Avte 213

AVTE 213 - 5
Elementary Electrical
Engineering (AC/DC)
Mr. Fitzpatrick C. Cunanan

8/27/2021
Units associated with basic

electrical quantities
The basic units in the SI system are

SI units listed below with their symbols:
● The system of units used in

engineering and science is the
Système Internationale
d’Unités (International system
of units), usually abbreviated to
SI units, and is based on the
metric system.
● This was introduced in 1960 and
is now adopted by the majority of
countries as the official system of
measurement.
1
8/27/2021
SI units
● Derived SI units use ● SI units may be made larger or
combinations of basic units smaller by using prefixes which
and there are many of them. denote multiplication or division
by a particular amount.
Examples:
Velocity – metres per second

(m/s)
Acceleration – metres per

second squared (m/s^2)
2
8/27/2021
Expressing a Number
in Scientific Notation
The procedure for using any form of
powers of 10 notation is to write the
original number as two separate
factors.
Scientific notation is a form of powers

of 10 notation in which a number is
expressed as a number between 1
and 10 times a power of 10.
Expressing a Number
The power of 10 is used to place the
decimal point correctly.
The power of 10 indicates the

number of places by which the
decimal point has been moved to the
left or right in the original number.
3
8/27/2021
Expressing a Number
If the decimal point is moved to the
left in the original number, then the
power of 10 will increase or become
more positive.
Conversely, if the decimal point is

moved to the right in the original
number then the power of 10 will
decrease or become more
negative.
Expressing a Number
Example 1-1
Express the following numbers in

scientific notation:
(a) 3900 (a) 3900 = 3.9 x 10^3
(b) 0.0000056 (b) 0.0000056 = 5.6 x 10 ^-6
4
8/27/2021
Rules expressing a number

in scientific notation
Rule 1: Express the number as a Rule 3: The power of 10 always equals
number between 1 and 10 times a the number of places by which the
power of 10. decimal point has been shifted to the
left or right in the original number.
Rule 2: If the decimal point is moved
to the left in the original number, Rule 4: If the exponent or power of 10
make the power of 10 positive. If the is positive, move the decimal point to
decimal point is moved to the right in the right, the same number of places as
the original number, make the power the exponent.
of 10 negative.

Rule 5: If the exponent or power of 10
is negative, move the decimal point to
the left, the same number of places
as the exponent.
5
8/27/2021
Engineering Notation
Engineering notation is another form More specifically, a number expressed
of powers of 10 notation. in engineering notation is always
expressed as a number between 1 and
Engineering notation is similar to 1000 times a power of 10 which is a
scientific notation except that in multiple of 3.
engineering notation, the powers of
10 are always multiples of 3 such
as 10^-12, 10^-9, 10^-6, 10^-3, 10^3,
10^6, 10^9, 10^12, etc.
Engineering Notation
Example 1-2
Express the following numbers in

engineering notation:
(a) 27,000 (a) 27,000 = 27 x 10^3 or 0.027 x 10^6
(b) 0.00047 (b) 0.00047 = 0.47 x 10^-3 or 470 x 10^-6
6
8/27/2021

Rule 6: Express the original number
in scientific notation first. If the power
of 10 is a multiple of 3, the number
appears the same in both scientific
and engineering notation.

Rule 7: If the original number The decimal point in the numerical part
expressed in scientific notation does of the expression must be adjusted
not use a power of 10 which is a accordingly to compensate for the
multiple of 3, the power of 10 must change in the power of 10.
either be increased or decreased until
it is a multiple of 3.
7
8/27/2021

Rule 8: Each time the power of 10 is Each time the power of 10 is decreased
increased by 1, the decimal point in by 1, the decimal point in the numerical
the numerical part of the expression part of the expression must be moved
must be moved one place to the left. one place to the right.
8
8/27/2021
Negative and Positive

Polarities
Negative and Positive Polarities

What do they all have in common that is ❏ We see the effects of electricity
electrical in nature?
in a battery, static charge,
➔ The basic particles of electric charge with lightning, radio, television,and
opposite polarities . many other applications.
❏ Materials contains basic particles
of electric charge:
GOOD TO KNOW
Electricity is a form of energy, where energy
➢ Solids
refers to the ability to do work. More specifically, ➢ Liquids
electrical energy refers to the energy associated
➢ Gases
with electric charges.
1
8/27/2021

❏ Basic particles of electric charge: ❏ Electron is the smallest amount
➢ Electrons of electric charge having the
➢ Protons characteristic called negative
polarity.
❏ Proton is a basic particle with
positive polarity.

❏ The negative and positive ❏ Opposing characteristics provide
polarities indicate two opposite a method of balancing one
characteristics that seem to be against the other to explain
fundamental in all physical different physical effects.
applications. ❏ It is the arrangement of electrons
and protons as basic particles of
Example: Like magnets with electricity that determines the
north pole and south pole. electrical characteristics of all
substances.
2
8/27/2021

❏ When we want to use the
electrical forces associated with
the negative and positive
charges in all matter, work must
be done to separate the
electrons and protons. Changing
the balance of forces produces
evidence of electricity.

❏ Example: Battery, can do
electrical work because its
chemical energy separates
GOOD TO KNOW electric charges to produce an
A battery is a device that excess of electrons at its
converts chemical energy into
electrical energy. negative terminal and an excess
of protons at its positive
terminal.With separate and
opposite charges at the two
terminals, electric energy can be
supplied to a circuit connected to
the battery
3
8/27/2021
Electrons and Protons in the

Atom
Electrons and Protons in the Atom

An atom is the smallest particle of ➔ There are any number of
the basic elements which forms possible methods by which
the physical substances we know electrons and protons might be
as solids, liquids, and gases. grouped, they assemble in
specific atomic combinations for
a stable arrangement.
➔ Each stable combination of
electrons and protons makes
one particular type of atom.
1
8/27/2021

➔ This atom consists of a central
One electron in the hydrogen
mass called the nucleus and one
atom is shown in an orbital ring
electron outside.
around the nucleus.
➔ The proton in the nucleus makes
it the massive and stable part of
the atom because a proton is
1840 times heavier than an
electron.

To account for the electrical
stability of the atom, we can
consider the electron as spinning
around the nucleus, as planets
revolve around the sun.
2
8/27/2021
● The electrical force attracting the

electrons in toward the nucleus
is balanced by the mechanical
force outward on the rotating
electron.
● As a result, the electron stays in
its orbit around the nucleus.
● Carbon (C) atom has six protons

in the nucleus and six electrons
in two outside rings.
● The total number of electrons in
the outside rings must equal the
number of protons in the nucleus
in a neutral atom.
3
8/27/2021
● With six electrons, there are just

two electrons in the first ring
because two is its maximum
number. The remaining four
electrons are in the second ring,
which can have a maximum of
eight electrons.

● The distribution of electrons in the
orbital rings determines the
atom’s electrical stability.
● Especially important is the
number of electrons in the ring
farthest from the nucleus.
● Outermost ring requires eight
electrons for stability, except
when there is only one ring, which
has a maximum of two electrons.
4
8/27/2021
● Another example, the copper

atom.
● Only one electron in the last ring,
which can include eight electrons.
● Therefore, the outside ring of the
copper atom is less stable than
the outside ring of the carbon
atom.
● When many atoms are close

together in a copper wire, the
outermost orbital electron of each
copper atom can easily break free
from its home or parent atom.
● These electrons then can migrate
easily from one atom to another at
random.
5
8/27/2021
● Such electrons that can move

freely from one atom to the next
are called free electrons.
● This freedom accounts for the
ability of copper to conduct
electricity very easily.
● It is the movement of free
electrons that provides electric
current in a metal conductor.

● The net effect in the wire itself
without any applied voltage,
however, is zero because of the
random motion of the free
electrons.
● When voltage is applied, it forces
all the free electrons to move in
the same direction to produce
electron flow, which is an electric
current.
6
8/27/2021
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

When electrons can move easily from
atom to atom in a material, the
material is a conductor.
In general, all metals are good
conductors, with silver the best and
copper second.
Their atomic structure allows free
movement of the outermost orbital
electrons.

Copper wire is generally used for
practical conductors because it costs
much less than silver.
The purpose of using conductors is to
allow electric current to flow with
minimum opposition.
7
8/27/2021

The wire conductor is used only to
deliver current produced by the
voltage source to a device that needs
the current to function.
As an example, a bulb lights only
when current flows through the
filament.

A material with atoms in which the
electrons tend to stay in their own
orbits is an insulator because it
cannot conduct electricity very easily.
However, insulators can hold or store

electricity better than conductors.
An insulating material, such as glass,

plastic, rubber, paper, air, or mica, is
also called a dielectric, meaning it can
store electric charge.
8
8/27/2021

Insulators can be useful when it is
necessary to prevent current flow.
In addition, for applications requiring

the storage of electric charge, as in
capacitors, a dielectric material must
be used because a good conductor
cannot store any charge.

Carbon can be considered a
semiconductor, conducting less than
metal conductors but more than
insulators.
In the same group are germanium
and silicon, which are commonly used
for transistors and other
semiconductor components.
Practically all transistors are made of
silicon.
9
8/27/2021
* Some metals have more than one valence number in forming chemical
compounds. Examples are cuprous or cupric copper, ferrous or ferric iron, and
aurous or auric gold.
10
8/27/2021
Structure of the Atom
Atomic Number
● The number of protons or
electrons required in the atom
for each element.
● It also identifies the atom's
conductivity.
Example:
○ The carbon atom with

atomic number six has
six protons in the nucleus
and six orbital electrons.
1
8/27/2021
Atomic Number
● The copper atom has 29

protons and 29 electrons
because its atomic
number is 29.
Atomic Number
2
8/27/2021
Orbital Rings
● The planetary electrons are in

successive shells called K, L,
M, N, O, P, and Q at
increasing distances outward
from the nucleus.
● Each shell has a maximum
number of electrons for
stability.
● Gases that
does not
undergo
chemical
reactions
under a set
of given
conditions.
Orbital Rings
3
8/27/2021
Orbital Rings
● The K shell, closest to the nucleus,

is stable with two electrons,
corresponding to the atomic structure
for the inert gas.
● Once the stable number of electrons
has filled a shell, it cannot take any
more electrons.
● The atomic structure with all its shells
filled to the maximum number for
stability corresponds to an inert gas.
Orbital Rings
● Elements with a higher atomic

number have more planetary
electrons.
● These are in successive
shells, tending to form the
structure of the next inert gas
in the periodic table.
4
8/27/2021
Orbital Rings
● After the K shell has been

filled with two electrons, the L
shell can take up to eight
electrons.
● Ten electrons filling the K and
L shells is the atomic structure
for the inert gas.
Orbital Rings
● For most elements, we can

use the rule that the maximum
number of electrons in a filled
inner shell equals 2n^2.
where n is the shell number in

sequential order outward from
the nucleus.
5
8/27/2021
Electron Valence
● This value is the number of

electrons in an incomplete
outermost shell (valence
shell).
● A completed outer shell has a
valence of zero.
Electron Valence
● Copper, for instance, has a

valence of one, as there is one
electron in the last shell, after
the inner shells have been
completed with their stable
number.
6
8/30/2021
Classification of materials
according to electrical
conductivity
Materials according to electrical conductivity:

● Conductor
○ Electrons move easily
from atom to atom in a
material.
Example:
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Iron
1
8/30/2021

● Conductor
○ The wire conductor is
used only to deliver
current produced by
the voltage source to a
device that needs the
current to function.
As an example, a bulb
lights only when
current flows through
the filament.

● Insulator
○ A material with atoms
in which the electrons
tend to stay in their
own orbits.
○ It cannot conduct
electricity very easily.
2
8/30/2021

● Insulator
○ However, insulators
can hold or store
electricity better than
conductors.

● Insulator
○ Example:
Glass
Plastic
Rubber
Paper
Mica
3
8/30/2021

● Semiconductor
○ Conducting less than
metal conductors but
more than insulators.
○ Example:
Carbon
Germanium
Silicon

● Semiconductor
○ Semiconductors have four
electrons in the outermost ring.
○ This means that they neither gain
nor lose electrons but share them
with similar atoms.
○ The reason is that four is exactly
halfway to the stable condition of
eight electrons in the outside ring.
4
8/30/2021
Coulomb Unit of Electric

Charge
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
If you rub a hard rubber pen or
comb on a sheet of paper, the
rubber will attract a corner of
the paper if it is free to move
easily.
The paper and rubber then

give evidence of a static
electric charge.
1
8/30/2021
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
The work of rubbing resulted in
separating electrons and
protons to produce a charge of
excess electrons on the
surface of the rubber and a
charge of excess protons on
the paper.
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
Paper and rubber are dielectric
materials, they hold their extra
electrons or protons.
This mechanical force of

attraction or repulsion between
charges is the fundamental
method by which electricity
makes itself evident.
2
8/30/2021
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
Static electricity is an
imbalance of electric charges
within or on the surface of a
material.
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
The unit of charge is the
Coulomb (C).
One coulomb (C) is one

Ampere Second
(Amp.Sec).
1 coulomb = 6.24 × 10^18

electrons
3
8/30/2021
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
The coulomb is defined as the
quantity of electricity which
flows past a given point in an
electric circuit when a current
of one ampere is maintained
for one second.
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
● Charge, in Coulombs,
Q=It
where I is the current

in amperes and t is
the time in seconds.
4
8/30/2021
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
● As an aid for determining the added
charge (Q) to a neutral dielectric,
use the following equation:
+/- Q = No. of electrons added or

removed / 6.24x10^18 electrons/C
Coulomb Unit of
Electric Charge
● This unit is named after
Charles A. Coulomb
(1736–1806), a French
physicist, who measured
the force between
charges.
5
8/30/2021
Sample
Problem
1. If a current of 5A Answer:
flows for 2 minutes, Quantity of electricity Q = It coulombs
find the quantity of I = 5A, t = 2 × 60 = 120 s
electricity Hence Q = 5 × 120 = 600C
transferred.
Charges of
Opposite Polarity
Attract
● If two small charged bodies of light
weight are mounted so that they are free
to move easily and are placed close to
each other, one can be attracted to the
other when the two charges have
opposite polarity
● In terms of electrons and protons, they
tend to be attracted to each other by the
force of attraction between opposite
charges.
6
8/30/2021
Charges of
Opposite Polarity
Attract
● The weight of an electron
is only about 1/1840 the
weight of a proton. As a
result, the force of
attraction tends to make
electrons move to protons.
Charges of the
Same Polarity
Repel
● The two bodies have an
equal amount of charge
with the same polarity,
they repel each other.
● The two negative
charges, two positive
charges of the same
value repel each other.
7
8/30/2021
Polarity of a
Charge
An electric charge must have either
negative or positive polarity, labeled -Q
or +Q, with an excess of either electrons
or protons.
A neutral condition is considered zero

charge.
Polarity of a
Charge
On this basis, consider the following

examples, remembering that the electron
is the basic particle of charge and the
proton has exactly the same amount,
although of opposite polarity.
8
8/30/2021
Example
A neutral dielectric has 12.5 x 10^18
electrons added to it. What is its charge
in coulombs?
ANSWER
This number of electrons is double the

charge of 1 C. Therefore, -Q = 2 C.
Example
A dielectric has a positive charge of 12.5
x 10^18 protons. What is its charge in
coulombs?
ANSWER
This is the same amount of charge as in

Example 1 but positive.
Therefore, +Q = 2 C.
9
8/30/2021
Polarity of a
Charge
Note that we generally consider that the
electrons move, rather than heavier
protons.
However, a loss of a given number of

electrons is equivalent to a gain of the
same number of protons.
Charge of
an Electron
The charge of a single electron,
designated Qe, is 0.16 x 10^-18 C. This
value is the reciprocal of 6.24 x 10^-18
electrons, which is the number of
electrons in 1 coulomb of charge.
Expressed mathematically,
(-Qe denotes that the charge of the

electron is negative.)
10
8/30/2021
Charge of
an Electron
It is important to note that the charge of a
single proton, designated Qp , is also
equal to 0.16 x 10^-18 C. However, its
polarity is positive instead of negative.
In some cases, the charge of a single

electron or proton will be expressed in
scientific notation. In this case, -Qe = 1.6
x 10^-19 C.
Charge of
an Electron
It is for convenience only that Qe or Qp is
sometimes expressed as 0.16 x 10^-18
C instead of 1.6 x 10^-19 C.
The convenience lies in the fact that 0.16

is the reciprocal of 6.24 and 10^-18 is the
reciprocal of 10^18.
11
9/6/2021
The Volt Unit of Potential

Difference
The Volt Unit of Potential Difference

● Potential refers to the possibility ● When we consider two unlike
of doing work. charges, they have a difference
● Any charge has the potential to of potential .
do the work of moving another
charge by either attraction or
repulsion.
1
9/6/2021

● A charge is the result of work ● Because of these forces, the
done in separating electrons charge of electrons or protons
and protons. has potential because it is
● Because of the separation, ready to give back the work put
stress and strain are into producing the charge.
associated with opposite ● The force between charges is in
charges, since normally they the electric field.
would be balancing each other to
produce a neutral condition.

Potential between Different
Charges
When one charge is different from

the other, there must be a difference
of potential between them.
For instance, consider a positive

charge of 3 C,
2
9/6/2021

Potential between Different Charges
When one charge is different from the

other, there must be a difference of
potential between them.
For instance, consider a positive charge of

3 C.
The charge has a certain amount of

potential, corresponding to the amount of
work this charge can do. The work to be
done is moving some electrons

Assume that a charge of 1 C can move

three electrons
Then the charge of 3 C can attract nine

electrons toward the right. However, the
charge of 1 C at the opposite side can
attract three electrons toward the left.
The net result, then, is that six electrons

can be moved toward the right to the
more positive charge.
3
9/6/2021

The net number of electrons moved in the direction of the more positive charge
depends on the difference of potential between the two charges.
The only case without any potential difference between charges occurs when
they both have the same polarity and are equal in amount. Then the repelling
and attracting forces cancel, and no work can be done in moving electrons
between the two identical charges.

The Volt Unit
The volt unit of potential difference is

named after Alessandro Volta (1745–
1827).
Italian physicist developed the first

chemical battery, which provided the first
practical source of electricity.
The volt is a measure of the amount of

work or energy needed to move an
electric charge.
4
9/6/2021

The unit of electric potential is the
volt (V), where one volt is one joule
per coulomb.
One volt is defined as the difference

in potential between two points in
a conductor which, when carrying a
current of one ampere, dissipates a
power of one watt.

Volts = watts/amperes P=W/t
W - energy transferred
= joules/seconds/amperes
t - time in seconds
= joules /amperes.seconds
= joules/coulombs
Capacitor
Coulomb = Capacitance*Volts Q=CV
5
9/6/2021

The Volt Unit
A change in electric potential between two

points in an electric circuit is called a
potential difference.
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided

by a source of energy such as a battery or
a generator is measured in volts.
Example
What is the output voltage of a battery that
expends 3.6 J of energy in moving 0.5 C
of charge?
6
9/6/2021
Charge in Motion Is Current
Charge in Motion
Is Current
When the potential difference
between two charges forces a third
charge to move, the charge in
motion is an electric current.
In solid materials, such as copper

wire, free electrons are charges
that can be forced to move with
relative ease by a potential
difference, since they require
relatively little work to be moved.
1
9/6/2021
Charge in Motion
Is Current
If a potential difference is
connected across two ends of a
copper wire, the applied voltage
forces the free electrons to
move.
This current is a drift of electrons,

from the point of negative charge
at one end, moving through the
wire, and returning to the positive
charge at the other end.
Charge in Motion This is the same as one coulomb

Is Current of charge per second.
The Ampere of Current The ampere unit of current is

named after André M. Ampère
The current is the movement of (1775–1836).
charge, the unit for stating the
amount of current is defined in rate
of flow of charge.
When the charge moves at the rate

of 6.24x10^18 electrons flowing
past a given point per second,
the value of the current is one
ampere (A).
2
9/6/2021
Charge in Motion Two amperes of current in a

Is Current copper wire is a higher intensity
than one ampere; a greater
The Ampere of Current concentration of moving
The symbol for current is I or i for electrons results because of more
intensity, since the current is a electrons in motion.
measure of how intense or
concentrated the electron flow is.
Sometimes current is called

amperage . However, the current in
electronic circuits is usually in
smaller units, milliamperes and
microamperes.
Charge in Motion I=Q/T

Is Current
where I is the current in amperes,
How Current Differs from Charge Q is in coulombs, and time T is in
seconds.
Charge is a quantity of electricity
accumulated in a dielectric, which is an It does not matter whether the
insulator. moving charge is positive or
negative.
The charge is static electricity, at rest,
without any motion.
When the charge moves, usually in a

conductor, the current I indicates the
intensity of the electricity in motion.
3
9/6/2021
Example
The charge of 12 C moves past a given
point every second. How much is the
intensity of charge flow?
Example
The charge of 5 C moves past a given
point in 1 s. How much is the current?
4
9/6/2021
Resistance Is Opposition to
Current
Resistance Is
Opposition to Conductors have very little resistance;
Current insulators have a large amount of
resistance.
The fact that a wire conducting
current can become hot is evidence The copper wire has little opposition to
that the work done by the applied the flow of free electrons when voltage
voltage in producing current must be is applied, corresponding to low
accomplished against some form of resistance.
opposition.
This opposition, which limits the

amount of current that can be
produced by the applied voltage, is
called resistance.
1
9/6/2021
Resistance Is
Opposition to Carbon, however, has fewer free
Current electrons than copper. When the same
amount of voltage is applied to carbon
Conductors have very little resistance; as to copper, fewer electrons will flow.
insulators have a large amount of Just as much current can be produced
resistance. in carbon by applying more voltage.
The atoms of a copper wire have a For the same current, though, the
large number of free electrons, which higher applied voltage means that more
can be moved easily by a potential work is necessary, causing more
difference. Therefore, the copper wire heat. Carbon opposes the current more
has little opposition to the flow of than copper, therefore, and has higher
free electrons when voltage is applied, resistance.
corresponding to low resistance.
Resistance Is
Opposition to
Current
The Ohm
The unit of electric resistance is the

ohm(𝛀), where one ohm is one volt
per ampere.
The unit of measure for resistance, the

ohm, was named for German physicist
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854).
2
9/6/2021
Resistance Is
Opposition to Ohm is also known for his development
Current of Ohm’s law:
I=V/R
The symbol for resistance is R.
The abbreviation used for the ohm unit

is the Greek letter omega, written as 𝛀.
Resistance Is
Opposition to
Current
The Ohm
It is defined as the resistance

between two points in a conductor
when a constant electric potential of
one volt applied at the two points
produces a current flow of one
ampere in the conductor.
3
9/6/2021
Resistance Is
Opposition to
Current
Conductance
The opposite of resistance is conductance.
The lower the resistance, the higher the

conductance.
Its symbol is G , and the unit is the

siemens (S), named after Ernst von
Siemens (1816–1892), a German inventor.
Resistance Is
Opposition to
Current
The old unit name for conductance is
mho, which is ohm spelled
backward.
G is the reciprocal of R,
G = 1/R
Also,
R = 1/G
4
9/6/2021
5
9/10/2021
The Closed Circuit
The Closed
Circuit
A circuit can be defined
as a path for current
flow.
It is an interconnection
of electrical
components or a model
of such an
interconnection,
consisting of electrical
elements.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_net
1
9/10/2021
The Closed
Circuit
The schematic diagram
does not look like the
physical layout of the
circuit.
The schematic shows

only the symbols for the
components and their
electrical connections.
The Closed
Any electric circuit has three important
Circuit characteristics:
1. There must be a source of potential

difference. Without the applied voltage,
current cannot flow.
2. There must be a complete path for current
flow, from one side of the applied voltage
source, through the external circuit, and
returning to the other side of the voltage
source.
3. The current path normally has resistance.
The resistance is in the circuit either to
generate heat or limit the amount of current.
2
9/10/2021
The Closed
The voltage across the filament resistance
Circuit makes electrons flow from one side to the other.
How the Voltage Is While the current is flowing around the circuit,
Different from the however, the potential difference remains across
Current the filament to do the work of moving electrons
through the resistance of the filament.
The current that moves
through the circuit. The
potential difference does
not move.
The Closed
The voltage is the potential difference across the
Circuit two ends of the resistance.
How the Voltage Is The current is the intensity of the electron flow
Different from the past any one point in the circuit.
Current
3
9/10/2021
How the Voltage Is

The Closed Circuit Different from the
Current
The word across is

used with voltage
Current can be because it is the
considered at one point, potential difference
as the motion of charges between two
through that point. points. There cannot
be a PD at one point.
The Closed
Circuit
How the Voltage Is

Different from the
Current Voltage can exist without
current, but current cannot
exist without voltage.
4
9/10/2021
The part of the circuit connected to the

voltage source is the load resistance,
Closed Circuit since it determines how much work the
source will supply.
The Circuit Is a Load on The current that flows through the load
resistance is the load current .
the Voltage Source
The term load by itself can
be assumed generally to
mean the load current.
The battery is the source in the

circuit, since its voltage output
represents the potential energy to
be used.
Open Circuit
When any part of the path is open or

broken, the circuit is incomplete
because there is no conducting path.
The open circuit can be in the connecting
wires or in the bulb’s filament as the load
resistance.
The resistance of an open circuit is
infinitely high.
5
9/10/2021
The voltage source has a closed path

Short Circuit across its terminals, but the resistance
is practically zero. The result is too much
current in a short circuit.
The short circuit is a bypass around the
load resistance.
For instance, a short across the tungsten
filament of a bulb produces too much
current in the connecting wires but no
current through the bulb.
Then the bulb is shorted out. The bulb is
not damaged, but the connecting wires
can become hot enough to burn unless
the line has a fuse as a safety precaution
against too much current.
6
9/10/2021
Schematic Symbols
1
9/10/2021
Fuse
2
9/10/2021
3
9/10/2021
4
9/10/2021
5
9/10/2021
The Direction of Current
The Direction of
Current
The reference is with
respect to the positive and negative
terminals of the voltage source.
The direction of the current depends
on whether we consider the flow of
negative electrons or the motion of
positive charges in the opposite
direction.
1
9/10/2021
The Direction of The circuit works the same way no

matter which direction you consider.
Current
A. Electron flow indicated with dashed
arrow in diagram.
B. Conventional current indicated with
solid arrow.
C. Electron flow as in (A) but with
reversed polarity of voltage source.
D. Conventional I as in (B) but
reversed polarity for V.
The Direction of
Current
Electron Flow
The direction of electron drift for the
current I is out from the negative side of
the voltage source.
The I flows through the external circuit
with R and returns to the positive side of
V.
Note that this direction from the negative
terminal applies to the external circuit
connected to the output terminals of the
voltage source.
2
9/10/2021
The Direction of
Current
Conventional Current
A motion of positive charges, in the
opposite direction from electron flow, is
considered conventional current.
This direction is generally used for
analyzing circuits in electrical
engineering.
The reason is based on some traditional
definitions in the science of physics.
The Direction of
Current
Conventional Current
By the definitions of force and work with
positive values, a positive potential is
considered above a negative potential.
Then conventional current corresponds
to a motion of positive charges “falling
downhill” from a positive to a negative
potential.
The conventional current,
therefore, is in the direction of positive
charges in motion.
3
9/13/2021
DIRECT
aLtErNaTiN g current
Direct Current (DC) and

Alternating Current (AC)
The flow of charges in one

direction and the fixed polarity of
applied voltage are the
characteristics of a dc circuit.
The current can be a flow of
positive charges, rather than
electrons, but the conventional
direction of current does not
change the fact that the charges
are moving only one way.
1
9/13/2021

An alternating voltage source periodically

reverses or alternates in polarity.
The resulting alternating current (ac),
therefore, periodically reverses in direction
In terms of electron flow, the current always
flows from the negative terminal of the
voltage source, through the circuit, and
back to the positive terminal, but when
the generator alternates in polarity, the
current must reverse its direction

The 60-cycle ac power line used in most

homes is a common example.
This frequency means that the voltage
polarity and current direction go through 60
cycles of reversal per second.
The unit for 1 cycle per second is 1 hertz
(Hz).
Therefore 60 cycles per second is a
frequency of 60 Hz.
2
9/13/2021

Comparison of DC Voltage and AC Voltage
DC Voltage AC Voltage
Fixed polarity Reverses in polarity
Can be steady or vary in magnitude Varies between reversals in polarity
Steady value cannot be stepped up Can be stepped up or down for
or down by a transformer electric power distribution
Terminal voltages for transistor Signal input and output for
amplifiers amplifiers
Easier to measure Easier to amplify
Heating effect is the same for direct or alternating current
3
9/13/2021
The Digital Multimeter
The Digital
Multimeter
As an electronics technician, you can

expect to encounter many situations
where it will be necessary to measure
the voltage, current, or resistance in a
circuit.
When this is the case, a technician will
most likely use a digital multimeter
(DMM) to make these measurements.
1
9/13/2021
Measuring Voltage
Typical DMM measuring the voltage across the

terminals of a battery.
To measure any voltage, the meter leads are
connected directly across the
two points where the potential difference or
voltage exists.
For dc voltages, the red lead of the meter is
normally connected to the positive (+) side of the
potential difference, whereas the black lead is
normally connected to the negative (-) side.
Measuring Current
The DMM measuring the current in a simple dc circuit

consisting of a battery and a resistor. Notice that the
meter is connected between the positive terminal of
the battery and the right lead of the resistor.
Unlike voltage measurements, current
measurements must be made by placing the meter in
the path of the moving charges.
To do this, the circuit must be broken open at some
point, and then the leads of the meter must be
connected across the open points to re-complete the
circuit.
2
9/13/2021
Measuring Voltage
DMM measuring the voltage across the terminals of a

Battery.
To measure any voltage, the meter leads are
connected directly across the two points where the
potential difference or voltage exists.
For dc voltages, the red lead of the meter is normally
connected to the positive (+) side of the potential
difference, whereas the black lead is normally
connected to the negative (-) side.
3
9/15/2021
Resistor
Resistor Resistors are used in a wide

variety of applications in all
types of electronic circuits.
Their main function in any

circuit is to limit the amount of
current or to produce a
desired drop in voltage.
Resistors are manufactured in a

variety of shapes and sizes
and have ohmic values ranging
from a fraction of an ohm to
several megohms.
1
9/15/2021
Resistor The power or wattage rating

of a resistor is determined
mainly by its physical size.
There is, however, no direct

correlation between the
physical size of a resistor and
its resistance value.
Types of The two main characteristics of

a resistor:
Resistors ● Resistance, R in Ohms
● Power rating, Watts (W)
Example:
One kilo Ohms is 1000 Ω.
One mega Ohms is 1,000,000

Ω.
2
9/15/2021
Types of The R is the resistance value

required to provide the desired
Resistors current or voltage.
Also important is the wattage

rating because it specifies the
maximum power the resistor
can dissipate without
excessive heat.
Dissipation means that the

power is wasted, since the
resultant heat is not used.
Too much heat can make the
Types of resistor burn.
Resistors The wattage rating of the resistor is

generally more than the actual
power dissipation, as a safety
factor.
Resistors with higher R values

usually have lower wattage
ratings because they have less
current.
The lower the power rating, the

smaller the actual size of the
resistor.
3
9/15/2021
Types of Types of resistor:
Resistors ●
●
Wire wound Resistor
Carbon-Composition Resistor
● Film-Type Resistor
● Surface Mount Resistor
● Fusible Resistor
● Thermistor
Types of Wire-Wound Resistor
Resistors A special type of wire called

resistance wire is wrapped around
an insulating core.
The length of wire and its specific

resistivity determine the R of the
unit.
Types of resistance wire include

tungsten and manganin.
4
9/15/2021
Wire-Wound Resistor
Types of The insulated core is commonly

porcelain, cement, or just plain pressed
Resistors paper.
Bare wire is used, but the entire unit is

generally encased in an insulating
material.
Generally used for high-current

applications with low resistance and
appreciable power, wire-wound
resistors are available in wattage
ratings from 1 W up to 100 W or more.
Types of Carbon-Composition Resistors
Resistors These resistors are made of finely

divided carbon or graphite mixed with a
powdered insulating material as a
binder in the proportions needed for the
desired R value.
5
9/15/2021
Resistors The resistor element is enclosed in a

plastic case for insulation and
mechanical strength.
Joined to the two ends of the carbon

resistance element are metal caps with
leads of tinned copper wire for
soldering the connections into a circuit.
These are called axial leads because

they come straight out from the ends.
Resistors Carbon-composition resistors normally

have a brown body and are cylindrical.
Carbon-composition resistors are

commonly available in R values of 1 Ω
to 20 MΩ.
The power rating is generally 1⁄10, 1⁄8,

1⁄4, 1⁄2, 1, or 2 W.
6
9/15/2021
Types of Film-Type Resistors
Resistors There are two kinds of film-type

resistors:
● Carbon-film resistor
● Metal-film resistor
Film-Type Resistors
Types of There are two kinds of film-type

resistors:
Resistors ● Carbon-film resistor
It is made by depositing a thin layer of

carbon on an insulated substrate.
The carbon film is then cut in the form of

a spiral to form the resistive element.
The resistance value is controlled by

varying the proportion of carbon to
insulator.
7
9/15/2021

resistors:
● Carbon-film resistor
Advantages of carbon-film:
● Tighter tolerances
● Less sensitivity to temperature
changes
● Aging
● Generate less noise internally

resistors:
Similar construction with carbon-film

resistor.
In a metal-film resistor, a thin film of

metal is sprayed onto a ceramic
substrate and then cut in the form of a
spiral.
8
9/15/2021

resistors:
The length, thickness, and width of the

metal spiral determine the exact
resistance value.
Metal-film resistors offer more precise R

values than carbon-film resistors.
Film-Type Resistors
Types of There are two kinds of film-type resistors:
Resistors ● Metal-film resistor
Like carbon-film resistors, metal-film

resistors are affected very little by
temperature changes and aging. They also
generate very little noise internally.
In overall performance, metal-film

resistors are the best, carbon-film resistors
are next, and carbon-composition resistors
are last.
9
9/15/2021
Resistors There are two kinds of film-type resistors:
Both carbon- and metal-film resistors can

be distinguished from carbon-composition
resistors by the fact that the diameter of
the ends is a little larger than that of the
body.
Types of Surface-Mount Resistors
Resistors Also called chip resistors, are constructed

by depositing a thick carbon film on a
ceramic base.
The exact resistance value is determined by

the composition of the carbon itself, as
well as by the amount of trimming done to
the carbon deposit.
10
9/15/2021
Types of Surface-Mount Resistors
Resistors The resistance can vary from a fraction of

an ohm to well over a million ohms.
Power dissipation ratings are typically 1⁄8

to ¼ W.
The physical dimensions of a 1⁄8-W chip

resistor are 0.125 in. long by 0.063 in.
wide and approximately 0.028 in. thick.
Types of Fusible Resistors
Resistors This type is a wire-wound resistor made to

burn open easily when the power rating is
exceeded. It then serves the dual functions
of a fuse and a resistor to limit the
current.
11
9/15/2021
Types of Thermistors
Resistors Thermally sensitive resistor whose

resistance value changes with changes in
its operating temperature.
Because of the self-heating effect of

current in a thermistor, the device changes
resistance with changes in current.
Thermistors, which are essentially

semiconductors, exhibit either a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) or a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
Types of Thermistors
Resistors PTC, its resistance increases as the

operating temperature increases.
NTC, its resistance decreases as its

operating temperature increases.
Thermistors are frequently used in

electronic circuits in which it is desired to
provide temperature measurement,
temperature control, and temperature
compensation.
12
9/15/2021
Resistor Color Coding
The basis of this system is the use

of colors for numerical values.
Resistor Color In memorizing the colors, note that

the darkest colors, black and brown,
Coding are for the lowest numbers, zero
and one, whereas white is for nine.
The color coding is standardized by

the Electronic Industries Alliance
(EIA).
1
9/15/2021
The use of colored bands or stripes

is the most common system for
Resistor Color color coding resistors.
Coding
Resistance Color Stripes
Reading from the left to right, the

first band closest to the edge gives
Resistor Color the first digit in the numerical value

of R.
Coding
2
9/15/2021
The next band indicates the second

digit. The third band is the decimal
Resistor Color multiplier, which tells us how many

zeros to add after the first two
Coding digits.
Resistor Color
Coding
3
9/15/2021
The first stripe is red for 2 and the

next stripe is green for 5. The red
Resistor Color colored decimal multiplier in the

third stripe means add two zeros to
Coding 25, or multiply the number 25 by

10^2.
For these values, the third stripe is

either gold or silver, indicating a
Resistor Color fractional decimal multiplier.
When the third stripe is gold,

Coding multiply the first two digits by 0.1.
Resistors under 10 Ohms

Silver means a multiplier of 0.01.
4
9/15/2021
It is important to realize that the

gold and silver colors represent
fractional decimal multipliers only
Resistor Color when they appear in the third
stripe.
Coding Gold and silver are used most often
however as a fourth stripe to
Resistors under 10 Ohms
indicate how accurate the R value
is.
The colors gold and silver will never

appear in the first two color
stripes.
The amount by which the actual R

can differ from the color-coded
Resistor Color value is the tolerance, usually

given in percent.
Coding For instance, a 2000-ohms resistor

with +/- 10% tolerance can have
Resistor Tolerance resistance 10% above or below the
coded value.This R, therefore, is
between 1800 and 2200 ohms.
5
9/15/2021
Silver in the fourth band indicates a

tolerance of +/-10%, gold indicates
Resistor Color +/-5%. If there is no color band for

tolerance, it is +/-20%.
Coding
Resistor Tolerance
Precision resistors (typically metal-

film resistors) often use a five-band
Resistor Color color code rather than the four-band

code. The purpose is to obtain
Coding more precise R values.
With the five-band code, the first

Five-Band Color Code three color stripes indicate the first
three digits, followed by the
decimal multiplier in the fourth
stripe and the tolerance in the fifth
stripe.
6
9/15/2021
In the fifth stripe, the colors brown,

red, green, blue, and violet
Resistor Color represent the following tolerances:
Coding
Five-Band Color Code
The chip resistor, has the following

identifiable features:
Resistor Color 1. A dark film on one side only

(usually black, but may also be dark
Coding gray or green)
Chip Resistor Coding System 2. Two C-shaped terminals at each

end of the resistor, used for
soldering.
3. A three- or four-digit number on

the dark film side of the resistor.
7
9/15/2021
The resistance value of a chip

resistor is determined from the
Resistor Color three-digit number printed on the

film or body side of the component.
Coding
Chip Resistor Coding System
The three digits provide the same

information as the first three color
Resistor Color stripes on a four-band resistor.
The three digits provide the same

Coding information as the first three color
stripes on a four-band resistor.
8
9/15/2021
The first two digits indicate the first

two numbers in the numerical
Resistor Color value of the resistance; the third

digit indicates the multiplier.
Coding If a four-digit number is used, the

first three digits indicate the first
Chip Resistor Coding System three numbers in the numerical
value of the resistance, and the
fourth digit indicates the multiplier.
The letter R is used to signify a

decimal point for values between 1
Resistor Color and 10 ohms as in 2R7 = 2.7 ohms.
Coding
9
9/15/2021
Resistor Color
Coding
10
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law The mathematical relationship

between voltage, current, and
resistance was discovered in 1826 by
Georg Simon Ohm.
The relationship, known as Ohm’s law,

is the basic foundation for all circuit
analysis in electronics.
Ohm’s law,states that the amount of

current, I, is directly proportional to the
voltage, V, and inversely proportional
to the resistance, R.
1
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law Power can be defined as the time rate

of doing work. The symbol for power is
P and the unit is the watt.
The Current I = V/R
2
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law If we keep the same resistance in a

circuit but vary the voltage, the current
will vary.The applied voltage V can be
varied from 0 to 12 V.
The bulb has a 12-V filament, which

requires this much voltage for its
normal current to light with normal
intensity.
The meter I indicates the amount of

current in the circuit for the bulb.
Ohm’s Law With 12 V applied, the bulb lights,

indicating normal current. When V is
reduced to 10 V, there is less light
because of less I.
As V decreases, the bulb becomes

dimmer.
The changing brilliance of the bulb

shows that the current varies with the
changes in applied voltage.
3
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law It is important to realize that with high

voltage, the current can have a low
value when there is a very high
High Voltage but resistance in the circuit.
Low Current For example, 1000 V applied across
1,000,000 ohms results in a current of
only 0.001A. By Ohm’s law,
Ohm’s Law The practical fact is that high-voltage

circuits usually do have small values of
current in electronic equipment.
High Voltage but Otherwise, tremendous amounts of
Low Current power would be necessary.
4
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law A low value of voltage in a very low

resistance circuit can produce a very
high current.
Low Voltage but
6-V battery connected across a
High Current resistance of 0.01 ohms produces 600
A of current:
Ohm’s Law Example 2-1
A heater with a resistance of 8 ohms is

Less I with More R connected across the 120-V power
line. How much is the current I?
5
9/17/2021
A small lightbulb with a resistance of

Less I with More R 2400 ohms is connected across the
same 120-V power line. How much is
current I?
Ohm’s Law Transistors and integrated circuits

generally operate with a DC supply of
5, 6, 9, 12, 15, 24, or 50 V. The current
Typical V and I is usually in millionths or thousandths
of one ampere up to about 5 A.
6
9/17/2021
The Voltage V = IR
Ohm’s Law The voltage across R must be the

same as the source V because the
resistance is connected directly
across the battery.
The numerical value of this V is equal

to the product I x R.
V = 2 A x 3 ohms, which equals the 6 V

of the applied voltage.
7
9/17/2021
If a 12-ohm resistor is carrying a

current of 2.5 A, how much is its
voltage?
Ohm’s Law Besides the numerical calculations

possible with the IR formula, it is useful
to consider that the IR product means
voltage.
Whenever there is current through a

resistance, it must have a potential
difference across its two ends equal
to the IR product.
If there were no potential difference,

no electrons could flow to produce the
current.
8
9/17/2021
The Resistance R = V/I
Ohm’s Law As the third and final version of Ohm’s

law, the three factors V, I, and R are
related by the formula
Whenever V and I are known, the

resistance can be calculated as the
voltage across R divided by the
current through it.
9
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law Physically, a resistance can be

considered some material whose
elements have an atomic structure that
allows free electrons to drift through it
with more or less force applied.
Electrically, though, a more practical

way of considering resistance is
simply as a V/I ratio.
Ohm’s Law Anything that allows 1 A of current

with 10 V applied has a resistance of
10 ohms.
This V/I ratio of 10 V is its

characteristic.
If the voltage is doubled to 20 V, the

current will also double to 2 A,
providing the same V/I ratio of a 10-
ohm resistance.
10
9/17/2021
Ohm’s Law We do not need to know the physical

construction of a resistance to analyze
its effect in a circuit, so long as we
know its V/I ratio.
Ohm’s Law For instance, a box with some

unknown material in it is connected in
a circuit where we can measure the 12
V applied across the box and the 3 A of
current through it.
The resistance is 12V/3A, or 4 ohms.
11
9/17/2021
How much is the resistance of a light

bulb if it draws 0.16 A from a 12-V
battery?
12
9/17/2021
Electric
Power
Electric The unit of electric power is

the watt (W), named after
Power James Watt (1736–1819).
One watt of power equals the

work done in one second by
one volt of potential
difference in moving one
coulomb of charge.
1
9/17/2021
Electric Remember that one coulomb

per second is an ampere.
Power Therefore, power in watts

equals the product of volts
times amperes.
Electric When a 6-V battery produces

2 A in a circuit, for example, the
Power battery is generating 12 W of

power.
The power formula can be used

in three ways:
2
9/17/2021
Example 2-4
A toaster takes 10 A from the

120-V power line. How much
power is used?
Example 2-5
How much current flows in the

filament of a 300-W bulb
connected to the 120-V power
line?
3
9/17/2021
Example 2-6
How much current flows in the

filament of a 60-W bulb
connected to the 120-V power
line?
Power Dissipation in
Resistance
4
9/17/2021
Power When current flows in a

resistance, heat is produced
Dissipation in because friction between the
moving free electrons and the
Resistance atoms obstructs the path of
electron flow.
The power is generated by the

source of applied voltage and
consumed in the resistance as
heat.
Power Since power is dissipated in the

resistance of a circuit, it is
Dissipation in convenient to express the
power in terms of the
Resistance resistance R.
The formula P=VxI can be

rearranged as follows:
Substituting IR for V,
5
9/17/2021
Power This is a common form of the

power formula because of the
Dissipation in heat produced by current in a
resistance.
Resistance For another form, substitute
V/R for I. Then
Example 2-7
Calculating the electric power

in a circuit as
● P=VxI
● P = I^2xR
● P = V^2/R.
6
9/17/2021
Example 2-8
Calculate the power in a circuit where the source of 100 V

produces 2 A in a 50-ohms R.
This means that the source delivers 200 W of power to the

resistance and the resistance dissipates 200 W as heat.
kilowatt-Hour Unit of
Electrical Energy
7
9/17/2021
Electrical power
and energy
Although the unit of energy is
the joule, when dealing with
large amounts of energy, the
When a direct current of I unit used is the kilowatt hour
amperes is flowing in an (kWh) where
electric circuit and the voltage
across the circuit is
V volts, then
Electrical power Energy=power×time, and

power=voltage×current. Hence
and energy
EXAMPLE 1
A source e.m.f. of 5V supplies a
current of 3A for 10 minutes.
How much energy is
provided in this time?
8
9/17/2021
kilowatt-Hour Unit The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is

the unit most commonly used
of Electrical for large amounts of electrical
Energy work or energy.
The number of kilowatt-hours

is calculated simply as the
product of the power in
kilowatts and by the time in
hours during which the power
is used.
kilowatt-Hour Unit As an example, if a light bulb

uses 300 W or 0.3 kW for 4
of Electrical hours (h), the amount of
Energy energy is 0.3 x 4, which equals
1.2 kWh.
9
9/17/2021
kilowatt-Hour Unit We pay for electricity in

kilowatt-hours of energy.
of Electrical
Energy The power-line voltage is
constant at 120 V/220 V.
However, more appliances and

light bulbs require more
current because they all add in
the main line to increase the
power.
kilowatt-Hour Unit Suppose that the total load

current in the main line equals
of Electrical 20 A. Then the power in watts
Energy from the 120-V line is
If this power is used for 5 h,

then the energy or work
supplied equals 2.4 x 5 = 12
kWh.
10
9/17/2021
kilowatt-Hour Unit If the cost of electricity is

12¢/kWh, then 12 kWh of
of Electrical electricity will cost 0.12 x 12 =
Energy $1.44.
This charge is for a 20-A load

current from the 120-V line
during the time of 5 h.
kilowatt-Hour Unit As a streamlined approach to

calculating energy costs, follow
of Electrical the steps listed below.
Energy
1. Calculate the total power
in kilowatts (kW).
2. Convert the number of
watts (W) to kilowatts
(kW) if necessary.
11
9/17/2021
kilowatt-Hour Unit 3. Calculate the total number

of hours (h) the power is used.
of Electrical
Energy
4. Multiply the number of kW
by the number of hours (h) to
get the number of kilowatt-
hours (kWh).
5. Multiply the number of kWh

by the cost/kWh to get the cost
of energy consumption.
kilowatt-Hour Unit Assuming that the cost of

electricity is 12 ¢/kWh, how
of Electrical much will it cost to light a 100-
Energy W lightbulb for 30 days?
EXAMPLE 2
12
9/17/2021

EXAMPLE 2
The first step in solving this
problem is to express 100 W
as 0.1 kW.

EXAMPLE 2
The next step is to find the
total number of hours in 30
days. Since there are 24 hours
in a day, the total number of
hours the light is on is
calculated as
13
9/17/2021

EXAMPLE 2
Next, calculate the number of
kWh as

EXAMPLE 2
And finally, determine the cost.
(Note that 12¢ 5 $0.12.)
14
9/20/2021
Control Devices
Control
Devices
● Switches
These devices ● Rheostats

are used to
initiate and
control the
operation of the ● Relays
circuits.
● Solenoids
1
9/20/2021
Control
Devices Switches Switches are
The simplest form characterized by:
of switch is the number of poles
on/off device used number of
to isolate circuits. switched positions
These devices
are used to Other switch types type of switched
initiate and are used to direct contacts
the current into (permanent or
control the
predetermined parts momentary).
operation of the of a circuit.
circuits.
Control Toggle switches

Devices They are on/off switches
and extensively used in
aircraft electrical system.
Switches Two contact surfaces
that provide a link
between circuits; these
links are referred to as
A switch is used poles.
to start, to stop,
or to change the The number of circuits
direction of the that can be linked by a
current flow in the single switch operation
circuit. is called the throw.
2
9/20/2021
Control
Rotary switches
Devices When it is necessary to
select several condition for
a circuit, a rotary switch
Switches may be used.
Push Switches
A switch is used
to start, to stop, They are used primarily for
or to change the operations of short
direction of the durations.
current flow in the
circuit.
Control
Devices Micro switches
These are used to sense if
a device has moved or
Switches has reached its limit of
travel, e.g. flap drive or
undercarriage
mechanisms.
A switch is used
to start, to stop, Micro-switches are
or to change the attached to the structure
direction of the and the wiring is
current flow in the connected into a control
circuit. circuit.
3
9/20/2021
Control
Devices
Switches
Schematic
Symbols
switches
Control
Devices They are sometimes combined with micro-
switches to provide an on/off control
function.
Variable
resistors
Control the amount of

current that flows
throughout the circuit
and used as dimmer
devices for instrument
and cockpit lights.
4
9/20/2021
Control
Devices
Variable
resistors
Variable resistors are

produced as either:
● potentiometers
● preset resistors
● rheostats
Control These
electromechanical
Devices devices interrupt or
complete a circuit
when activated from a
Relays & remote source.
Contactors When the coil has
current flowing through
it the electromagnetic
Electromagnetic effect pulls in the
switching devices which contact armature .
are used to remotely
control electric circuits
carrying large amount
of current.
5
9/20/2021
Control Contactors operate in

the same way; the
Devices difference between
them is their physical
construction and
Relays & application.
Contactors Relays are generally
used for low current
Applications;
Electromagnetic Contactors (also known
switching devices which as breakers) are used
are used to remotely for switching higher
control electric circuits currents, e.g. for
carrying large amount
of current. connecting battery
power to the aircraft.
Control
Devices
Relays &
Contactors
Schematic Symbols
6
9/20/2021
Control The solenoid is a type of transducer

that converts electrical energy into
linear displacement .
Devices Typical applications include the
actuation of pneumatic or
hydraulic valves.
Solenoids
They are electromechanical devices,

consisting of an inductive coil wound
around a steel or iron armature.
Remote control devices quite similar
to relays; but they are designed to
move a shaft over a short
distance.
Conversion Devices
7
9/20/2021
Conversion
Devices
There are many occasions within an aircraft electrical system where it is

required to convert power from one form to another
Typical examples of power conversion are :
○ Conversion from dc to ac power
○ Conversion from 115vac to 28 vdc
○ Conversion from one ac voltage level to another
○ Battery charging (from 115vac to 28vdc)
Conversion
Devices Rectifiers
Used to convert ac into
high-amperage, low-
voltage dc.
Transformer Rectifier
Units (TRUs)
Combination of
transformers and
rectifiers and used as main
unit to convert alternator
output to dc in an aircraft
8
9/20/2021
Analogy to
Transformer
Rectifier Unit
(TRU)
AC
ADAPTER
Conversion
Devices
Inverters
Convert 28 vdc power to 26 vac power
particularly for flight instruments or 115 vac.
Transistors
Electronic devices that
control electron flow and
convert ac to dc.
9
9/20/2021
ANALOGY TO
INVERTER
(UPS FOR
COMPUTER)
Protection Devices
10
9/20/2021
Protection
Devices
Fuses
They are designed to
protect the cables
against the flow of
short-circuit and
These devices are used to excessive current.
protect circuits, cables
and system components They break the circuit
from damage due to failures. and stop the current
flow when the current
exceeds a
predetermined value.
Protection
Devices
Circuit breakers
They have same
function with the fuses.
The difference from the
fuse is that they are
resettable, while a fuse
must be replaced.
11
9/20/2021
Protection
Devices
Diodes
They are the electronic
equivalent to the
check valves in
hydraulic system. They
allow electricity to flow
in one way only.
Protection
Devices
Generator Control
Unit
It is used to keep the
generator output
within limits for all
flight variables.
12
9/20/2021
Power Distribution
Power Distribution
Busbar System
An electrical distribution
system is required in
order to convey the
electrical power to the
equipment and systems
that need it.
Wire and cable
13
9/20/2021
Power Distribution
Busbar System
These conductors are
In most types of called busbars and they
aircraft, output act as distribution
from the centers for electric
generators is sent power.
to one or more
conductors A busbar system is set
before distribution up so that each power
throughout the source supplies one or
system. more specific buses.
Power Distribution
Bus ties are switches or

A variety of relays used to connect
electrical items or disconnect buses from
are hooked up to one another.
each bus for
power. They serve to isolate
failed buses from
The buses are working ones and/or
interconnected via send electrical power to
circuit protection buses that lost their
devices which are normal power sources.
called bus ties.
14
9/20/2021
Power Distribution
Each engine-driven generator, for

example, normally drives its own
generator bus. High-current drawn
items are connected to these buses.
Items like fixed fire extinguishers
and emergency lights are usually
powered off battery bus. That way
they are powered for use even when
no generator power is available.
WIRES &
CABLES There are various types of
wires used in aircraft
electrical system.
The conductor is made of
copper or aluminum.
Wires and cables
conduct electrical The insulation material may
power in its various be nylon, PVC, or
forms and fiberglass.
quantities to and
between
equipment.
15
9/20/2021
WIRES &
CABLES
The wires installed in
an aircraft electrical
system are chosen on
the basis of ability to
carry the required
current
● without
overheating and
Electrical wire
charts may be used ● without producing
for this purposes. an excessive
voltage drop.
16

Avte 213

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Avte 213

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

AVTE 213 - 5

Mr. Fitzpatrick C. Cunanan

Units associated with basic

The basic units in the SI system are

● The system of units used in

Velocity – metres per second

Acceleration – metres per

Scientific notation is a form of powers

The power of 10 indicates the

Conversely, if the decimal point is

Express the following numbers in

(a) 3900 (a) 3900 = 3.9 x 10^3

(b) 0.0000056 (b) 0.0000056 = 5.6 x 10 ^-6

Rules expressing a number

Rules expressing a number

Express the following numbers in

(a) 27,000 (a) 27,000 = 27 x 10^3 or 0.027 x 10^6

(b) 0.00047 (b) 0.00047 = 0.47 x 10^-3 or 470 x 10^-6

Rules expressing a number

Rules expressing a number

Rules expressing a number

Negative and Positive

Negative and Positive Polarities

Negative and Positive Polarities

Negative and Positive Polarities

Negative and Positive Polarities

Negative and Positive Polarities

Electrons and Protons in the

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

● The electrical force attracting the

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

● Carbon (C) atom has six protons

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

● With six electrons, there are just

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

● Another example, the copper

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

● When many atoms are close

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

● Such electrons that can move

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

However, insulators can hold or store

An insulating material, such as glass,

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

In addition, for applications requiring

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Structure of the Atom

○ The carbon atom with

● The copper atom has 29

● The planetary electrons are in

● The K shell, closest to the nucleus,

● Elements with a higher atomic

● After the K shell has been

● For most elements, we can