Psychology of Sport & Exercise 57 (2021) 102060

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Psychology of Sport & Exercise

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Physical fitness, cognitive functioning and academic achievement in

healthy adolescents
Barbara Franca Haverkamp 1, 2, *, Jaap Oosterlaan 2, 3, Marsh Königs 3, Esther Hartman 1
1
University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Center for Human Movement Sciences, Groningen, the Netherlands
2
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Clinical Neuropsychology Section, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
3
Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Pediatrics, Emma Neuroscience Group, Amsterdam Reproduction &
Development, Amsterdam, the Netherlands

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Purpose: Examine the association between health-related physical fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular
Physical fitness fitness) and skill-related physical fitness (speed-agility) and both cognitive functions and academic achievement
Cognitive functions in adolescents (12–15 years).
Academic achievement
Methods: Data of 423 Dutch adolescents were analyzed (46.8% boys, age = 13.45 ± 0.43 years). Physical fitness
Adolescents
was assessed using five subtests of the Eurofit test battery measuring cardiorespiratory fitness (20 m Shuttle Run
Test), muscular fitness (Broad Jump and Sit-Ups) and speed-agility (10 × 5 m Shuttle Run Test and Plate Tapping
Test). Cognitive functions were assessed by the Digit Span Task, the Grid Task and an adapted version of the
Attention Network Test. Finally, academic achievement was assessed by two standardized tests assessing
mathematic skills and language skills. Multilevel regression analyses were performed in MlWin to examine the
relations of interest adjusting for sex and age.
Results: Multilevel regression analysis showed that speed-agility was significantly related to visuospatial working
memory (β = 0.159; p = 0.014), information processing and control (β = 0.238; p < 0.001) and interference
control (β = 0.156; p = 0.039), but not to the other cognitive or academic achievement outcomes. Cardiore­
spiratory fitness and muscular fitness were not related to any of the cognitive or academic achievement
outcomes.
Conclusion: The results suggest that skill-related physical fitness is related to cognitive functions and health-
related physical fitness is not. Therefore it can be argued that improved levels of skill-related physical fitness
may lead to improved cognitive functioning.

1. Introduction
Physical activity is related to health benefits, including lower risks of
cardiovascular disease and diabetes (Janssen & LeBlanc, 2010). More­
over, recent evidence indicates that physical fitness, which refers to the
ability to engage in physical activity for a protracted period of time
(Martínez-Vizcaíno & Sánchez-López, 2008), is also associated with
better executive functions and academic achievement in adolescents
(Chu et al., 2019). Executive functions are higher order cognitive skills
that enable goal directed behavior and are an important prerequisite for
successful learning, and are important in the social and psychological
development of adolescents (Diamond, 2013). However, during
adolescence physical fitness levels decrease (Albon et al., 2010;
Venckunas et al., 2017), and this might lead to sub-optimal development
of executive functions and academic achievement.
As physical fitness refers to a wide range of aspects of health- and
skill-related aspects (Corbin, et al., 2000), it is unclear which aspects of
physical fitness are associated to cognitive functions and academic
achievement. Health-related physical fitness consists of those compo­
nents of physical fitness that have a relationship with good health,
including cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness (Corbin et al.,
2000). Cardiorespiratory fitness refers to the overall capacity of the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems and the ability to carry out
prolonged strenuous exercise (Ortega et al., 2008). Muscular fitness
refers to the capacity to carry out work against resistance (Ortega et al.,
2008). Skill-related physical fitness consists of those components of

* Corresponding author. University Medical Center Groningen, Center for Human Movement Sciences, PO box 196, 9700 AD, Groningen, the Netherlands.
E-mail address: b.f.haverkamp@umcg.nl (B.F. Haverkamp).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102060
Received 31 May 2021; Received in revised form 1 September 2021; Accepted 17 September 2021
Available online 20 September 2021
1469-0292/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B.F. Haverkamp et al.
physical fitness that have a relationship with enhanced performance in
sports and motor skills, including speed-agility abilities (Corbin et al.,
2000). Speed-agility abilities enable one to quickly move the body and
change its direction while maintaining control and balance (Ortega
et al., 2008).
It is suggested that health-related physical fitness optimizes cognitive
functioning and academic achievement, by promoting blood flow and
synaptic plasticity (Best, 2010) and upregulating brain derived neuro­
trophic factor (BDNF) levels that support the survival and growth of
neurons (Gomez-Pinilla & Hillman, 2013). Skill-related physical fitness,
might optimize cognitive functioning and academic achievement by
strengthening of the motor-cognition network (Ludyga et al., 2016).
This network involves neural regions such as the dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex and the neo-cerebellum that are recruited during performance of
motor tasks, and are typically associated with a range of cognitive op­
erations (Ludyga et al., 2016).
Recent reviews show that most of the existing literature is focused on
the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive func­
tions or academic achievement in adolescents (Chu et al., 2019; Don­
nelly et al., 2016; Ruiz-Ariza et al., 2017; Santana et al., 2017). In the
reviews of Donnelly et al. (2016) and Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2017) it was
concluded that there was moderately sized positive associations for
cardiorespiratory fitness and cognitive functioning, including executive
functioning. However, Ruiz-Ariza et al. (2017) also showed that
speed-agility, motor coordination and perceptual-motor skill could be
potential predictors of cognitive functioning and academic performance
in adolescents. In addition, other studies suggested that learning new
skill-related physical fitness items seemed to be associated to cognitive
functions and especially executive functions (Moreau et al., 2015; Pesce
et al., 2013; Schmidt et al., 2015). In the reviews of Chu et al. (2019) and
Santana et al. (2017) it was concluded that there was evidence for a
moderately sized positive relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness
and academic achievement. However, in previous studies most often
only one aspect of physical fitness was examined and evidence for other
aspects of physical fitness (e.g. muscular fitness, speed-agility) are
scarce. Furthermore, it has been suggested that cognitive functioning
mediates the association between physical fitness and academic
achievement in pre-adolescent children (Kvalø et al., 2019; Oberer et al.,
2018; van der Niet et al., 2014). However, the mediating role of
cognitive functioning in the relationship between physical fitness and
academic achievement has not been investigated yet in the important
developmental stage of adolescence.
The aim of the current study was to examine the association between
three components of health-related and skill-related physical fitness
(cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness and speed-agility) and both
cognitive and academic functioning in adolescents (aged 12–15 years).
It was hypothesized that better physical fitness was associated with
better cognitive and academic functioning and that the association be­
tween physical fitness and academic achievement was mediated by
cognitive functioning.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
Adolescents from seven secondary schools in the northern part of the
Netherlands were recruited to participate in the present study. In total,
423 adolescents (53.19% girls, Mage = 13.45 years, SD = 0.428) were
recruited to participate. Adolescents with missing values on one of the
outcome variables were excluded. Reasons for missing test scores were
no score for cognitive functions (n = 77) or academic achievement (n =
70) due to absence during test days at school or incorrect test admin­
istration, resulting in 346 participant for executive functions and 353
participants for academic achievement. Adolescents attended prevoca­
tional secondary education, higher general secondary education or pre-
university education. In all instances, written informed consent was
2
Psychology of Sport & Exercise 57 (2021) 102060
obtained from the adolescents and one of their parents/guardians prior
to participation. Demographics of the participating adolescents are
shown in Table 1.
2.2. Measuring instruments
2.2.1. Physical fitness
Five subtests of the Eurofit test battery (COUNCIL, 1988) were used
to measure three components of physical fitness: cardiorespiratory
fitness, muscular fitness, and speed-agility. Vrijkotte et al. (2007) re­
ported good reliability (rs > 0.75) and satisfactory validity for the
Eurofit test battery in adolescents aged 12–16 years.
Cardiorespiratory fitness was measured with the 20-m Shuttle Run
Test. This test consisted of running back and forth between two lines 20
m apart, within a specific time interval that was indicated by audio
signals. The interval between each audio signal became shorter as the
test proceeded, and required running speed to increase to comply with
test demands. The test ended when an adolescent failed to reach a line
prior to the audio signal on two successive trials. The number of
completed tracks was recorded and peak VO2 was computed with the
equation proposed by Barnett et al. (1993) in which peak VO2 is
calculated in ml.kg-1.min-1 using the formula: 24.2–5* sex (male =
0 and female = 1) – 0.8 *age (years) + 3.4* maximal speed (km.h-1)
reached during the last stage of the test.
Muscular fitness was determined by measuring strength in the lower
extremities and core strength. Strength of the lower extremities was
measured with the Broad Jump Test. Participants stood behind a line
with their feet slightly apart. They used a two-foot take-off to jump as far
as possible. Adolescents got two attempts, of which the longest distance
jumped (in cm) was recorded as the test result. Core strength was
measured with Sit-Ups where adolescents had to touch the floor with
their shoulders and sit back up again while the elbows touched the
knees. Knees were required to be in an angle of 90◦ and arms needed to
be crossed in front of the chest. The amount of sit-ups performed within
30 s was recorded as a test result.
Speed-agility was determined by measuring lower and upper ex­
tremities speed-agility. Speed-agility of the lower extremities was
measured with the 10 × 5 m Shuttle Run Test. This test consisted of
running back and forth between two lines 5 m apart. Time needed to run
this distance ten times was recorded (s). The best of two attempts was
used as the test result. Speed-agility of the upper extremities was
measured with the Plate Tapping Test. In this test, adolescents placed
their non-preferred hand between two disks, that were 80 cm apart, and
the preferred hand needed to consecutively touch these two discs as fast
as possible. The time needed to complete 25 full cycles was recorded.
The best of two attempts was used as a test result.
2.2.2. Cognitive functions
Several cognitive functions were assessed in the present study and
included assessment of three executive functions (visuospatial working
Table 1
Participant characteristics (N = 423).
Variable Mean (SD) N (%)
Age (years) 13.45 (0.428)
Sex, n girls 225 (53.2%)
BMI (kg/m2) 19.08 (3.230)
Healthy weighta 364 (86.1%)
Overweighta 36 (8.5%)
Obesitya 11 (2.6%)
Unknownb 12 (2.8%)
Educational level
Prevocational secondary education 92 (21.75%)
Higher general secondary education 198 (46.8%)
Pre-university education 133 (31.4%)
Note. BMI, body-mass index; aAccording to the reference values by Cole et al.
(2000); babsent during measurements (n = 11) or refused to be weighted (n = 1).
B.F. Haverkamp et al.
memory, verbal working memory, and interference control) and of in­
formation processing and attentional functioning.
Visuospatial working memory was assessed using the forward and
backward condition of the computerized Grid Task (Nutley et al., 2009).
Adolescents were required to repeat a sequence of yellow dots that was
presented on a four by four grid. First, the adolescents had to repeat a
sequence in the order of presentation and when they finished this con­
dition they had to repeat a sequences in reversed order by clicking on the
relevant locations in the grid (sequence length started at 2 yellow dots).
The length of the sequence, which increased after every four trials,
primarily determined trial difficulty. Trial difficulty was also deter­
mined by the trajectory of the yellow dot within the grid, which was
more difficult in the second set of two trials in sequences of a given
length. The task was terminated after two consecutive incorrect re­
sponses on trials with the same difficulty level. For every correct trial,
the participant received one point. The total score was calculated by
multiplying the number of correct trials with the span of the last correct
item. For example, correct responses on the easy sublevel within three
circles returns a span of 3 and the difficult sublevel within the length of
three circles represents a span of 3.5 (Kessels et al., 2000).
Verbal working memory was assessed using the forward and back­
ward condition of the Digit Span Task (Wechsler, 1991). A sequence of
numbers was presented auditory by a trained examiner (sequence length
started at 2 digits). Adolescents were required to repeat the sequence in
the order of presentation and when they finished this condition they had
to repeat a sequence in reversed order in the backward condition. Trial
difficulty was determined by length of the sequence, which increased
with one digit every other trial. The task was terminated after two
consecutive incorrect responses on trials with the same difficulty level.
For every correct trial, the participant received one point. The total score
was calculated by multiplying the number of correct trials with the
highest length of digit sequence passed (Kessels et al., 2000).
Interference control was assessed using an adapted version of the
Attention Network Test (ANT) (Fan et al., 2002). Target stimuli con­
sisting of an airplane heading to the right or left were presented on a
computer screen. Adolescents were instructed to respond as quickly and
accurate as possible to the heading direction of the target stimuli by
pressing the corresponding button. Two distractors on both sides could
flank the target stimuli (i.e. flankers). In the neutral condition no
flankers were presented. In the congruent condition the flankers were
presented on the side to which the airplane headed and in the incon­
gruent condition the flankers were presented on the site opposite to
which the airplane headed. The participants first performed a practice
block of 24 trials, and were subsequently presented with four blocks of
36 trials each followed with a short break (30s) in between. The dif­
ference in mean reaction time and accuracy (% correct responses) be­
tween congruent and incongruent trials was used as a measure for
interference control.
Information processing and attention processes were also assessed
with the ANT. Three types of warning cues preceded the target stimuli
(airplane heading left or right): a central cue in the middle of the screen,
a spatial cue indicating the position of the upcoming target, or no cue.
All trials were counterbalanced for cue condition, spatial cue location,
stimulus condition and stimulus location, and were presented in pre­
defined random order. Mean reaction time on neutral trials was used as a
measure of information processing speed. Differences in mean reaction
time and accuracy between central cues and no cue trials were used as
measures of alerting attention. Differences in mean reaction time and
accuracy (% correct responses) between spatial cues and central cues
were used as measures of spatial attention. Finally, as lapses of attention
cause extreme slow responses that inflate information processing speed,
ex-Gaussian modelling of reaction time distributions was used to
calculate the contribution of extreme slow responses (tau) (Lacouture &
Cousineau, 2008) to information processing speed. Estimates of tau were
obtained from fitting the ex-Gaussian distribution to the reaction times
data for each individual, in which tau represents the exponential
3
Psychology of Sport & Exercise 57 (2021) 102060
component and characterizes the slow reaction times in the tail of the
distribution. Background information on ex-Gaussian modelling and full
explanation of the mathematical procedure is provided elsewhere
(Whelan, 2008).
2.2.3. Academic achievement
Academic achievement was assessed with a short version of stan­
dardized achievement tests of mathematics and language that are part of
the Dutch Child Academic Monitoring System (CAMS) (van Til et al.,
2015). Excellent psychometric properties have been reported for both
tests (van Til et al., 2015). The mathematics test consisted of 40 ques­
tions covering the topics algebra, number sense and geometry. The
language test consisted of 60 questions about verb and common noun
spelling. Raw scores consisted of the number of correct responses on
each test. Raw scores were converted to a standardized proficiency score
using normative data derived from a large sample of Dutch adolescents
from lower and higher educational school levels. This provided the
opportunity to compare scores between different educational levels.
2.3. Procedure
Adolescents were tested during two physical education lessons
within the same week. In the first lesson the 20-m Shuttle Run Test was
administered. Furthermore, participants’ weight, without shoes, was
measured with a digital scale, that was calibrated after each measure­
ment week and all measurements were recorded to the closest 0.1 kg.
Finally, height was measured by tape-measure, without shoes, and all
measurements were recorded to the closest cm. In the second lesson, the
Broad Jump, Sit-Ups, 10 × 5 m Shuttle Run Test and Plate Tapping Test
were administered. In the same week, the neurocognitive assessments
were individually performed during the school day. Standardized in­
structions were used for administration of the neurocognitive assess­
ments which took about 25 min. Finally, mathematics and language tests
were administered in the class and took about 70 min. All tests were
conducted by trained examiners. The study procedures were in accor­
dance with and approved by the medical ethical committee of the Uni­
versity Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands. The current data
was obtained as part of a larger study registered in the Dutch Trial
Register (NTR7098) and was conducted according to the principles
expressed in the Declaration of Helsinki.
2.4. Data analysis
Initial analyses were performed in IBM SPSS Statistics version 26.0.
Outliers (z ≤ − 3.29 or z ≥ 3.29) were winsorized (Tabachnick et al.,
2007). Values missing at random were imputed for a particular variable
only if the following conditions were met: (1) <20% of the data for that
variable were missing, (2) there was sufficient data available (<40%
data points missing) on other measures of one concept (e.g. physical
fitness, cognitive functions, academic achievement) to impute the
missing data. Missing values were replaced by multiple imputation using
the average of 5 imputed variables (Sterne et al., 2009). Non-normally
distributed variables were converted using Van der Waerden trans­
formations (van der Waerden, 1952). Age, measures of physical fitness,
cognitive functions and academic achievement were transformed into
z-scores, with higher scores indicating better performance for physical
fitness, cognitive functions and academic achievement. Next, an average
z-score was calculated for strength of lower extremities and core, rep­
resenting muscular fitness. Likewise, an average z-score was calculated
for upper- and lower extremities speed-agility representing overall
speed-agility.
To reduce the number of cognitive functions and to enhance their
reliability, principal component analysis was performed on all measures
derived from the cognitive tests. Data were subjected to the principal
component analysis with varimax rotation. The scree plot was visually
inspected and components were retained and subjected to further
B.F. Haverkamp et al. Psychology of Sport & Exercise 57 (2021) 102060

analysis. Factor loadings of r > 0.30 were considered relevant. Table 2

The main analysis comprised multivariate multilevel regression Raw test scores on measures of physical fitness (N = 423), cognitive outcomes
analysis (MLwiN, version 3) accounting for the variability between (N = 346) and academic achievement (N = 353).
classes and nesting of adolescents within classes. Cognitive functions Concept measured Measure Mean SD Range
derived from the principal component analysis were used as dependent Cardiorespiratory VO2max (ml.kg-1. 47.68 5.003 35.36–59.50
variables in model 1 (level 1). A random intercept was used for each fitness min-1)
participant (level 2) and class (level 3). Model 1 contained only the Muscular fitness Broad Jump (cm) 157.72 24.231 93.0–251.0
covariates sex and age as predictors of the dependent variables. Model 2 Sit-Ups (number in 19.90 3.817 7–34
30 s)
extended model 1 by adding all aspects of physical fitness. An identical
Speed-agility 10 × 5 m Shuttle 20.68 1.88 15.7–27.0
approach was used to examine the relationship between physical fitness Run Test (s)
and academic achievement, in which proficiency levels of mathematics Plate-Tapping Test 12.10 1.281 9.1–17.2
and language were used as dependent variables. The model fit was (s)
evaluated by comparing the deviance (− 2*log-likelihood) of the first Visuospatial Visuospatial short- 94.40 32.233 18–203
working memory term memory
model and the second model using a χ2 difference test. If model 2 (correct responses
showed improved fit compared to model 1, the unique contribution of x highest span in
each of the entered predictors was determined. Finally, if one or more the forward
physical fitness component(s) were significantly associated with math­ condition)
Visuospatial 79.52 35.741 2–196.5
ematics or language a third model was build. In model 3, a mediation
working memory
analysis was performed to investigate the association between physical (correct responses
fitness and academic achievement after controlling for cognitive func­ x highest span in
tions. Level of significance was set at p < 0.05 (two sided). the backward
condition)
Verbal working Verbal short-term 48.28 20.379 12–113
3. Results memory memory (correct
responses x highest
The raw scores for physical fitness, cognitive functions and academic span in the forward
achievement are presented in Table 2. condition)
Verbal working 19.57 11.824 2–63
The principal component analysis extracted a total of six components
memory (correct
from the cognitive functioning data as shown in Table 3. Based on the responses x highest
strongest contributions, the cognitive functions were labelled as follows: span in the
(1) Information processing and control, (2) Attention accuracy, (3) Vi­ backward
suospatial working memory, (4) Verbal working memory, (5) Attention condition)
Information Information 503.92 62.000 363.04–699.63
efficiency, and (6) Interference control. processing processing (MRT in
Tables 4 and 5 show the results of the multivariate multilevel ms)
regression models testing the associations between the three aspects of Alerting attention Speed of alerting − 23.32 25.735 − 96.74–61.39
physical fitness and the cognitive outcomes and between the three as­ attention (MRT in
ms)
pects of physical fitness and academic achievement, respectively. Re­
Accuracy of − 1.35 4.626 − 17.67–13.11
sults revealed that model 2 of the cognitive outcomes had significantly alerting attention
better model fit than model 1, Δχ2 (3) = 36.03, p < 0.001, indicating (% correct)
that aspects of physical fitness to model 1 (including a random intercept, Spatial attention Speed of spatial − 45.09 27.810 − 131.25–40.11
sex and age), increased the percentage of variance explained in the attention (MRT in
ms)
measures of cognitive functions (see Table 4). Appendix A shows the Accuracy of spatial 3.23 4.058 − 6.25–16.31
multivariate multilevel regression analysis testing the associations be­ attention (%
tween the three aspects of physical fitness and the cognitive functions correct)
separately. Interference Speed of 122.52 39.887 − 1.64–248.26
control interference
Next, we tested the univariate contribution of cardiorespiratory
control (MRT in
fitness, muscular fitness and speed-agility to each of the six cognitive ms)
functions in model 2. These results showed that speed-agility was Accuracy of − 8.96 7.694 − 35.33–4.17
significantly related to visuospatial working memory, t = 2.45, p = interference
0.014, information processing and control, t = 4.25, p=<0.001 and control (% correct)
Lapses of attention Tau 86.70 36.122 2.00–209.00
interference control, t = 2.08, p = 0.039. These findings indicate that Academic Mathematics 34.49 29.324 1–100
better speed-agility is related to better visuospatial working memory, achievement (proficiency score)
information processing and control and interference control. Speed- Language 36.01 29.039 1–99
agility was not significantly related to verbal working memory, atten­ (proficiency score)
tion accuracy or attention efficiency. Furthermore, cardiorespiratory Note. MRT: mean reaction time.
fitness and muscular fitness were not significantly related to any of the
cognitive functions. Finally, it was shown that boys performed better Δχ2 (3) = 5.71, p = 0.127, indicating that adding aspects of physical
compared to girls on information processing and control and that the fitness to the covariates (including a random intercept, sex and age), did
older the adolescents were, the better they scored on information pro­ not significantly increase the percentage of variance explained in the
cessing and control. However, when interaction terms were added to the measures of academic achievement (see Table 5). Because no significant
model - between sex and aspects of physical fitness or between age and associations were found between any of the components of physical
aspects of physical fitness -, no moderating effects of sex or age were fitness and the two measures of academic achievement, no further
found. In all other aspects of cognitive functioning there was no signif­ mediation analyses was conducted to test whether cognitive functions
icant effect of sex or age. would mediate the relationship between the components of physical
The multivariate multilevel regression models testing the association fitness and the measures of academic achievement. However, the results
between the three aspects of physical fitness and academic achievement did show that girls performed better on language compared to boys.
revealed that model 2 had no significantly better model fit than model 1

4
B.F. Haverkamp et al. Psychology of Sport & Exercise 57 (2021) 102060

Table 3
Principal component analysis.
Neurocognitive Component 1 Information Component 2 Component 3 Component 4 Verbal Component 5 Component 6
measures processing and control Attention accuracy Visuospatial working working memory Attention efficiency Interference control
memory

Visuospatial short- 0.882

term memory
Visuospatial working 0.804
memory
Verbal short-term 0.810
memory
Verbal working 0.804
memory
Information 0.914
processing
Speed of alerting 0.777
attention
Accuracy of alerting 0.897
attention
Speed of spatial ¡0.842
attention
Accuracy of spatial ¡0.880
attention
Speed of interference 0.927
control
Accuracy of 0.561 0.317 − 0.351
interference control
Lapses of attention 0.830
Eigenvalue 1.918 1.747 1.463 1.389 1.342 1.083
Variance explained by 0.160 0.146 0.122 0.116 0.112 0.090
component

Note. Factor loadings >0.300 are displayed; Factor loadings in bold represent the component to which the neurocognitve measure was counted

When adding an interaction term between sex and the aspects of phys­
ical fitness, however, no moderating effect of sex was found in the
model.
4. Discussion
This study found significant associations between skill-related
physical fitness (e.g. speed-agility) and cognitive functioning (visuo­
spatial working memory, information processing and control and
interference control) in adolescents (12–15years). Furthermore, no sig­
nificant associations were found between health-related physical fitness
(e.g. cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness) and any cognitive
outcome. Additionally, no association was found between any compo­
nent of physical fitness and any aspect of academic achievement and
therefore the mediating role of cognitive functions could not be
investigated.
The results showed that speed-agility is related with visuospatial
working memory, information processing and control and interference
control. Our results are partly in line with a review that showed that
skill-related physical fitness (speed-agility and motor coordination) was
a potential predictor of general cognitive performance (Ruiz-Ariza et al.,
2017). In adolescents skill-related physical fitness, and in particular
speed-agility, is trained through participation in physical activity or
sports in complex situations that require fast movement reactions to
changing task demands during tagging or games. The current findings
can be explained by the assumption that there are important striatal
pathways between the cerebellum and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex,
brain regions that are critical for complex movements as well as complex
cognitive performance (Diamond, 2000; Koziol et al., 2014). During
complex sport situations, adequate perception of the position of team­
mates and opponents, objects (like a ball) and fast decision making is
required, aspects that put heavy demands on visuospatial working
memory (Furley & Wood, 2016). In addition, the association between
skill-related physical fitness and information processing and control and
interference control (inhibition) supports the suggestion that the
cognitive effort required to coordinate complex movements and to cope
with the cognitive demands of complex sport situations might foster the
development of inhibitory ability that is not only useful for the sport
domain but also in other tasks in daily living (Marchetti et al., 2015).
Taken together, it would be interesting for future studies to examine the
role of specific cognitive functions in complex sport situations in
adolescents.
In the current study no significant associations were found between
health-related physical fitness and any of the cognitive outcomes in
adolescents. This finding is in contrast with previous literature in which
positive associations were found between health-related physical fitness
and cognitive functions in children and adolescents (Donnelly et al.,
2016; Hillman et al., 2008; Ruiz-Ariza et al., 2017; Skog et al., 2020; Xue
et al., 2019). However, in some studies the study sample or methodology
was different from our study which could have let to different results.
For example, some studies were performed mostly in pre-adolescent
children and not in adolescents (Donnelly et al., 2016; Hillman et al.,
2008; Skog et al., 2020). One possible explanation for these conflicting
findings might be that the relationship between health-related physical
fitness and cognitive functioning is less strong in adolescents than in
children as a result of a rapid decrease in physical activity and increase
in sedentary behavior (Corder et al., 2019) affecting health-related
physical fitness levels in a negative way (Venckunas et al., 2017).
Simultaneously, rapid maturation of the brain takes place, with changes
in grey and white matter in the frontal lobe (Tamnes et al., 2017;
Whitford et al., 2007), a brain area that crucially contributes to execu­
tive functions (Lebel et al., 2008). The combination of decrease in
physical fitness and the rapid brain maturation might lead to
sub-optimal development of cognitive functions. Regarding methodol­
ogy, some studies compared adolescents with a higher fitness level with
those with a lower fitness level (Ruiz-Ariza et al., 2017). In our study, we
performed a regression analysis resulting in a more detailed relationship
between physical fitness and cognitive function. In addition, it allowed
us to include different aspects of physical fitness in one model, whereas
most previous studies did not take other aspects of physical fitness into
account (Donnelly et al., 2016; Xue et al., 2019). The current study
shows that distinguishing between aspects of health and skill-related

5
B.F. Haverkamp et al. Psychology of Sport & Exercise 57 (2021) 102060

Table 4 Table 5
Results of multivariate multilevel regression analysis for physical fitness and Results of multivariate multilevel regression analysis for physical fitness and
cognitive functions (n = 346). academic achievement (n = 353).
Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

B SE p B SE p B SE p B SE p

Visuospatial Mathematics
working memory Random intercept 0.049 0.083 0.550 0.089 0.104 0.390
Random intercept − 0.085 0.088 0.333 0.003 0.102 0.979 Sexa − 0.121 0.107 0.258 − 0.191 0.162 0.240
Sexa 0.100 0.089 0.261 − 0.043 0.138 0.754 Age − 0.083 0.056 0.141 − 0.076 0.057 0.183
Age 0.058 0.045 0.196 0.042 0.045 0.356 VO2max − 0.045 0.091 0.625
VO2max − 0.114 0.077 0.139 Muscular fitness − 0.005 0.081 0.953
Muscular fitness − 0.015 0.067 0.820 Speed-agility − 0.017 0.077 0.825
Speed-agility 0.159 0.065 0.014 Variance classesb 0.018 0.024 0.453 0.016 0.023 0.487
Variance classesb 0.069 0.034 0.042 0.061 0.032 0.057 Variance 0.975 0.076 <0.001 0.975 0.076 <0.001
Variance 0.640 0.051 <0.001 0.628 0.050 <0.001 adolescentsb
adolescentsb
Language
Verbal working Intercept − 0.336 0.094 0.000 − 0.256 0.109 0.019
memory Sexa 0.576 0.098 0.000 0.428 0.150 0.004
Random intercept − 0.030 0.097 0.758 − 0.032 0.108 0.766 Age − 0.111 0.053 0.036 − 0.095 0.054 0.079
Sexa 0.009 0.084 0.916 0.028 0.131 0.828 VO2max − 0.066 0.085 0.435
Age − 0.029 0.042 0.490 − 0.040 0.043 0.350 Muscular fitness − 0.134 0.075 0.072
VO2max 0.024 0.073 0.743 Speed-agility 0.069 0.072 0.337
Muscular fitness − 0.064 0.063 0.313 Variance classesb 0.078 0.040 0.051 0.070 0.037 0.059
Speed-agility 0.077 0.062 0.216 Variance 0.814 0.063 <0.001 0.804 0.062 <0.001
Variance classesb 0.115 0.048 0.017 0.101 0.043 0.019 adolescentsb
Variance 0.558 0.045 <0.001 0.557 0.044 <0.001 Deviance 1901.31 1895.60
adolescentsb a b
Note. Boys were used as the reference category; Values representing between
Information processing and control and within class variance, respectively.
Random intercept 0.152 0.083 0.068 0.217 0.090 0.015
Sexa − 0.352 0.079 0.000 − 0.448 0.119 0.000
Age 0.130 0.039 0.001 0.110 0.039 0.004 physical fitness is of importance in research among adolescents.
VO2max − 0.098 0.068 0.149 Furthermore, this study did not find any significant associations
Muscular fitness − 0.008 0.058 0.893 between physical fitness and academic achievement in adolescents. This
Speed-agility 0.238 0.056
is in contrast with previous studies that did find some significant positive
<0.001
Variance classesb 0.073 0.033 0.027 0.054 0.026 0.038
Variance 0.531 0.042 <0.001 0.503 0.040 <0.001 associations between physical fitness and academic performance in six
adolescents b
to eighteen year old students (Chu et al., 2019; Santana et al., 2017). An
Attention efficiency explanation for the conflicting results is that a large number of factors is
Random intercept − 0.022 0.064 0.734 0.026 0.083 0.754 involved in academic performance with some of these variables paying a
Sexa 0.046 0.088 0.599 − 0.040 0.135 0.766 more profound role in adolescence than in childhood, because of the
Age 0.000 0.043 0.995 − 0.007 0.043 0.879 hormonal, behavioral changes that take place in this period (Blakemore
VO2max − 0.093 0.077 0.228
& Choudhury, 2006). For example academic achievement is also asso­
Muscular fitness 0.068 0.067 0.310
Speed-agility 0.070 0.062 0.257 ciated with personality variables (e.g. self-discipline, social skills, aca­
Variance classesb 0.000 0.000 1.000 0.000 0.000 1.000 demic perseverance and learning strategies (Duckworth & Seligman,
Variance 0.654 0.050 <0.001 0.647 0.050 <0.001 2005; Wanzer et al., 2019)). All these variables may overshadow the
adolescentsb
relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement in this
Attention accuracy population.
Random intercept 0.078 0.076 0.306 0.124 0.092 0.180 Strengths of this study include the broad range of aspects of physical
Sexa − 0.176 0.094 0.062 − 0.252 0.143 0.079
Age 0.025 0.044 0.574 0.003 0.046 0.948
fitness and cognitive functions that were considered. Furthermore, using
VO2max − 0.073 0.082 0.370 a test for academic achievement that was standardized for different
Muscular fitness 0.046 0.071 0.517 educational levels made it possible to include all adolescents in the same
Speed-agility 0.061 0.065 0.355 analyses. However, this paper has some limitations. First adolescents
Variance classesb 0.021 0.020 0.294 0.015 0.018 0.405
from lowest educational level were underrepresented in this study
Variance 0.803 0.063 <0.001 0.803 0.063 <0.001
adolescentsb sample. We recommend to include more adolescents from the prevo­
cational secondary educational level in future studies. Another limita­
Interference control
Random intercept − 0.080 0.080 0.320 − 0.024 0.101 0.811
tion of this study was the cross-sectional design, which does not allow us
Sexa 0.143 0.108 0.186 0.070 0.165 0.671 to test causal relationships. Finally, there were missing data due to
Age − 0.030 0.052 0.572 − 0.057 0.053 0.284 absence during measurement. However, the missing data was at random
VO2max − 0.097 0.094 0.303 and therefore we don’t expect that this has influenced the results of the
Muscular fitness 0.059 0.081 0.467
study.
Speed-agility 0.156 0.075 0.039
Variance classesb 0.005 0.019 0.792 0.000 0.000 1.000
Variance 0.985 0.078 <0.001 0.971 0.074 <0.001 5. Conclusion
Deviance 4939.31 4903.28

Note. p-values < 0.05 are presented in bold; aBoys were used as the reference
category; bValues representing between and within class variance, respectively.
The results suggest that in adolescents, skill-related physical fitness is
related to cognitive functions, but health-related physical fitness is not
significantly related to cognitive functions. Perhaps these findings
indicate that the striatal pathways between the cerebellum and dorso­
lateral prefrontal cortex are more prominent in adolescents than the
physiological pathways for the link between physical fitness and
cognition. Our findings are in contrast with previous findings, but draws

6
B.F. Haverkamp et al.
the attention to the possibility of other mechanisms that also play an
important role in the physical fitness-cognition link during the adoles­
cence. Furthermore, both health-related and skill-related physical
fitness were not significantly related to academic achievement. In future
studies the focus should be more on skill-related (e.g. cognitive
engaging) physical activities combined with aerobic exercises. More­
over, more attention is needed for the skill-related physical fitness as­
pects in the association between physical fitness and cognition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by a grant from the Netherlands Initiative
for Education Research (405-16-411) and the Dutch Brain Foundation.
The authors would like to thank the teachers, parents, adolescents and
schools, without whom this work would not have been possible.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102060.
Disclosure of interest
The authors report no conflict of interest.
Study registration
This study was registered in the Dutch Trial Register (NTR7098).
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