Membrane Structure

Structure with a thin, flexible surface (membrane) that carries loads primarily through
tensile stresses. There are two main types: tent structures and pneumatic structures. The
Denver International Airport (1995) features a terminal building roofed by a white membrane
stretched from steel masts. Another such structure is London’s The O2 (formerly Millennium
Dome), which has a tensioned membrane structure with a diameter of 320 meters (1,050 feet),
one of the largest in the world.
Membrane Structures are lightweight constructions full of beauty and elegance. It is the
art of spanning enormous distances with minimal material thickness, where design is following
forces. This symbiosis of form and structure reduces weight, minimizes the amount of resources
and thus saves energy and cost and creates light flooded, striking and impressive forms of
architecture.

Key Facts
Benefits:

 Membrane Structures also known as Lightweight Structures have a unique visual

character and give designers, architects and engineers the ability to experiment with
forms full of beauty and elegance meeting highest esthetical requirements.
 Membrane Structures are structurally optimized and highly efficient. The enormous
range of spanning capability require less primary structure and are thus very cost-
effective. Due to these savings and other unique properties, Membrane Structures are
environmentally sensitive and ideal for sustainable construction solutions.
 Compared to traditional building, materials in these Tensile Structures offer building
owners plenty of column-free and light-flooded space, short construction time and fast
assembly, reduced construction and maintenance costs and very long durability.
Membranes are extremely robust, long lasting, weather resistant, providing strength
and permanence for the material. Membranes are suitable for all sorts of climates
ranging from cold and dry to hot and humid with a project life in some cases even
exceeding 30 years.

Applications:
Membrane structures are lightweight spatial structures made of tensioned
membranes. Membrane can be used to construct roofs and façades, free-standing
buildings, building envelopes, skylights, indoor ceilings and/or accent enclosures.
Lightweight structures are ideal for use in building types in the areas of
infrastructure, culture, sports and entertainment, commerce, office, living and private
use. There are no limits to application, design and functionality.
 Overview of possible properties of Membrane Structures:

 Environment friendly, most materials are recyclable

 High reflective surface
 Low absorption of sunlight
 High light transmittance rate (translucent or even transparent)
 Use of natural daylight instead of cost intensive electrical light
 Multi-layer constructions increase thermal insulation properties
 Lightweight
 Self-cleaning
 UV stable
 Full range of colors available
 Printable
 Long-term stable

Form

Principles
Tensioned Structures are curved between supporting elements in a manner
reflective of the flow of tension forces within the membrane. These curvatures are anticlastic
in nature as Membrane Material can only be subjected to tensile forces, not pressure. In
order to provide stability to a Membrane Structure, the anticlastic curvature is imperative.
The anticlastic deformation in conjunction with a mechanically applied pre-tension leads to a
stiffening of the surface and thus to the desired and statically calculable stiffness. The
greater the deformation, the lower are the applied pre-load forces, which ultimately result
from the external load of wind and snow in the context of the static calculation. Below this
load bearing principal illustrated by Friedemann Kugel in the brochure "Arbeitskreis Textile
Architektur":

The single load of a brick causes a kink of the rope at the suspension point,
Several bricks cause a polygon - which merges with continuous direct load into a
continuous curvature (chain line).

Upward directed loads transform the rope into an upward-facing rope accordingly

Both rope systems superimposed, create the simplest cable net that can carry
downwards as well as upward directed loads.

If the simple cable net is multiplied by parallel cable shafts in both directions, then the
anticlastic curved rope net arises. This structure is an approximation to the form of
curved Membrane Structures and clarifies their principal load bearing behavior.
Types

The variety of forms of Membrane Structures is endless. In principle, the

membrane structures can be divided into two main different types: The mechanically
pre-tensioned and pneumatically pre-tensioned Structures.
 
The mechanical pre-tension delivers, for example, saddle-shaped (anticlastic)
surfaces, like pre-tensioned sails. The pneumatic pre-tension delivers, for example, air
inflated cushions, tubes or air halls with synclastic surfaces in most of areas. Some
membranes are supported by single cables or cable nets.

All membrane structures can be described as secondary structure, stabilized by

a so-called primary structure. That means, the primary structure made of rigid
materials, like steel or wood, doesn’t collapse, when the membrane structure (as
secondary structure) is taken away.

Formfinding
Formfinding is by definition the creation of the desired surface/shape out of a
flexible membrane material. The finding of optimal aesthetical and operational
membrane’s form is mandatory to proceed further in the project development.
Formfinding is usually an iterative process involving shape modelling combined with civil
engineering knowledge.  Formfinding has been executed in different ways during the
ages: by trials and errors, creating a soap film model, using hanging chains model,
 making scale models, using stocking material, and now, taking advantages of
formfinding softwares.

Planning and Building

Design Development

In order to create an ideal, aesthetically flawless and ultimately economical

membrane structure, it makes sense to work closely together with all parties involved -
client, planner and membrane construction company - at a very early stage.

The architect's first sketches determine the framework conditions resulting from
the functional requirements of the planned structure and the desired optical effect. From
this, the specialist engineer of the membrane construction company develops a
preliminary design, which includes both the geometrically necessary shaping as well as
the constructional necessary elements, e. g. the positioning of supports, bracing,
anchorages, etc. A budget can be determined from this draft. Together with the architect
and the client, the final design, the planned aesthetics, functional requirements and the
planned budget are compared on the basis of this design.

Structural Analysis

In contrast to conventional structures, the final shape of membrane structures is

only determined by the statics. This means that the design planning must be carried out
in close coordination with the static analysis in order to achieve an economically and
creatively optimal conception. Due to the long service life of the materials, membrane
structures are classified as permanent structures like conventional structures. They are
therefore subject to approval in accordance with the standards of the individual countries
and must correspond to the load assumptions contained in the respective building
regulations. Regional regulations such as wind and snow loads, for example, must be
taken into account, as well as climatic characteristics.

The actual static calculation is based on the data described above, which
resulted from the form determination. Within the scope of extensive calculations, which
have to take into account not only the different load cases but also the three-
dimensionality of the roofing and the biaxial expansion behavior of the material, the final
verifiable static calculation is prepared.
 The statics of the membrane determine the requirements for the overall detailed
design of the Membrane Structure. Edge geometry and detail design used for load
transfer are defined here. The same applies to load transfer points in the load-bearing
structure. It should be noted that membrane structures are subject to deformation when
exposed to external loads (e. g. wind and snow). These must be absorbed by the
connection points to the load-bearing structure, to existing conventional structures or in
foundations.

In contrast to conventional constructions, the weight of the material (approx. 1-

1.5 kg/m²) is negligible. This results in a high susceptibility to wind loads, which is
compensated by the static equilibrium of a membrane construction consisting of shaping
and pre-stressing, but which places special demands on the supporting structure and the
foundations in relation to the application of load. In contrast to traditional construction
methods, the bearing capacity of the subsoil is only in a few exceptional cases decisive
for the dimensioning of the foundations. Depending on the soil conditions, tensile loads
can be dissipated by heavy-duty foundations or special ground anchors.

Engineering

The static calculation finally defines the required tensile strength of the material.
Generally a combination of steel construction and ropes is chosen as the supporting
structure. The design can be freely selected, as long as the geometric and construction-
related connection points are observed. Due to the optical lightness of the roofing, it is
suitable to dissolve supports and girder systems into filigree grid structures or replace
them as far as possible with rope structures. Of course, load-bearing structures made of
aluminium, stainless steel, glued wood or steel constructions are also conceivable.
 
Once the static calculation has been approved by the building authorities, the
construction drawings are prepared. Particularly with regard to design elements, these
have to be coordinated with the planner and client. In addition to the accurate geometry
of the membrane, it is important that sufficient attachment points for mounting and
clamping tools are provided.In general, the structure and the membrane are prepared
completely ready for installation, similar to a prefabricated house in the factory.

Fabrication

Based on the geometry required by the static conditions and/or intended from
an architectonic point of view, the layout model is developed with the help of special
FEM programs. Prior to this, the tensile strength of the material delivered has to be
tested. The expansion behaviour of the material used must be determined by biaxial
tests. This is essential for getting the authority approvals and to ensure that after
erection the structure can be tensioned as calculated.

The single templates are cut by automatically cutters. Different welding

processes for ETFE, Glass/PTFE or PVC/Polyester and others require modern
machinery but mainly trained staff. The welding process – depending on the materials –
requires an appropriate continuously in house quality control procedure in order to grant
that the seams are able to cope safely with the loads calculated. A quality control should
be different for example for ETFE or Glass/PTFE projects since this material is more
sensible to handling faults then PVC/PES.

Once the welding process has been finished a final inspection has to take
place. Optical checks as well as measurement checks are necessary. The fabricator has
to ensure a proper and safe packing according to the materials requirements (for
example: no sharp folding’s for Glass/PTFE or ETFE membranes). All over that the
membrane should be folded and packed according to the scheduled erection process.
This is to avoid unnecessary unfolding’s and movements on site.

Installation

In the beginning of the installation process a plan has to be developed how to

install this special membrane. This should already be part of the engineering process in
order to get the right fixing points as well as the mountable size of the membrane pieces.
Installation of pneumatically or mechanically tensioned structures requires special expert
knowledge and experience. The loads which have to be adapted to the supporting
structure often require additional static calculations for the installation steps with respect
to the bearing structure.

During installation the material delivered to site should be handled properly in

order to avoid damages. Using the needed cranes and tensioning devices the
membrane elements first are fixed to the designed points of the construction and then
tensioned step by step. Finally the designed tension of the structure should be checked.
Atmospheric exposure is an important element with regard to the execution of the
assembly. In the event of strong winds or low temperatures, the assembly of the
relatively lightweight membrane surfaces is hardly possible and should be stopped to
avoid damage to human beings as well as to the structure itself. This has to be decided
by the experienced installation team.
Maintenance and Inspection

The cost of maintenance on a conventional building, over its lifetime, can far
exceed the building's construction costs. Tensile membrane systems require relatively
small maintenance when compared to an equivalent-sized conventional building. The
below listed companies offers a complete range of Maintenance, Inspection, Cleaning,
Testing and Repair Service and Support for any of those structures and can be
contacted for further assistance:

 Carpatec

 CENO Membrane Technology GmbH

 Fabric Architecture

 PFEIFER Seil- und Hebetechnik GmbH

 Taiyo Europe GmbH

 Temme // Obermeier GmbH