changes in a phenomenon or situation

- examples : level of affection

: religious affiliation
 Four Types of Operational Variables

2. Dependent Variables
- also called outcome, effect or response variables

- effects brought by the independent variables

- examples : the number of migrants to a host country is a

dependent variable of the socioeconomic conditions in a
source country
: the impact of a drug on cancer is a dependent
variable of the drug’s administration ( dosage & timing )
 Four Types of Operational Variables

3. Intervening Variables
- are the links between dependent and independent variables

- there are certain phenomena in which, without the intervening variable,

there will be no observed significant effect to the dependent variable
from the independent variable ( Kumar, 1996 )

- example : A study looking into the impact of a country’s regime type and a
country’s support for LGBTQ + rights may be influenced by that country’s
level of freedom of assembly.
 Four Types of Operational Variables
4. Antecedent Variables

- are predictor variables which precede other variables

- these variables increase or decrease the strength of the relationship between

independent and dependent variables

- example : Positive Relationship between Internet Usage and Political

Participation

but: there are studies disproving the relationship due to internet

access and censorship

thus: internet access and censorship may be treated as the antecedent

variable/s to internet usage ( IV ) and political participation ( DV )
Four Types of Operational Variables

5. Measuring Variables
Statistical Data
Categorical Variable Numerical Variable
( Qualitative ) ( Quantitative )
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
* may be placed or rank orders * have numerical values or
measures
Identifying Variables in Research Studies

Let us look at descriptions of experimental studies. For each of the

descriptions, we will identify the independent variable(s), the levels
for each of the independent variables, the conditions, and the
dependent variable(s).
An organizational psychologist is interested in whether
lowering the temperature in a factory will increase
productivity (i.e., number of products assembled). At
the factory, there are three rooms in which products
are assembled. Each room is set at one of the
following temperatures: 60 degrees, 70 degrees, or 80
degrees.
Independent Variable
– temperature in the room

Three Levels / Conditions

- 60, 70, vs. 80 degrees

Dependent Variable
– productivity (number of products assembled)
A psychologist is studying the effects of steroids on the
aggressive behavior of male rats. Thirty rats receive
twice-daily injections of a placebo, whereas another set of
30 rats receive twice-daily injections of a steroid. For one
hour a day, the rats are placed in a cage together and all
aggressive behaviors are recorded. For one week, lab
assistants count the number of aggressive behaviors
recorded to determine whether or not there is difference
between the two groups of rats.
A psychologist is examining the effects of alcohol on people’s
driving ability under different lighting situations. The psychologist
randomly assigns participants to drink 2.5 ounces of a non-
alcoholic beverage, drink 2.5 ounces of an alcoholic beverage, or
5 ounces of an alcoholic beverage. These participants are then
randomly assigned to bright-light group or a low-light group.
Participants play a simulated driving game. The simulator is set up
for daylight driving in the bright-light group and set up for night
driving in the low light condition. While playing the simulator the
number of incomplete stops and number of obstacles hit are
calculated.
 Breakout Room Activity
Many businesses have incentive programs to encourage their employees
to exercise. In the area of economics, researchers know that framing
influences people’s behaviors. That is, people tend to be more concerned
with a loss than with a gain. An organizational psychologist, who is
working with a software company, enrolls 100 employees into a new Get
Fit program. Fifty of the employees are given $50 upfront and told that
they must exercise at least three times a week for a month. If they fail to
meet this requirement, they lose the money. The other 50 employees are
told that they must exercise at least three times a week for a month in
order to earn $50 at the end of the month. Researchers measure they
frequency of employee exercise.
Researchers were interested in examining the
effectiveness of a new behavioral theory for children
who have been diagnosed with ADHD. Sixty
participants volunteered for the study. Participants
were randomly assigned to receive either 5 weeks of
the behavioral theory or they were placed on a wait list.
After 5 weeks, all participants were observed for
changes in their hyperactivity and impulsivity.
A researcher assigned 20 college students to take a short course
in speed-reading or an English-review course. The researcher
was curious if a monetary incentive would influence the
effectiveness of the course on participants’ performance on a
reading test taken at the end of the semester. Half the students
were offered $5 for obtaining a certain level of performance on the
test, and the other half were not offered any money.
A psychologist who studies interpersonal relationships is examining what
information people use to guide their impressions of potential dating
partners. Female participants who are single come to the laboratory and
view a profile. Some participants see an attractive photo in the profile,
some see an unattractive photo in the profile, and other see no profile
photo. In addition, the socioeconomic status of the individual is
manipulated in the profile such that some participants believe the
individual is of high status and other participants believe the individual is
of low status. After viewing the profile, participants indicate whether or not
they would go on a date with this person.
Four Levels of
Measurement

Image Credit: Giphy

 1. Nominal
- enable the classification of individuals, objects, or responses based on a common
property or characteristic

- limited to descriptive categories

- you can count the frequencies of nominal variables but these measures cannot be
ranked

- may have two or more subcategories

- examples: gender ( male or female )

: college major ( literature, political science, music, mathematics )

: religion ( Roman Catholic, Islam, Buddhism )

2. Ordinal
- have all the characteristics of a nominal
variable but ranked in a certain order

- examples: social class ( low, middle, upper )

: election results ( 1st, 2nd, 3rd )

: typhoon signals ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 )
 3. Interval
- attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent
attributes

- when comparing two interval variables, we say that one is more than the
other

- no “true zero” value, since zero does not actually represent nothing

- examples: Fahrenheit temperature scale / Celsius temperature scale

: Note – “0 degree” does not mean no temperature

: IQ score
 4. Ratio
- have the characteristics of nominal, ordinal, and interval
measures

- with an “absolute zero” ( zero means nothing )

- examples: Kelvin temperature scale

: annual family income

: number of students per class

: voter turnout per local election

 NOMINAL ORDINAL INTERVAL RATIO
Categories? Yes No No No

Order / Rank / Yes Yes No No

Magnitude?
Equal Units? Yes Yes Yes No

Absolute Zero? Yes Yes Yes Yes

49
 NOMINAL ORDINAL INTERVAL RATIO
Sex Yes No No No

Socio-economic Yes Yes No No

Status ( Low,
Middle, High )
Celsius Yes Yes Yes No

Salary Yes Yes Yes Yes

50
SOURCES

Applied Research: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods and

Report Writing, Phoenix Publishing House by Diana J. Mendoza, Ma.
Lourdes F. Melegrito, and Ronaldo B. Mactal

Practical Research 2: An Introduction to Quantitative Research, SIBS

Publishing House by Hiyas S. Clamor-Torneo and Ador R. Torneo

Researching Philippine Realities A Guide to Qualitative, Quantitative, and

Humanities Research, Blue Books by Jose Eos Trinidad