BUILDING MATERIALS

AND CONSTRUCTION
IV – AR8521 Third Year, 5th semester

2019 - 2020
 Table of Contents
UNIT 1 .............................................................................................................................. 8
INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE .......................................................... 8
CEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 8
CONCRETE ..................................................................................................................... 8
HISTORY OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE ....................................................................... 9
Portland cement in India .................................................................................... 10
PORTLAND CEMENT COMPOSITION ......................................................................... 10
MANUFACTURE ............................................................................................................ 11
WET PROCESS ........................................................................................................ 12
DRY PROCESS ........................................................................................................ 15
Advantage of Dry Process over Wet Process ......................................................... 16
PROPERTIES OF CEMENT ............................................................................................. 16
TYPES OF CEMENT........................................................................................................ 17
Ordinary Portland Cement ................................................................................. 18
Rapid Hardening Cement .................................................................................. 18
Sulphate Resisting Cement ................................................................................. 18
Portland Slag Cement (PSC) .............................................................................. 19
Quick Setting Cement ......................................................................................... 19
Low Heat Cement................................................................................................ 19
Coloured Cement................................................................................................ 20
Expansive Cement ............................................................................................... 20
Oil-Well Cement ................................................................................................... 20
Rediset Cement ................................................................................................... 20
USES OF CEMENT ......................................................................................................... 21
TESTS FOR CEMENT ...................................................................................................... 22
FIELD TESTING ........................................................................................................ 22
LABORATORY TESTING.......................................................................................... 22
FINENESS TEST ............................................................................................................... 23
SETTING TIME TEST ........................................................................................................ 23
SOUNDNESS TEST .......................................................................................................... 24
STRENGTH TEST ............................................................................................................. 25
HEAT OF HYDRATION TEST .......................................................................................... 27
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TEST ................................................................................. 27
CEMENT MORTAR ........................................................................................................ 28
PLASTERING .................................................................................................................. 28
Plastering Composition ....................................................................................... 28
Concrete ...................................................................................................................... 29
Concrete composition ........................................................................................ 29
AGGREGATES........................................................................................................ 29
Aggregates Source .................................................................................................... 30
Classification of Aggregates ..................................................................................... 30
Fine aggregates .......................................................................................................... 30
Coarse aggregates .................................................................................................... 30
Aggregates Shape ..................................................................................................... 30
Aggregates Size .......................................................................................................... 31
Grading of aggregates ....................................................................................... 31
Aggregates Sampling ......................................................................................... 32
Proportioning Concrete ............................................................................................. 32
Arbitrary Method ......................................................................................................... 32
Minimum void Method ............................................................................................... 33
Maximum Density Method ........................................................................................ 33
Fineness Modulus Method ......................................................................................... 33
Water-cement ratio .................................................................................................... 33
Workability of concrete ............................................................................................. 33
Stages in concrete construction .............................................................................. 34
Formwork ............................................................................................................... 34
Mixing ..................................................................................................................... 35
Hand Mixing .......................................................................................................... 35
Machine Mixing .................................................................................................... 36
Transportation ....................................................................................................... 36
Placing Concrete ................................................................................................. 36
Compacting concrete........................................................................................ 37
Curing..................................................................................................................... 37
Cement and concrete finishes ................................................................................. 37
 Roughcast Finish ................................................................................................... 38
Dry dash Finish ...................................................................................................... 38
Textured Finish ....................................................................................................... 38
Stucco .................................................................................................................... 38
Water proofing and damp proofing of concrete ................................................. 39
FOUNDATION ........................................................................................................ 39
BASEMENT .............................................................................................................. 40
FLOORING ............................................................................................................. 40
UNIT – 2.......................................................................................................................... 41
CAST IN-SITU CEMENT CONCRETE IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION .................. 41
Cast in situ .................................................................................................................... 41
In situ cement concrete construction procedure ................................................. 42
In situ concrete ............................................................................................................ 42
In situ reinforced concrete ........................................................................................ 42
Different types of foundations .................................................................................. 43
Strip Foundation ................................................................................................... 43
Pad Foundation .................................................................................................... 44
Pile Foundation ..................................................................................................... 45
Raft Foundation .................................................................................................... 46
Different types of columns......................................................................................... 46
BEAMS ........................................................................................................................... 48
Different types of beams .................................................................................... 48
BASED ON SUPPORTS ........................................................................................... 48
Simply supported beam ......................................................................................... 48
Cantilever beam ..................................................................................................... 49
Continuous Beam .................................................................................................... 49
Fixed Beam ............................................................................................................... 49
Overhang Beam ...................................................................................................... 50
BASED ON THE SHAPE .......................................................................................... 50
Rectangular beam .................................................................................................. 50
L-shape beam .......................................................................................................... 50
Circular shape beam .............................................................................................. 50
T-shape beam .......................................................................................................... 51
SLABS ............................................................................................................................. 51
Different types of slabs ........................................................................................ 51
Flat slab .................................................................................................................. 52
Conventional Slab ............................................................................................... 52
Waffle slab............................................................................................................. 52
Solid Slab Raft ....................................................................................................... 53
Composite slab .................................................................................................... 54
WALLS............................................................................................................................ 54
Concrete Wall Construction Process ................................................................ 54
Different types of walls ........................................................................................ 55
Concrete Block Walls Design Block Design ...................................................... 55
Classification of Concrete Walls ........................................................................ 56
LINTELS ........................................................................................................................... 57
Different types of lintels ....................................................................................... 57
SUN SHADES ................................................................................................................. 58
Different types of sun shades ............................................................................. 59
STAIRCASE .................................................................................................................... 59
Different types of staircase ................................................................................. 59
SIRAIGHT FLIGHT FOR DOG LEGGED ................................................................. 60
STAIR WITHOUT RISER ............................................................................................ 60
WATER TANK ................................................................................................................. 61
Floor of RCC water tank rest on the ground .................................................... 61
Floor of tanks rest on support ............................................................................. 61
Concrete Water Tank Walls ................................................................................ 62
Provision of joints .................................................................................................. 62
Pressure on RCC water tank wall....................................................................... 63
RCC water tank roof ............................................................................................ 63
FLOORING .................................................................................................................... 64
Different types of flooring ................................................................................... 64
Beam and Slab Floor ........................................................................................... 64
Waffle Grid Slab Floor .......................................................................................... 65
Drop Beam and slab ........................................................................................... 66
Flat slab Floor ........................................................................................................ 67
SUMP ............................................................................................................................. 67
Sump Design Criteria ........................................................................................... 67
PRE CAST CONCRETE .................................................................................................. 69
Types of precast .......................................................................................................... 70
LARGE PANEL SYSTEMS ............................................................................................... 70
FRAME SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................... 70
SLAB-COLUMN SYSTEMS WITH SHEAR WALLS ........................................................... 71
Lift –slab system .................................................................................................... 71
The pre-stressed slab-column ............................................................................. 71
Pre- Cast Manufacture .............................................................................................. 72
PRE-CAST STRUCTURAL BUILDING COMPONENTS ................................................... 74
Foundation (structural component) ........................................................................ 74
WALLS (structural component) ................................................................................. 75
FLOORS (structural component)............................................................................... 76
Pre-cast reinforced concrete floor system ............................................................. 76
Pre-cast hollow floor unit ........................................................................................... 77
Precast concrete plank floor units ........................................................................... 77
Pre cast concrete tee beams................................................................................... 77
ROOF (structural component) .................................................................................. 78
Columns (structural component) ............................................................................. 78
Beams (structural component) ................................................................................. 80
PARAPET ....................................................................................................................... 82
Pre Cast – Window ...................................................................................................... 83
Types of special concretes ........................................................................................ 84
Lightweight concrete .......................................................................................... 84
Aerated concrete ................................................................................................ 85
No-fines concrete ................................................................................................ 85
Polymer concrete ................................................................................................ 85
Advantages Of Polymer Concrete ................................................................... 85
Applications Of Polymer Concrete ................................................................... 86
Pre-stressed concrete ................................................................................................ 86
Fibre-reinforced concrete .................................................................................. 86
Ready-mixed concrete ....................................................................................... 87
 Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete .............................................................. 87
Limitations of Ready Mix Concrete ....................................................................... 87
Ferro cement ............................................................................................................... 88
BUILDING MATERIALS RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS ................................................ 88
CBRI ........................................................................................................................ 88
SERC ....................................................................................................................... 89
NBO ........................................................................................................................ 89
The mandate of the NBO in its restructured form is as follows: ..................... 90
Role of NBO in various major activities of MoHUPA ........................................ 90
BMTPC ........................................................................................................................... 90
OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 91
AREAS OF WORK................................................................................................... 91
Renovation................................................................................................................... 91
Techniques for renovation .................................................................................. 92
Retrofitting .................................................................................................................... 92
SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF MANI MANDIR COMPLEX AT MORBI, GUJARAT,
INDIA ...................................................................................................................... 92
Seismic design ............................................................................................................. 95
Basic principles for seismic design in concrete. ............................................. 95
SEISMIC DESIGN FACTORS ................................................................................... 96
1. KEY WORDS ........................................................................................................ 104
Pre cast concrete ..................................................................................................... 105
Pre cast concrete tee beams................................................................................. 106
Precast concrete plank floor units ......................................................................... 106
2. KEY IMAGES ........................................................................................................ 108
 UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Cement and concrete as building materials. Brief history of their use through
examples. Composition, manufacture, properties, types and uses of cement. Tests
for cement. Introduction to cement mortar and plastering and their composition.
Concrete and its composition. Mix design. Nature of aggregates for mix including
classification, sources, shape, size, grading, sampling and analysis. Proportioning,
water-cement ratio, workability. Stages in concrete construction- formwork, mixing,
placing, curing. Cement and concrete finishes including roughcast, dry dash,
textured, stucco. Water proofing and damp proofing of concrete.

Understanding of product literature. Site visits with documentation in the form of

sketches/ photos.

CEMENT
A cement is a binder used in construction industry to set, hardens, adheres
to other materials and bind them together.

Cements used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and

non-hydraulic.

 Non-hydraulic - The latter does not set and harden in water such as non-
hydraulic lime or which are unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris.

 Hydraulic cement - The hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give
a product which is stable eg - Portland cement.

CONCRETE
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates
(sand) and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time.
Portland cement is the commonly used type of cement for production of
concrete.

Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates (sand & rock). The paste,
composed of cement and water, coats the surface of the fine (sand) and coarse
aggregates (rocks) and binds them together into a rock-like mass known as
concrete.

HISTORY OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE

ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS were the first to use clay as cementing
material. In ancient monuments, e.g. forts, places of worship and defence
structures, stones have been invariably used as a construction material with lime
as the binder.

EGYPTIANS - cementing materials obtained by burning gypsum. Egyptians

have used lime and gypsum as cementing materials in the famous pyramids.
Great pyramid - 81.5 % calcium sulphate and 9.5 % carbonate.

GREEK AND ROMANS - Cementing materials obtained by burning lime

stone.

ROMANS - One of the most notable examples of Roman work is the

Pantheon. It consists of a concrete dome 43.43m in span. The calcareous
cements used by the Romans were either composed of suitable limestones
burned in kilns or were mixtures of lime and puzzolanic materials (volcanic ash,
tuff) combining into a hard concrete. Powdered brick named surkhi is also one of
the binding material used by Romans. Romans added blood, milk and lard to their
mortar and concrete to achieve better workability.

Vitruvius, a Roman scientist, is believed to be the first to have the known

how about the chemistry of the cementitious lime. Vitruvius’s work was followed
by the researches made by M. Vicat of France. Joseph Aspedin of Yorkshire (U.K.)
was the first to introduce Portland cement in 1824 formed by heating a mixture of
limestone and finely divided clay in a furnace to a temperature high enough to
drive off the carbonic acid gas. He took the Patent of Portland cement on 1st
October 1824.

 Aspdin's Portland cement Making Process

o Ground hard lime stones and finely divided clay is mixed to form
slurry and calcined it in a furnace similar to a lime kiln till the CO2
was expelled.

o The mixture so calcined was then ground to a fine powder.

o Later in 1845 Isaac Charles Johnson burnt a mixture of clay and

chalk till the clinkering stage to make better cement and
established factories in 1851.

 In the early period, cement was used for making mortar only. Later the use of
cement was extended for making concrete.

Portland cement in India

In India, Portland cement was first manufactured in 1904 near Madras, by
the South India Industrial Ltd. But this venture failed. Between 1912 and 1913, the
Indian Cement Co. Ltd., was established at Porbander (Gujarat). By 1914 this
Company was able to deliver about 1000 tons of Portland cement. By 1918 three
factories were established. Together they were able to produce about 85000 tons
of cement per year.

PORTLAND CEMENT COMPOSITION

Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of

Calcareous material Lime (calcium oxide, cao)

Argillaceous material Mixed with silica (silicon dioxide, sio2)

+
 Alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3)

The lime is obtained from a calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the
other oxides are derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material.

COMPOSITION
OXIDE FUNCTION
(%)
Control strength and loudness. Its
Cao
deficiency reduces strength and setting 60 - 65
Lime
time.
Gives strength. Excess of it causes slow
Sio2
setting. Responsible for quick setting, if in 17 - 25
Silica
excess, it lowers the strength.
Al2O3 Responsible for quick setting, if in excess, it
3-8
Alumina lowers the strength.
Fe2O3 Gives colour and help sin fusion of different
0.5 - 6
Iron oxide ingredients.
Imparts colour and hardness. If in excess it
MgO
causes cracks in mortar and concrete and 1-3
Magnesia
unsoundness.
Na2O+ K2O
0.5 - 1.3
Alkali oxides
These are residues, and if in excess causes
Tio2 0.1 - 0.4
efflorescence and cracking.
P2O2 Makes cement sound. 0.1 - 0.2

SO3 1-2

MANUFACTURE
The raw materials required for manufacture of Portland cement are
calcareous materials, such as limestone or chalk, and argillaceous material such
as shale or clay.
The process of manufacture of cement consists of

o Grinding the raw materials.

o Mixing them intimately in certain proportions depending upon

their purity and composition.

o Burning them in a kiln at a temperature of about 1300 to 1500°C,

at which temperature, the material sinters and partially fuses to
form nodular shaped clinker.

o The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with addition of

about 3 to 5% of gypsum. The product formed by using this
procedure is Portland cement.

Depending upon the type of mixing and grinding of raw materials there are two
processes known as

WET PROCESS

DRY PROCESSES

WET PROCESS
Step 1 - The limestone brought from the quarries is crushed to smaller fragments.

Step 2 - The crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill and a little water is added.
On operating the ball mill, the steel balls in it pulverize the raw materials which
form a slurry with water.

o The slurry is a liquid of creamy

consistency with water content of
about 35 to 50 per cent, wherein
particles, crushed to the fineness of
Indian Standard Sieve number 9, are
held in suspension.
 o Ball Mill - A ball mill consists of several compartments charged
with progressively smaller hardened steel balls. Ball mill is used to
pulverize the raw materials into desired fineness.

Step 3 - This slurry is passed to silos (storage tanks), where the proportioning of the
compounds is adjusted to ensure desired chemical composition.

Step 4 - The corrected slurry having about 40 per cent moisture content, is then
fed into rotary kiln. Where it loses moisture and forms into lumps or nodules. These
are finally burned at 1500-1600°C.

o The rotary kiln is an important component of a cement factory.

 It is a thick steel cylinder of diameter from 3 metres to 8

metres, lined with refractory materials(heat resistant Materil),
mounted on roller bearings and capable of rotating about its
own axis at a specified speed.

 The length of the rotary kiln may vary anything from 30

metres to 200 metres.

 The kiln is fired from the lower end. The fuel is either powered
coal, oil or natural gas.
Step 5- By the time the material rolls down to the lower end of the rotary kiln, the
dry material undergoes a series of chemical reactions, finally turns into nodular
form of size 3 mm to 20 mm known as clinker.

Step 6 - The clinker drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled under
controlled conditions . The clinker is stored in silos or bins. The clinker weighs
about 1100 to 1300 gms per liter.

Step 8 - The cooled clinker is then ground in a ball mill with the addition of 3 to 5
per cent of gypsum in order to prevent flash-setting of the cement. In ball mill
the mixture is crushed into required fineness.

Step 9 - The particles crushed to the required fineness are separated by currents
of air and taken to storage silos from where the cement is bagged or filled into
barrels for bulk supply to dams or other large work sites.
DRY PROCESS
 In the dry process the raw materials are crushed
dry and fed in correct proportions into a
grinding mill where they are dried and reduced
to a very fine powder.

 The dry powder is further blended and

corrected for its right composition and mixed by
means of compressed air.

 The aerated powder tends to behave almost

like liquid and in about one hour of aeration a
uniform mixture is obtained.

 The blended powder is further sieved and fed into a rotating disc called
granulator.

 Then the mixture is allowed to pass through rotary kiln.

 From rotary kiln the mixture is send to clinker grinder to crush into required
fineness.

 The particles crushed to the required are taken to storage silos from where
the cement is bagged or filled into barrels for bulk supply to dams or other
large work sites.

Advantage of Dry Process over Wet Process

 The equipment used in the dry process kiln is comparatively smaller.

 The process is quite economical.

 The total consumption of coal in this method is only about 100 kg when
compared to the requirement of about 350 kg for producing a ton of
cement in the wet process.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Following are the important properties of a good cement which primarily
depend upon its chemical composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of
grinding:

 It gives strength to the masonry.

  It is an excellent binding material.

 It is easily workable.

 It offers good resistance to the moisture.

 It possess a good plasticity.

 It stiffens or hardens early.

TYPES OF CEMENT

 Ordinary Portland Cement  Coloured Cement: White Cement

– Ordinary Portland Cement  Hydrophobic Cement

33 Grade
 Masonry Cement
– Ordinary Portland Cement
 Expansive Cement
43 Grad
 Oil Well Cement
– Ordinary Portland Cement
53 Grade  Rediset Cement

 Rapid Hardening Cement  Concrete Sleeper grade Cement

 Extra Rapid Hardening Cement  High Alumina Cement

 Sulphate Resisting Cement  Very High Strength Cement

 Portland Slag Cement

 Quick Setting Cement

 Super Sulphated Cement

 Low Heat Cement

 Portland Pozzolana Cement

 Air Entraining Cement

Ordinary Portland cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most important and common
type of cement. The OPC was classified into three grades, namely 33 grade,
43 grade and 53 grade depending upon the strength of the cement at 28 days
when tested as per IS 4031-1988.

If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm 2, it is called 33 grade

cement, if the strength is not less than 43N/mm 2, it is called 43 grade cement,
and if the strength is not less than 53 N/mm2, it is called 53 grade cement.

Rapid Hardening Cement

This cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement. As the name indicates
it develops strength rapidly and as such it may be more appropriate to call it
as high early strength cement. Rapid hardening cement develops at the age
of three days, the same strength as that is expected of ordinary Portland
cement at seven days.

The use of rapid heading cement is recommended in the following situations:

 In pre-fabricated concrete construction.

 Where formwork is required to be removed early for re-use elsewhere,

 Road repair works

Sulphate Resisting Cement

Ordinary Portland cement is susceptible to the attack of sulphates, in
particular to the action of magnesium which is known as sulphate attak.

This cement has a high silicate content. The specification generally limits the
C3A content to 5 per cent.

The use of sulphate resisting cement is recommended under the following

conditions:

 Concrete to be used in marine condition;

 Concrete to be used in foundation and basement, where soil is

infested with sulphates;
  Concrete to be used in the construction of sewage treatment works.

Portland Slag Cement (PSC)

The manufacture of blast furnace slag cement has been developed
primarily to utilize blast furnace slag, a waste product from blast furnaces. The
rate of hardening of Portland blast furnace slag cement in mortar or concrete
is slower than that of ordinary Portland cement during the first 28 days, after 12
months the strength becomes close to or even exceeds those of Portland
cement.

The major advantages currently recognized are:

 Reduced heat of hydration;

 Refinement of pore structure;

 Reduced permeability;

 Increased resistance to chemical attack.

Quick Setting Cement

This cement as the name indicates sets very early. The early setting
property is brought out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of clinker
grinding. This cement is required to be mixed, placed and compacted very
early. It is used mostly in under water construction.

The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is
that quick setting cement sets earlier while rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary
Portland Cement, while rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in
both cases can be removed earlier.

Low Heat Cement

Formation of cracks in large body of concrete due to heat of hydration
has focused the attention of the concrete technologists to produce a kind of
cement which produces less heat, at a low rate during the hydration process.

This cement can be used in mass concrete construction, such as dams, where
temperature rise by the heat of hydration can become excessively large.
Coloured Cement
Coloured cement consists of Portland cement with 5-10 per cent of
pigment. For manufacturing various coloured cements either white cement or
grey Portland cement is used as a base

Uses - These cements are used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls
(stucco), ornamental works, and casting stones.

Expansive Cement
Cement of this type has been developed by using an expanding
agent and a stabilizer very carefully. Proper material and controlled
proportioning are necessary in order to obtain the desired expansion. Cement
used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the cement
used in grouting the pre-stress concrete ducts.

Oil-Well Cement
Oil-wells are drilled through stratified sedimentary rocks through a great
depth in search of oil. It is likely that if oil is struck, oil or gas may escape through
the space between the steel casing and rock formation. Cement slurry is used
to seal off the annular space between steel casing and rock strata and also to
seal off any other fissures or cavities in the sedimentary rock layer.

The desired properties of Oil-well cement can be obtained by adjusting

the compound composition of cement or by adding retarders to ordinary
Portland cement. The commonest agents are starches or cellulose products or
acids.

Rediset Cement
Properties of “Rediset”

 The cement allows a handling time of just about 8 to 10 minutes.

 The strength pattern is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement mortar

or concrete after one day or 3 days. What is achieved with “REDISET” in
3 to 6 hours can be achieved with normal concrete only after 7 days.
  “REDISET” releases a lot of heat which is advantageous in winter
concreting but excess heat liberation is detrimental to mass concrete.

 The rate of shrinkage is fast but the total shrinkage is similar to that of
ordinary Portland cement concrete.

“REDISET” can be used for:

 Very-high-early (3 to 4 hours) strength concrete and mortar,

 Patch repairs and emergency repairs,

 Quick release of forms in the precast concrete products industry,

 Construction between tides.

USES OF CEMENT
At present, the cement is widely used in the construction of various
engineering structures. It has proved to be one of the leading engineering
material of modern times and has no rivals in production and applications.
Following are the possible uses of cement:

 Cement motor for masonry work, plaster, pointing, etc.

 Cement for lying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather
sheds, stairs, pillars, etc.

 Construction of important engineering structures such as bridges

culverts, dams, tunnels, storage reservoirs, light houses, docks, etc.

 Construction of Water tanks, wells, tennis court, septic tanks, Lamp

Posts, roads, telephone cabins, etc.

 Making joints for drains, pipes, etc.

 Manufacture of pre-cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artistically designed

urns, flower pots, etc.

Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.

TESTS FOR CEMENT
Testing of cement can be brought under two categories:

o Field testing

o Laboratory testing

FIELD TESTING
It is sufficient to subject the cement to field tests when it is used for minor works.
The following are the field tests:

 Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not
be any visible lumps. The colour of the cement should normally be
greenish grey.

 Cement bag must give you a cool feeling. There should not be any lump
inside.

 Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a

smooth and not a gritty feeling.

 Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the

particles should float for some time before they sink.

If a sample of cement satisfies the above field tests it may be concluded

that the cement is not bad. The above tests do not really indicate that the
cement is really good for important works.

LABORATORY TESTING
For using cement in important and major works test the cement in the
laboratory to confirm the requirements of the Indian Standard specifications
with respect to its physical and chemical properties.

The following tests are usually conducted in the laboratory.

 Fineness test

 Setting time test

 Soundness test
  Strength test

 Heat of hydration test

 Chemical composition test

FINENESS TEST
This test is carried to check proper grinding of cement. The fineness of
cement particles may be determined either by sieve test or by permeability
apparatus test.

Sieve Test - The cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously

passed for 1 minutes through the standard BIS sieve no 9. The residue is
then weighed and this weight should not be more than 10 percent of
original weight.

Permeability Apparatus Test - Specific surface area of cement particle is

calculated. Specific surface, i.e. Total surface area in cm 2 per gram or
m2 per kilogram of cement. It gives an idea of uniformity of fineness. The
specific surface of cement should not be less than 2250cm2/gm.

SETTING TIME TEST

For finding out initial setting time, final setting time and soundness of
cement, and strength a parameter known as standard consistency test has to
be used. Standard consistency test is done using vicat apparitus.

This test can be also used to estimate the percentage water requirement
of the cement paste.

vicat apparatus Test Procedure

  300 g of cement is mixed with 25 per cent
water.

 The paste is filled in the mould of Vicat’s

apparatus and the surface of the filled paste is
smoothened and levelled.

 A square needle 10 mm x 10 mm attached to

the plunger is then lowered gently over the
cement paste surface and is released quickly.

 The plunger pierces the cement paste.

 The reading on the attached scale is recorded. When the reading is 5-7
mm from the bottom of the mould, the amount of water added is
considered to be the correct percentage of water for normal
consistency.

Determination of initial and final setting times

The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the paste to
stiffen to such an extent that the Vicat’s needle is not permitted to move down
through the paste to within 5 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould.

The final setting time is the needle, under standard weight, fails to leave
any mark on the hardened concrete.

SOUNDNESS TEST
The purpose of this test is to detect the uncombined lime. It is a very
important test since an unsound cement produces cracks, distortion and
disintegration, ultimately leading to failure.

The uncombined lime in cement is a result of either under burning the

clinker or of excess lime in the raw materials. Freshly ground cement is often
unsound due to the presence of uncombined lime. This test is carried using Le
Chatelier apparatus.
Le Chatelier apparatus Test Procedure

 The mould is placed on a glass sheet

and is filled with cement paste
formed by gauging 100 g cement
with the water required to give a
paste of standard consistency.

 The mould is covered with a glass

sheet and a small weight is placed
on the covering glass sheet.

 The mould is then submerged in the water at temperature of 27°-32°C.

 After 24 hours, the mould is taken out and the distance separating the
indicator points is measured.

 The mould is again submerged in water. The water is now boiled for 3
hours.

 The mould is removed from water and is cooled down.

 The distance between the indicator points is measured again.

 The difference between the two measurements represents the

unsoundness of cement.

STRENGTH TEST
Cement is tested for compressive and tensile strengths. The strength of mortar
and concrete depends upon the type and nature of cement.

Compressive strength Test

Following procedure is adopted to check compressive strength of

cement.

 The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The proportion is 1:3 ( 1

percent cement and 3 percent sand). water cement ratio is kept as 0.4
  The mortar is placed in the moulds. The test specimens are in the form of
cubes with side as .06 mm or 74mm.

 The mortar, after being placed in the moulds, is compacted in vibrating

machine for minutes.

 The moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 4 hours.

 The specimens are removed from moulds and they are submerged in
clean water for curing.

 The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of
3 days and 7 days. The testing cubes is carried out on their three sides
without packing.

 The three cubes are tested each time to find out the compressive
strength at the end of 3 days and 7 days. the average value is then
worked out.

 The compressive strength at the end of 3 days should not be less than
11kg/cm2 or 11.50 N/mm2and at the end of 7 days should not be less
than 175 kg/cm2 or 17.50 N/mm2 .

Tensile strength Test

 The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette test method or by

split tensile strength test.

 The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The proportion is 1:3 ( 1

percent cement and 3 percent sand).

 The quantity of water is 8 per cent by

weight of cement and sand.

 The mortar is placed in briquette mould.

The mould is filled with mortar and then a
small heap of mortar is formed at its top. It
is beaten down by a standard spatula till
 water appears on the surface. same procedure is repeated for the other
face of briquette.

 such twelve standard briquettes are prepared. The briquettes are kept
in a damp cabin for 24 hours.

 The briquettes are carefully removed from the moulds and they are
submerged in clean water for curing.

 The briquettes are tested in testing machine at the end of 3 days and 7
days. Six briquettes are tested and average is found out.

 It may be noted that cross sectional area of briquette at its least section
is 6.45 cm2. Hence the ultimate tensile stress of cement paste is obtained
from following relation:

Ultimate tensile stress = Failing load / 6.45

 The tensile stress should not be less than 0 kg/cm2 or 2 N/mm2 and at
the end of 7 days should not be less than 5 kg/cm2 or 2.50N/mm2.

HEAT OF HYDRATION TEST

Heat is evolved during hydration of cement, the amount being
dependent on the relative quantities of the clinker compounds. The evolution
of heat causes an increase in temperature of the concrete. There will be
temperature differences in the surfaces of concrete. The temperature of
interior will be higher than the exterior as exterior surface is exposed to
atmosphere. Due to this temperature difference stress may occur in the
surfaces of concrete, this stress can lead to cracks.

To prevent these cracks hydration test is to be done to the cement

before construction works starts. The apparatus used to determine the heat of
hydration of cement is known as calorimeter.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TEST

Various test are carried out to determine the chemical composition of
cement. Following are the chemical requirements of ordinary cement as per
BIS: 269 - 1975:
  Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide shold not be less
than 0.66

 Lime saturation factor (LSF) should not be less than 0.66 and it should not
be greater than 1.02. ( LSF - ratio of percentage of lime to those of
alumina, iron oxide, and silica)

 Total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4 percent.

 Total sulphur content should not be greater than 2.75 percent

 Weight of insoluble solid should not be greater than 1.50 per cent.

 Weight of magnesia should not exceed 5 percent.

CEMENT MORTAR
Cement mortar can be prepared by mixing cement, sand and water in
desired proportions. Cement Mortars are used for plastering, rendering smooth
finishes and damp proof courses.

MIX PROPORTIONS
TYPE OF WORK CEMEN SAND
T
Masonry 1 4- 5
Plastering
Interior 1 4
Exterior 1 5-6
Foundation 1 3-4

PLASTERING
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns,
ceilings and other building components with a thin coat of mortar to form a
smooth double surface. Cement mortar is the best mortar for external
plastering work. Plastering can be also named as rendering.

Plastering Composition
CEMENT + SAND
 The mix proportion may vary from 1:4 to 1:6. Sands used for plastering
should be clean, coarse and angular. Before mixing water, dry mixing is
thoroughly done. When water is mixed, the mortar should be used within 30
mins of mixing.

Concrete
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates
(sand) and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time.
Portland cement is the commonly used type of cement for production of
concrete.

Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates (sand & rock). The paste,
composed of cement and water, coats the surface of the fine (sand) and
coarse aggregates (rocks) and binds them together into a rock-like mass
known as concrete.

Concrete composition
There are three basic ingredients in the concrete mix:

Portland Cement

Water

Aggregates (rock and sand)

AGGREGATES
Aggregates are inert or chemically inactive materials. These aggregates
are bound together by means of cement.

 The nature of work decide the size of aggregates.

 For thin slab and walls the maximum size of coarse aggregates should
be limited to one third the thickness section of concrete.
Aggregates Source
Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks. There
are three kinds of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Most of the aggregates are naturally occurring aggregates such as

crushed rocks, gravels and sand. Artificial and processed aggregates may be
broken bricks or churched air cooled blast furnace slag.

Classification of Aggregates
Aggregated can be classified based on weight and size.

Classification based on weight Classification based on

size
Normal weight Natural Fine aggregates
aggregates Artificial
Light weight aggregates Coarse aggregates
Heavy weight aggregates.

Fine aggregates
Aggregates less than 4.75mm are known as fine aggregates. Fine
aggregates should pass through BIS sieve no 40. Fine aggregates is usually
found in river beds. Finely churched stone can be also used instead of river
sand.

Coarse aggregates
Aggregates greater than 4.75mm are known as coarse aggregates. The
materials which is retained on BIS test sieve no 480 is termed as coarse
aggregates.

Aggregates Shape
The shape of aggregates is an important characteristic since it affects
the workability of concrete.

The shape of the aggregate is very much influenced by the type of

crusher and the reduction ratio i.e., the ratio of size of material fed into crusher
to the size of the finished product.
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE OF PARTICLES
Rounded River or seashore
gravels;

Irregular or Partly Pit sands and gravels;

rounded land or dug flints;
cuboid rock
Angular Crushed rocks of all
types;

Flaky Laminated rocks

Aggregates Size
Aggregate size selection depends upon the size of aggregate
practicable to handle under a given set of conditions.

80 mm size is the maximum size that could be conveniently used for

concrete making.

Using the possible size will help in (i) reduction of the cement content (ii)
reduction in water requirement (iii) reduction of drying shrinkage.

The selection of size of aggregate may be limited by the following

conditions: (i ) Thickness of section; (ii ) Spacing of reinforcement;

(iii ) Clear cover; (iv ) Mixing, handling and placing techniques.

Grading of aggregates
Grading of aggregates are determination of particle size distribution of
aggregates at the end of sieve test. The aggregate particle size is determined
by using wire-mesh sieves with square openings.
Grading of aggregates is an important factor for concrete mix design.
These affect the concrete strength as well as durability.
Sieve Analysis
The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size
distribution in a sample of aggregate, which we call gradation.

Aggregates Sampling
The process of taking a sample of aggregate that is truly representative
of the nature and condition of the aggregate in the stockpile bin or in the
place source of material is called aggregate sampling.

Proportioning Concrete
The process of selection of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse
aggregate and water to obtain a concrete of desired quality is known as
proportioning concrete.

The proportion of concrete should be made in a way to have following

qualities,

 Concrete should have enough workability.

 Concrete must possess maximum density, in other words it should be

strongest and most water tight.

 The cost of materials and labour required to form concrete should be

minimum.

There are different methods of proportioning concrete mixes.

o Arbitrary method

o Minimum void method

o Maximum density method

o Fineness modulus and water cement ratio method

Arbitrary Method
In this method the proportion of cement, sand and coarse aggregates
are fixed arbitrarily such as 1:4 or 1:3:6 etc, depending on the nature of work.
Minimum void Method
In this method, the voids of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates are
determined separately to get the dense of concrete.

Through the minimum void method quantity of fine aggregate, cement

and sufficient water required for concrete mix can be obtained.

Maximum Density Method

This method is based on the principle that the densest concrete is
achieved by proportioning its aggregates in such a manner that heaviest
weight of concrete for the same volume is obtained. A box is filled with varying
proportions of fine and coarse aggregates. The proportion which gives
heaviest weight is then adopted.

Fineness Modulus Method

In this method fineness modulus of sand and aggregates is determined
by the standard tests. The standard test for fineness modulus are carried out
with the help of BIS sieves.

Water-cement ratio
Water-cement ratio is the water used to the quantum of cement in the
mixture by weight.

The water-cement ratio (w/c) is the major factors influencing Workability

the strength of concrete and hardening cement paste.

For proper workability the w/c ratio varies from 0.4–0.6.

Workability of concrete
The term workability is used to describe the ease or difficulty with which
the concrete is handled, transported and placed between the forms. Slump
test is used to find the workability of concrete.

The important facts in connection with workability are as follow:

 If more water is added to attain the degree of workmanship, it results into

concrete of low strength and poor durability.
 If the strength of concrete is not to be affected, the degree of workability
can be obtained

o By slightly changing the proportions of fine and coarse

aggregates, in case the concrete mixture is too wet

o By adding small quantity of water cement paste in the

proportion of original mix, in case concrete is too dry.

o A concrete mixture for one work may prove to be too stiff or

too wet for another work. For instance, the stiff concrete
mixture will be required in case of vibrated concrete work
while wet concrete mixture will be required for thin sections
containing reinforcing bars.

o The workability of concrete is also affected by grading,

shape, texture and maximum size of coarse aggregates to be
used in the mixture.

Stages in concrete construction

Different stages in concrete construction are

 Formwork

 Mixing

 Transportation

 Placing Concrete

 Compacting concrete

 Curing

Formwork
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould
into which concrete is poured and formed.
 Formwork are classified as wooden, plywood, steel, combined wood-
steel. Timber is most commonly used formwork.

A good form work should satisfy the following requirements:

 The materials of the form work should be cheap and it should be suitable
for reuse of several times.

 It should be water proof, so that it does not absorb water from concrete.

 It should be strong enough to withstand all loads coming on it.

 It should be stiff enough so that deflection should be minimum.

 The form work should be clean, smooth, and it should afford easy
stripping.

 All joints should be leak proof.

Mixing
The operation of manufacture of concrete is called mixing. Mixing can
be done be two methods

o Hand Mixing

o Machine Mixing

Hand Mixing
In this method, mixing is done manually on a steel plate 2 m X 2 m in size
or on a clean hard surface. This method can be adopted when small quantity
of concrete is required.
Machine Mixing
A concrete mixer is a
device that homogeneously mix
cement, aggregates, and water
to form concrete.

A typical concrete mixers

uses a revolving drum to mix the
components. Concrete mixers of
several designs and capacities
are available.

For smaller volume works, portable concrete mixers are often used so
that the concrete can be made at the construction site. For heavy works
concrete can be made outside the site (Batching Plant).

Transportation
There are many modes to transport concert. Different modes are shown below:

 Wheelbarrow or motorized buggy

 Truck mixer

 Bucket or steel skip

 Chute

 Belt conveyor

 Concrete pump

 Pneumatic placer

Placing Concrete
The concrete should be placed and compacted before its setting starts.
The method of placing concrete should be such as to prevent segregation. It
should not be dropped from a height more than one meter. In case, placing
of concrete is likely to take some time it should be kept in an agitated
condition..

Compacting concrete
The compaction of concrete can be carried out using simple tamping
rods or boards, or alternatively it can be carried out with the aid of plant such
as vibrators.

Poker Vibrators ~ these consist of a hollow steel tube casing containing

a rotating impeller which generates vibrations as its head comes into contact
with the casing.

Curing
Curing is one of the most essential operation in which concrete is kept
continuously damp for some days to enable the concrete to gain more
strength. The curing period depends upon the atmospheric conditions such as
temperature, humidity and wind velocity. The normal curing period is between
7 and 10 days.

There are several methods of curing, which are given below:

 Covering the exposed surface with al layer of sacking,

canvas or similar absorbent material.

 Impounding water in earthen or sandy bunds in squares

over the flooring

 Curing with a steam of hot water, resulting in rapid

development of strength.

Cement and concrete finishes

There are different types of cement and concrete finishes. They are

 Roughcast Finish

 Dr dash finish
  Textured Finish

 Stucco

Roughcast Finish
 In this method, the mortar for final coat contains fine sand as well as
1
coarse aggregate in the ratio 1:1 2 : 3 ( Cement : Sand : Aggregates).

 The coarse aggregates may vary from 3 mm to 12mm in size.

 The mortar is dashed against the prepared plastered surface by means of

large trowel.

 The surface is then roughly finished using a wooden float.

 Such a finish is water proof, durable, and resistant to cracking and may
be used for exterior rendering.

Dry dash Finish

 Dry dash is also known as pebble dash.

 In this the final coat having cement: sand mix proportion of 1: 3 is applied
in 12mm thickness.

 Clean pebble of size varying from 10 to 0 mm size are then dashed

against the surface, so that they are held in position.

 The pebbles may be lightly pressed into the mortar, with the help of
wooden float.

Textured Finish
 This is used with stucco plastering. Ornamental patters or textured
surfaces are on the final coat of stucco plastering, by working with
suitable tools.

Stucco
 Stucco is the name given to an excellent decorative plaster used on both
interior and exterior walls.

 Stucco is generally laid in three coats in total thickness of about 25mm.

 The first coat known as scratch or rough coat, function to bond with the
wall and provides strength.

 The second coat known as finer or brown coat, provides desired shape to
the surface.

 The third coat called final or finishing coat affords the required texture,
smoothness and decorative appearance to the plastered surface.

Water proofing and damp proofing of concrete

FOUNDATION
BASEMENT

FLOORING
 UNIT – 2

CAST IN-SITU CEMENT CONCRETE IN BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION
Construction principles and procedures for building components using cast in situ
cement concrete (plain and reinforced). Components to include different types of
foundations, columns, beams, slabs, walls, lintels and sun shades, staircases, sump,
water tank, flooring.

Drawings/ models of the principles. Understanding of detailed drawings/ published

work. Site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/ photos.

Cast in situ
The cast-in-situ concrete is standard concrete which is poured into the
specific form work on the site and cured to get the strength of RCC elements.

Cast –In -Suit Pre Cast

Column, slab etc. elements are Elements are manufactured in a
casted on site and hence it is difficult controlled casting environment and
to control mix, placement and curing have it is easier to control mix,
in cast-in-situ concrete. placement and curing.
Quality control and maintenance is Quality can be controlled and
difficult. maintained easily.
More labours are required. Less labours are required.
In situ concrete construction is slow Precast concrete construction is
as gaining of strength requires time. quick as it can be installed
immediately and there is no waiting
for it to gain strength.
Increase in strength at situ by Increase in strength can be achieved
accelerated curing is a difficult task. by accelerated curing.
Elements can be cast in controlled Elements are cast in open
condition. environment.
Elements can be cast in advance Elements cannot be casted in
and held until the hour you need advance.
them, thereby saves time
Weather condition can delay the Weather condition has no effect on
casting work casting work.
Speed is less as elements are casted Speedy construction is possible.
at site..
In situ concrete is cheaper form ofPrecast concrete is cheaper form of
construction for small structures. construction if large structures are to
be constructed.
Total construction time is more as Total construction time is less as
compared to precast. compared to cast-in-situ.
Less number of joints present in Large number of joints in structural
structural system. system.
More resistant to earthquake and Less resistant to Earthquake and wind
wind forces. forces not recommended where
seismic loads are dominant.
Cast-in-situ concrete does not Precast concrete requires heavy
require such handling equipments. machinery and cranes for handling
i.e. lifting and installation of heavy
elements
Local contractors can also build the To construct one needs a skilled and
structure. technical contractor.

In situ cement concrete construction procedure

 Site Preparation

 Layout of the planned structure

 Preparation of the formwork (concrete, reinforcement)

 Assembling the formwork

 Placing the reinforcement

 Concrete mixing

 Placing the concrete

 Consolidating and curing the concrete

 Disassembling of the formwork (striking)

In situ concrete
For example, constructing a normal slab,

 Formwork of desired shape is made.

 Plain Cement Concrete of desired mix is poured into the frame.

In situ reinforced concrete

For example, constructing a reinforced wall,

 Its reinforcing bars are assembled first, then shuttering

or formwork erected around them and finally concrete poured into
whatever space remains.
Different types of foundations
Different types of foundation are

Strip foundation

Pad foundation

Pile foundation

Raft foundation

Strip Foundation
 Strip Foundation consist of a continuous, longitudinal strip of concrete
designed to spread the uniformly loaded wall of brick, masonry or
concrete

 The spread of the strip depends on foundation loads and the bearing
capacity and shear strength of the subsoil.

 Strip foundation with small spared is constructed of plain cement

concrete, strip foundation with wide spread are commonly of reinforced
concrete.
Pad Foundation
 Pad foundations are generally shallow
foundation, mains used for soil type with low
bearing capacity.

 The isolated reinforced concrete pad

foundations are spread in the base of
excavations, on which piers or columns of brick
or concrete are raised to ground level to support
reinforced concrete ground beam, above
which walls are raised.
Pile Foundation
 The word pile is used to describe columns, usually of reinforced concrete,
precast or cast in ground in order to carry foundation loads to some
deep underplaying firm stratum.

Cast-In suit Piles Procedure

Steel tube and base Reinforcement cage The concrete is If required the pile
plate driven until is placed, and the compacted as can be formed
strong base is tube is filled with the tube is with an integral
identified concrete withdrawn by enlarged head
vibrating the top during installation
of the tube with
external driving
hammer or
vibrator.
Raft Foundation
 Raft foundation is continuous in two directions, usually covering an area
equal to or greater than the base of a building

 Raft foundations are used for lightly loaded structures on soils with poor
bearing capacity.

Different types of columns

A column is a vertical structural member which transfers the loads coming
on to it from beams to below level column or to the foundation.

 Bases on Pattern of lateral reinforcement.

 Bases on its Shape.

Tied columns - The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed within
closely spaced lateral ties. It is estimated that 95% of all columns in buildings
are tied.

Spiral columns

The main longitudinal reinforcement bars are enclosed within closely spaced
and continuously wound spiral reinforcement. Circular and octagonal columns
are mostly of this type. Spiral reinforcement provides lateral restrains (Poisson’s
effect) and delays axial load failure (ductile).
BEAMS
A beam is a structural member used for bearing loads. It is typically used
for resisting vertical loads, shear forces and bending moments.

Different types of beams

Types of beams are basically based on:-

Based on supports

Based on geometry

Based on the shape

BASED ON SUPPORTS
Based on support different types of beams are simply supported Beams,
Cantilever beam, Continuous beams, Overhang beam, Fixed Beam.

Simply supported beam

Simply supported beams are defined as having two supports at either end -
one pinned and one roller.
Cantilever beam

Cantilever Beams are supported from one end, using a

Fixed Support.

Continuous Beam

Continuous beams are multi-spanned beams that

have multiple supports across the length of the beam.

Fixed Beam

Fixed Beams have fixed supports at either end -

offering moment resistance at either end.
Overhang Beam

Overhanging beams are those with two supports,

but unlike simply supported beams, one of the supports is not at the end of the
member.

BASED ON THE SHAPE

Based on beam shape different types of beam are Rectangular beam
L-shape beam, Circular shape beam, T-shape beam.

Rectangular beam

L-shape beam
L- Beam usually occurs frequently at the edge of slab in reinforced
concrete building and also in bridge construction.

Circular shape beam

Curved and conventional beams are subjected to transverse loading.
Two steel bars were placed as the tensile reinforcement and two steel bars as
the compressive reinforcement. Also, one bar was arranged at the centre of
the cross-section of beam to nullify the torsion produced in curved beams.
T-shape beam
When a beam is designed with slab, called slab beam or Tee-beam. The
beam is generally designed as simple beam but additional reinforcement
provided on top with slab to make it behave like a Tee-beam.

SLABS
Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal, in
building floors, roofs, bridges, and other types of structures. The slab may be
supported by walls, by reinforced concrete beams usually cast monolithically
with the slab, by structural steel beams, by columns, or by the ground. The
depth of a slab is usually very small compared to its span.

Different types of slabs

A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create
flat horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof decks and ceilings. A slab is generally
several inches thick and supported by beams, columns, walls, or the ground.

There are several different types of slab, including:

 Flat slab

 Conventional Slab

 Waffle slab

 Solid Slab Raft

  Composite slab

Flat slab
 This is a typically a
reinforced slab supported directly
by columns or caps, without the use
of beams.

 This type of slab is generally easy to

construct and requires little formwork.

Conventional Slab
This type of slab is supported with beams and columns, with the load
transferred to those elements. A conventional slab is classified as either:

One-way Two-way
One way slab is supported by beams Two-way slab is supported by beam
in only one direction. in all four sides.

Main reinforcement is provided in Main reinforcement is provided in

only one direction for one way slabs both the direction for two way slab.

Waffle slab
 This type of slab contains square grids with deep sides, resembling a waffle
shape, often used where large spans are required without the interference
of columns.

 Waffle slabs can be capable of supporting a greater load and longer

span than conventional slabs.
Solid Slab Raft
 This is a type of shallow foundation, typically
formed by a reinforced concrete slab that
covers a wide area, often the entire
footprint of a building.

 It spreads the load imposed by a number

of columns, walls, and so on, over a
large area, and can be considered to
‘float’ on the ground in a similar way to a raft floating on water.

 It is often used for lightly-loaded buildings on weak or expansive soils such

as clays or peat.
Composite slab
 Composite slabs are typically constructed from reinforced
concrete cast on top of profiled steel decking.

 Steel is often used as the supporting system underneath the slab due to
its superior strength-weight and stiffness-weight ratio and ease of
handling.

WALLS
A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load; provides security,
shelter, or soundproofing; Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the
superstructure.

Concrete Wall Construction Process

 Reinforcement Placement

 Formwork of Concrete Wall

 Concrete Production

 Pouring Concrete

 Removal of Formworks

 Curing Concrete Wall

Different types of walls
 Plain concrete wall

 Reinforced concrete wall

 Concrete retaining walls

 Concrete block wall with reinforcement

Concrete Block Walls Design Block Design

Classification of Concrete Walls
In plain concrete wall, the reinforcement provided is less than 0.4% of
c/s. In reinforced concrete wall, the percentage of steel provided is greater
than 0.4% and is designed similar to reinforced concrete columns.

Slenderness ratio is equal to least of (l/t or h/t), where, l is effective length

of wall, h is effective height of wall, t is thickness of wall If < 12, the wall is short
and if > 12, the wall is slender.
LINTELS
A lintel is a type of beam which used to support the above wall when openings
like doors, windows etc. are necessary to provide a building structure. The main
function of the lintel is to take loads coming from above wall and transfer its
load to the side walls.

Different types of lintels

The lintel made of reinforced concrete are widely used to span the openings
for doors, windows, etc. In a structure because of their strength, rigidity, fire
resistance, economy and ease in construction. These are suitable for all the
loads and for any span. The width is equal to width of wall and depth depends
on length of span and magnitude of loading.

Main reinforcement is provided at the bottom and half of these bars are
cranked at the ends. Shear stirrups are provided to resist transverse shear.
R.C.C lintel over a window with projection

R.C.C boot lintels are provided over cavity walls. These will give good appearance
and economical. A flexible D.P.C is provided

SUN SHADES
Something used as a protection from the sun's rays.
Different types of sun shades

STAIRCASE
Staircase is used to connect between different levels in a buildings.

Different types of staircase

 Dog-legged

 Spiral

 Helical Stair

 Bifurcated staircase
SIRAIGHT FLIGHT FOR DOG LEGGED

STAIR WITHOUT RISER

WATER TANK
Water tank is used to store habitable water. Based on number of users,
capacity of water tank changes.

Based on the location of water tank shape varies

Based on water tank location Based on water tank shape

Underground tanks Rectangular tank
Tank resting on grounds Circular tank
Overhead tanks* Spherical tank
Circular tank with conical bottom

Floor of RCC water tank rest on the ground

 Place layer of lean concrete not less than 75 mm thick over the ground,
use M15 for lean concrete.

 Consider sulfate resisting concrete if required

 Install polyethylene sheet layer between lean concrete and the floor

 Cast the floor in single layer

Floor of tanks rest on support

 It should be designed for bending moments due to dead load and
water load.

 Special attention shall be practice during the design of floor of multi-cell

water tank

 Lastly, when walls and floor are connected rigidly, then moment at the
junction in combination with other transferred loads shall be considered
in floor design.
Concrete Water Tank Walls

Provision of joints
Sliding joints may be used if:

 It is desired to permit the walls to expand or contract separately from the

floor.

 To prevent moments at the base of the wall because of fixity to the floor.
Pressure on RCC water tank wall
 Gas pressure, which is developed due to the presence of fixed or floated
tank cover, shall be added to the liquid pressure.

 When water tank constructed in ground or earth embanked against it,

then earth pressure shall be accounted in wall design.

RCC water tank roof

To avoid the possibility of sympathetic cracking it is important to ensure
that movement joints in the roof correspond with those in the walls, if roof and
walls are monolithic.
FLOORING
Lower horizontal surface of any space in a building including finishes that
are laid as part of the permanent construction.

Different types of flooring

 Beam and slab floor

 Waffle Grid Slab Floor

 Drop Beam Slab Floor

 Flat slab Floor

Beam and Slab Floor

 A beam and slab floor is generally the most economic and most usual
form of floor construction for reinforced
concrete.

 The cast-in-suite reinforced concrete

floor combines main and secondary
beams as a grid to provide slab of low
thickness.

 For beam and slab floor, square grid will

be a better option, as square grid result in
minimum thickness of floor slab and
minimum depth of beams.

 For beam and slab floor, usage of

rectangular column due to user
requirements and circulation will increase
the depth, weight and cost of construction.
Waffle Grid Slab Floor
 If the column grid is increased from about 6.0 to 12 m, waffle slab will be
economical.

 Waffle slab is a structural component which is plain on its top and

contains grid like system on its bottom surface.

 The top slab is normally thin and the bottom grid lines are generally
ribs which are laid perpendicular to each other with equal depth.

 Waffle slab has two directional reinforcement.

 Waffle slabs are generally suitable for flat areas.

 Volume of concrete used is very less compared to others.

 The reinforcement in the waffle slab is provided in the form of mesh or

individual bars.
Drop Beam and slab
 Drop slab floor construction consists of a floor slab which is thickened
between columns in the form of a shallow wide beam.

 On a 12.0m square column grid the overall depth of a slab and beam
floor would be about 1.2 where the depth of a drop slab floor would ne
about 600 cm.

 The difference in the depth would be a significant reduction in overakll

height of construction of a multi storey building.
Flat slab Floor
 The thickness of flat slab is uniform
throughout the slab.

 There won’t be any down stand beams.

 Reinforcement is more closely spaced

between the points of support from
columns.

 To provide sufficient resistance to shear at

the junction of columns and floors, square
headed columns are formed at the
junction of columns and floor slab.

SUMP
A sump is a low space that collects often undesirable liquids such as
water or chemicals. A sump can also be an infiltration basin used to manage
surface runoff water and recharge underground aquifers.

Sump Design Criteria

 Sump pits are to be a minimum of 750 mm (30”) deep, and 0.25 m2 in
area.
 Sump pits are to be fitted with a tightly fitting removable cover.

 Sump pits will be constructed of concrete, plastic, or non-corrosive metal.

 Locate sumps as close to the basement exterior wall as possible (1.2m

max) on the side of the building that provides positive drainage.

 Sump pits are to be fitted with an opening to accept a 100mm (4”) drain
with the invert of the pipe located above the center of the sump pits’
height.

 Sump pits are to be placed on even, well compacted surface.

 UNIT III PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS IN BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
Types and characteristics of simple precast concrete products. Construction principles
and procedures for structural and non-structural building components using precast
concrete. Components to include different types of blocks/ tiles for walls, floors and
roof, jali, parapet, paving. Outline of manufacture, laying/constructing and finishing.

Sketching/ drawing/ models of the principles. Understanding of product literature/

published work. Site visits with documentation in the form of sketches/ photos.

PRE CAST CONCRETE

The precast concrete is transported to the construction site, lifted and
positioned at the predetermined place.
Types of precast
Depending on the load-bearing structure, precast systems can be divided
into the following categories:

 Large-panel systems

 Frame systems

LARGE PANEL SYSTEMS

 Large-panel system refers to multistory structures
composed of large wall and floor concrete panels
connected in the vertical and horizontal directions
so that the wall panels enclose appropriate
spaces for the rooms within a building.

FRAME SYSTEMS
 In Frame system are constructed using
linear elements or spatial beam, column.

 Precast beam-column sub-assemblages

have the advantage that the
connecting faces between the sub-
assemblages can be placed away from
the critical frame regions;

 The beam-column joints accomplished

in this way are hinged.
SLAB-COLUMN SYSTEMS WITH SHEAR WALLS
These systems rely on shear walls to sustain lateral load effects, whereas the
slab-column structure resists mainly gravity loads.

There are two main systems in this category:

• Lift-slab system with walls

• Pre-stressed slab-column system

Lift –slab system

 The load-bearing structure consists of precast
reinforced concrete columns and slabs.

 Precast columns are usually two stories high.

 All precast structural elements are assembled

by means of special joints.

 Reinforced concrete slabs are poured on the

ground in forms, one on top of the other.

 Precast concrete floor slabs are lifted from the

ground up to the final height by lifting cranes.

 The slab panels are lifted to the top of the column and then moved
downwards to the final position.

 Temporary supports are used to keep the slabs in the position until the
connection with the columns has been achieved.

The pre-stressed slab-column

 System uses horizontal pre-stressing in two orthogonal directions to
achieve continuity.

 The precast concrete column elements are 1 to 3 stories high. The

reinforced concrete floor slabs fit the clear span between columns.

 After erecting the slabs and columns of a story, the columns and floor
slabs are pre-stressed by means of pre-stressing tendons that pass
through ducts in the columns at the floor level and along the gaps
left between adjacent slabs.

 After pre-stressing, the gaps between the slabs are filled with in situ
concrete and the tendons then become bonded with the spans.
 Seismic loads are resisted mainly by the shear walls (precast or cast-
in-place) positioned between the columns at appropriate locations.

Pre- Cast Manufacture

Manufacturing process include following steps

1. Engineering

2. Manufacturing the Reinforcement Cage

3. Form preparation and pre-pour inspection

4. Concrete Placement

5. Curing and stripping

6. Post- Pour

Cast –In -Suit Pre Cast

Column, slab etc. elements are Elements are manufactured in a
casted on site and hence it is difficult controlled casting environment and
to control mix, placement and curing have it is easier to control mix,
in cast-in-situ concrete. placement and curing.
Quality control and maintenance is Quality can be controlled and
difficult. maintained easily.
More labours are required. Less labours are required.
In situ concrete construction is slow Precast concrete construction is
as gaining of strength requires time. quick as it can be installed
immediately and there is no waiting
for it to gain strength.
Increase in strength at situ by Increase in strength can be achieved
accelerated curing is a difficult task. by accelerated curing.
Elements can be cast in controlled Elements are cast in open
condition. environment.
Elements can be cast in advance Elements cannot be casted in
and held until the hour you need advance.
them, thereby saves time
Weather condition can delay the Weather condition has no effect on
casting work casting work.
Speed is less as elements are casted Speedy construction is possible.
at site..
In situ concrete is cheaper form of Precast concrete is cheaper form of
construction for small structures. construction if large structures are to
be constructed.
Total construction time is more as Total construction time is less as
compared to precast. compared to cast-in-situ.
Less number of joints present in Large number of joints in structural
structural system. system.
More resistant to earthquake and Less resistant to Earthquake and wind
wind forces. forces not recommended where
seismic loads are dominant.
Cast-in-situ concrete does not Precast concrete requires heavy
require such handling equipment. machinery and cranes for handling
i.e. lifting and installation of heavy
elements
Local contractors can also build the To construct one needs a skilled and
structure. technical contractor.
PRE-CAST STRUCTURAL BUILDING COMPONENTS
Structural Building Components Non-Structural Building Components

Foundation Door
Columns Windows
Beams Parapet
Walls Jail
Floors Parapet
Roofs Paving

Foundation (structural component)

 For light to medium loadings the preferred method of connection is to
set the column into a pocket cast into a reinforced concrete pad
foundation.

 Heavy column loadings are encountered it may be necessary to use a

steel base plate secured to the reinforced concrete pad foundation
with holding down bolts.
WALLS (structural component)
FLOORS (structural component)
TYPES

Pre-cast reinforced concrete floor system

Pre-cast hollow floor unit

Precast concrete plank floor units

Pre cast concrete tee beams

ROOF (structural component)

Columns (structural component)

Column to Column Connection ~ precast columns are usually cast in
one length. They are either reinforced with bar reinforcement or they are pre-
stressed according to the loading conditions. If column to column are required
they are usually made at floor levels above the beam to column connections
and can range from a simple dowel connection to a complex connection
involving in-situ concrete.
Beams (structural component)
Beam to Column Connections ~ as with the column to column
connections the main objective is to provide structural continuity at the
junction.
This is usually achieved by one of two basic methods:

1. Projecting bearing haunches cast onto the columns with a projecting dowel
or stud bolt to provide both location and fixing.

2. Steel to steel fixings which are usually in the form of a corbel or bracket
projecting from the column providing a bolted connection to a steel plate cast
into the end of the beam.
PARAPET
 Pre Cast – Window

UNIT IV - SPECIAL CONCRETES AND INNOVATIONS IN

CONCRETE

Types of special concretes, to include lightweight concrete, aerated concrete, no-

fines concrete, polymer concrete, pre-stressed concrete, fibre-reinforced concrete,
ready-mixed concrete, ferrocement. Building materials and components developed
by research organisations like CBRI, SERC, NBO, and BMTPC. Techniques for renovation
Types of special concretes,
 Lightweight concrete

 Aerated concrete

 No-fines concrete

 Polymer concrete

 Pre-stressed concrete

 Fibre-reinforced concrete

 Ready-mixed concrete

 Ferrocement

Lightweight concrete
Lightweight concrete mixture is made with a lightweight coarse
aggregate and sometimes a portion or entire fine aggregates may be
lightweight instead of normal aggregates. Light weight concrete is mainly used
in multi storey buildings to reduce the dead load.

Light weight concrete can be made by following method:

 By using porous lightweight aggregate.

 By introducing large voids within the concrete or mortar mass; these

voids should be clearly distinguished from the extremely fine voids
produced by air entrainment.

 By omitting the fine aggregate from the mix so that a large number of
interstitial voids are present; normal weight coarse aggregate is
generally used.
Types of Lightweight Concrete

Lightweight Aggregate Concrete

Aerated Concrete

No Fines Concrete

Aerated concrete
Aerated concrete is a lightweight, cellular material consisting of cement
and/or lime and sand or other silicious material. It is made by either a physical
or a chemical process during which air is introduced into slurry, which generally
contains no coarse material.

No-fines concrete
No Fine concrete is one of the methods of producing lightweight
concrete by removes the fine aggregate from ingredients conventional
concrete. This concrete is consisting of only coarse aggregate, cement and
water. Very often single sized coarse of aggregate, that passing through (20
mm sieve) retained on (10 mm sieve) is used.

Polymer concrete
Polymer concrete (PC) is a composite
material in which the binder consists entirely of
a synthetic organic polymer. It is variously
known as synthetic resin concrete, plastic resin
concrete or simply resin concrete.

Advantages Of Polymer Concrete

The polymerized products due to very low voids content and quantity of
polymer have

 High compressive strength and impact strength

 High resistance to freezing and thawing

 High resistance to abrasion and chemical attack

  Reduced permeability

Applications Of Polymer Concrete

Polymer concrete is useful in large number of application such as:

 Marine works

 Prefabricated structural elements

 Pre-stressed concrete

 Nuclear power plants

 Sewage works and desalination plants

 Waterproofing of structures and numerous industrial applications

Pre-stressed concrete
Pre-stressing is achieved by either pre-tensioning or post-tensioning of
reinforcement.

Fibre-reinforced concrete
Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material

consisting of mixtures of cement, mortar or concrete and uniformly dispersed

fibers. Continuous meshes, woven fabrics and long wires or rods are not
considered to be discrete fibers.
Ready-mixed concrete
Ready mix concrete is concrete whose components are proportioned
away from the construction site for delivery to the construction site by the truck
in a ready-to-use-condition. Ready mix concrete are made in batching plant.

Advantages of Ready Mixed Concrete

 Quality assured concrete.

 High speed of construction.

 Reduction in cement consumption by 10 – 12 % due to better handling

and proper mixing.

Limitations of Ready Mix Concrete

 Because of large quantity of concrete available in short span, special
placing and form work arrangement are required to be made in
advance. (Typical Floor Construction Cycle can be used)

 There are chances of setting of concrete if transit time. (plasticisers and

super plasticisers/ retarders used in Ready Mixed Concrete are properly
tested for their suitability with the concrete)
Ferro cement
Ferro cement is a composite material
composed of a mortar reinforced with light steel
fabric/mesh, used to form thin sections.

The construction process consists of forming

the shape of the required structure with a mesh of
fine reinforcement, such as chicken wire or
expanded metal. Multiple layers may be used to
achieve the required density of steel and the whole may be stiffened with a
few standard reinforcing bars.

A stiff mortar is then applied to both sides of the layer of reinforcement

known as the ‘armature’) and finished to the required thickness.

BUILDING MATERIALS RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONS

Building material research organization contributes building industry with
new materials. Building research organizations in India are CBRI, SERC, NBO,
BMTPC.

CBRI
 The Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India, has
been vested with the responsibility of generating,
cultivating and promoting building science and
technology in the service of the country.

 Since its inception in 1947, the Institute has been assisting the building
construction and building material industries in finding timely,
appropriate and economical solutions to the problems of building
materials, health monitoring and rehabilitation of structures, disaster
mitigation, fire safety, Energy efficient rural and urban housing.

 The Institute is committed to serve the people through R&D in the

development process and maintains linkages at international and
national level.
SERC
 CSIR- Structural Engineering Research Centre (CSIR – SERC), Chennai,
India is one of the national laborites under the council of scientific &
Indistrial Research (CSIR), India.

 CSIR – serc has excellent facilities and expertise for analysis design and
testing of structures and structural components.

 Service of CSIR –SERC are extensively used by the Central, State

government and public private sector undertacking.

 CSIR-SERC acts as a clearing house for the latest available knowledge

and develops know-how on design and construction of all types of
structures.

 It undertakes application-oriented research in all aspects of structural

engineering – both design and construction, including rehabilitation of
structures.

 It provides design consultancy services, including proof checking, to

organizations in the public and private sectors for developing a variety
of structural designs.

 CSIR-SERC also organizes specialized courses on structural engineering

for the benefit of practicing engineers to familiarize them with the latest
developments in analysis, design and construction.

Vision of CSIR-SERC

To be a global leader in structural engineering by excelling in research

in frontier and cutting edge areas, and by developing competitive
technologies by embracing innovative inter- and trans- disciplinary
approaches for the benefit of society and industry.

NBO
 The National Buildings Organisation (NBO) was established in 1954 as an
attached office under the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (the then
Ministry of Works and Housing) for technology transfer, experimentation,
development and dissemination of housing statistics.

 In the context of formulation of Housing Policy and Programmes, study of

socio-economic aspects of housing issues and the increased need for
housing statistics, NBO was restructured in 1992.

 NBO was further restructured in March, 2006 with the revised mandate
keeping in view the current requirements under the National Housing Policy,
 and various socio-economic and statistical functions connected with
housing and building activities.

The mandate of the NBO in its restructured form is as follows:

 To collect, collate, validate, analyse, disseminate and publish the
housing and building construction statistics.

 To organize training programmes for the officers and staff of the State
Government engaged in collection and dissemination of housing and
building construction statistics.

 To create and manage a documentation centre relating to housing,

poverty, slums and infrastructure related statistics.

 To coordinate with all the State Governments/Research Institutions etc.

as being a nodal agency in the field to cater to the statistical needs of
the planners, policy makers and research organization in the field of
housing and related infrastructural facilities.

 To conduct regular short term sample surveys in various pockets of the

country to study the impact of the plan schemes.

 To undertake special socio-economic studies evaluating the impact of

the plans, policies and programmes in the field of housing and
infrastructure, as and when required, by the Ministry for which the
additional funds will be provided by the Ministry.

Role of NBO in various major activities of MoHUPA

Organizing and conducting Central Sanctioning & Monitoring
Committee (CSMC), Central Sanctioning Committee (CSC) and review
meetings of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), Rajiv
Awas Yojana (RAY) and Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) under Housing
for All (Urban)

The NBO work closely with organizations like National Housing Bank (NHB),
National Information Centre (NIC) and other agencies

BMTPC
In order to bridge the gap between research and development and
large scale application of new building material technologies, the erstwhile
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, had established the
BUILDING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY PROMOTION COUNCIL in July 1990.
The Council strives to package proven innovative technologies for the benefit
of entrepreneurs interested in setting up manufacturing units in tiny, small,
medium and large scale sectors.

OBJECTIVES

 Building Materials & Construction Technologies : To promote development,
standardisation, mechanisation and large scale field application of proven
innovative and emerging building materials and technologies in the
construction sector.

 Capacity Building and Skill Development: To work as a Training Resource

Centre for capacity building and promotion of good construction practices to
professionals, construction agencies, artisans and marketing of building
technologies from lab to land.

 Disaster Mitigation & Management : To promote methodologies and

technologies for natural disaster mitigation, vulnerability & risk reduction and
retrofitting/ reconstruction of buildings and disaster resistant planning for
human settlements.

Project Management & Consultancy: To undertake project management

and consultancy services including appraisal, monitoring and third party
inspection of housing projects under the various Central/State Schemes.

AREAS OF WORK
 Building Materials and construction technologies

 Disaster mitigation and management.

 Capacity building and Skill Development

 Project Management and Consultancy

Renovation
The term ‘renovation’ refers to the process of returning something to a
good state of repair.

In the construction industry, renovation refers to the process of improving

or modernising an old, damaged or defective building.
 This is as opposed to 'retrofitting' which is providing something with
a component or feature not originally fitted, or 'refurbishment' which is a
process of improvement by cleaning, decorating, or re-equipping.

Techniques for renovation

Typically, renovation work is categorized as ‘cosmetic’ or ‘structural’.

Structural renovation might include:

 Extensions.

 Loft conversions.

 Construction of a basement.

 Redesign of floor plans.

 Re-wiring, re-plumbing, and so on.

Cosmetic renovation might include:

 Painting and other forms of decoration and minor repairs.

 Flooring.

 Updating fixtures and fittings.

 Light landscaping

Retrofitting
 Retrofitting means 'providing something with a component or feature
not fitted during manufacture or adding something that it did not have
when first constructed'.

 It is often used in relation to the installation of new building systems, such

as heating systems, but it might also refer to the fabric of a building, for
example, retrofitting insulation or double glazing.

SEISMIC RETROFITTING OF MANI MANDIR COMPLEX AT MORBI,

GUJARAT, INDIA
The Mani Mandir complex (100m100m in plan) is an important historic
monument of the town of Morbi in the western state of Gujarat, which suffered
significant damage during the M7.7 Bhuj earthquake of 2001 in India. As part
of the earthquake reconstruction program, the Government of Gujarat
decided to seismically retrofit this complex.

A detailed condition survey was carried out and measured drawings

were prepared. A comprehensive retrofit program was formulated.
Conservation principles, minimum intervention and consonance with the
heritage character of the building were important considerations in selecting
the retrofit program. The complex was modelled using finite elements and
behaviour was studied of the existing structure as well as retrofit structure.

The retrofit measures recommended included discriminate use of

internal reinforced concrete skin walls, providing a rigid diaphragm behaviour
mechanism in existing slabs, introducing stainless steel reinforcement bands in
the existing masonry walls, cross-pinning and end-pinning in walls and pillars,
and strengthening of arches and elevation features.
Seismic design
Seismic analysis is a subset of structural analysis and is the calculation of the
response of a building (or nonbuilding) structure to earthquakes.

Basic principles for seismic design in concrete.

• The greater the mass (weight of the building), the greater the internal
inertial forces generated.

• Lightweight construction with less mass is typically an advantage in

seismic design.

• Greater mass generates greater lateral forces, thereby increasing the

possibility of columns being displaced, out of plumb, and/or buckling
under vertical load (P delta Effect).
 • Height is the main determinant of fundamental period—each object
has its own fundamental period at which it will vibrate. The period is
proportionate to the height of the building.

SEISMIC DESIGN FACTORS

• Torsion - Symmetrical arrangement of masses, however, will result in
balanced stiffness against either direction and keep torsion within a
manageable range.

• Damping - Damping is a rate at which natural vibration is absorbed.

(Spring Vibrator, Damper)

• Ductility – Good ductility can be achieved with carefully detailed joints.

• Strength and Stiffness - This term defines a building's size and shape,
and structural and non-structural elements. Building configuration
determines the way seismic forces are distributed within the structure.

Regular Configuration buildings have Shear Walls or Moment-Resistant Frames

or Braced Frames and generally have:

• Low Height to Base Ratios

• Equal Floor Heights

• Symmetrical Plans

• Uniform Sections and Elevations

• Maximum Torsional Resistance

• Short Spans and Redundancy

• Direct Load Paths

 UNIT V - DESIGN AND DETAILING USING CONCRETE

Design and detailing exercise involving concrete as primary construction material in

an appropriate typology involving a simple scale project. The project will integrate
knowledge from all the previous units. Design and construction details in the form of
drawings, sketches and models.

Design and detailing for a three storey house

Based on considerations of buildability, economy and standardization of

precast components, the structural concept for three storey building
developed consists of:

• Conventional foundations comprising footings, raft slab or piles and

pile caps.

• Cast in-situ first storey, typically reinforced concrete beam and slab
system.

• Precast concrete load bearing walls.

• Precast concrete non-load bearing façade panels.

• Precast concrete floor system, either:

- Precast concrete beams and precast slabs (reinforced concrete or

Pre-stressed) with a composite in-situ topping

or Precast concrete walls with precast concrete slab system

FOUNDATIONS
 The foundation loads for the precast structural system will be
similar to those for conventional design.

 However, the arrangement of the foundations below the load

bearing walls will be different to those normally adopted for a
column and beam structural system.

 The desirable arrangement should provide a relatively uniform

support along the length of the wall and minimize the eccentricity
effects due to any possible misalignment of the walls relative to
the foundations.

 In the case of a footing foundation system, the recommended

solution is a continuous strip footing.
1. KEY WORDS
UNIT –I
Cement concrete
Composition types and uses of cement
Workability Slump test
aggregates High Alumina cement

Very high strength cement Fineness Test

Air permeability Test Sieve Test

Soundness test Heat Of Hydration

Portland cement Port Land Pozzolana Cement

Hydro Phobic Cement Coloured cement

Oil well cement Rediset cement

Dry Process Wet Process

UNIT –II

cast-in-situ concrete Site Preparation

Strip foundatiom Slenderness ratio
Pad foundation Tied columns
Pile foundation formwork
Raft foundation Placing the reinforcement

Composite columns Concrete mixing

Long Column or Slender Spiral columns

Consolidating and curing the
Short Column
concrete
Axially loaded column striking
Axial load and un-axial bending Simply supported beam
column
Axial load and biaxial bending Cantilever beam
column

UNIT –III
Pre cast concrete Engineering

Large-panel systems Manufacturing the

Reinforcement Cage
Frame systems Form preparation and pre-pour
inspection
Slab-column systems with walls Concrete Placement

Mixed systems Curing and stripping

Precast beam-column Post- Pour

spatial beam Pre-cast concrete wall frames

Lift –slab system Pre-cast hollow floor unit

prestressed slab-column Pre cast concrete tee beams

Precast concrete plank floor units Jali

UNIT –IV
Retrofitting Of Polymer Concrete

renovation No-fines concrete

BMTPC Lightweight Concrete

NBO Aerated Concrete

CSIR-SERC sieve

SERC - Structural Engineering Prefabricated structural

Research Centre elements

CBRI - Central Building Research National Buildings Organisation

Institute
Ferrocement Building Materials &
Construction Technologies
Ready Mix Concrete Disaster Mitigation &
Management
Fibre-reinforced concrete Project Management &
Consultancy
Pre-stressed concrete Redesign of floor plans
2. KEY IMAGES

Unit-I
Unit-II
Unit-III
Unit-IV