In ancient times, military engineers were responsible for 

siege warfare and building

field fortifications, temporary camps and roads. The most notable engineers of ancient
times were the Romans and Chinese, who constructed huge siege-machines
(catapults, battering rams and siege towers). The Romans were responsible for
constructing fortified wooden camps and paved roads for their legions. Many of
these Roman roads are still in use today.[6]
The first civilization to have a dedicated force of military engineering specialists were the
Romans, whose army contained a dedicated corps of military engineers known
as architecti. This group was pre-eminent among its contemporaries. The scale of certain
military engineering feats, such as the construction of a double-wall of fortifications 30
miles (48 km) long, in just 6 weeks to completely encircle the besieged city of Alesia in 52
B.C.E., is an example. Such military engineering feats would have been completely new,
and probably bewildering and demoralizing, to the Gallic defenders. Vitruvius is the best
known of these Roman army engineers, due to his writings surviving.
Examples of battles before the early modern period where military engineers played a
decisive role include the Siege of Tyre under Alexander the Great, the Siege of
Masada by Lucius Flavius Silva as well as the Battle of the Trench under the suggestion
of Salman the Persian to dig a trench.
For about 600 years after the fall of the Roman empire, the practice of military
engineering barely evolved in the west. In fact, much of the classic techniques and
practices of Roman military engineering were lost. Through this period, the foot soldier
(who was pivotal to much of the Roman military engineering capability) was largely
replaced by mounted soldiers. It was not until later in the Middle Ages, that military
engineering saw a revival focused on siege warfare. [7]
Military engineers planned castles and fortresses. When laying siege, they planned and
oversaw efforts to penetrate castle defenses. When castles served a military purpose,
one of the tasks of the sappers was to weaken the bases of walls to enable them to be
breached before means of thwarting these activities were devised. Broadly speaking,
sappers were experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification
systems.

Working dress of the Royal Military Artificers in Gibraltar, 1795

With the 14th-century development of gunpowder, new siege engines in the form

of cannons appeared. Initially military engineers were responsible for maintaining and
operating these new weapons just as had been the case with previous siege engines. In
England, the challenge of managing the new technology resulted in the creation of
the Office of Ordnance around 1370 in order to administer the cannons, armaments and
castles of the kingdom. Both military engineers and artillery formed the body of this
organization and served together until the office's successor, the Board of Ordnance was
disbanded in 1855.[8]
In comparison to older weapons, the cannon was significantly more effective against
traditional medieval fortifications. Military engineering significantly revised the way
fortifications were built in order to be better protected from enemy direct and plunging
shot. The new fortifications were also intended to increase the ability of defenders to
bring fire onto attacking enemies. Fort construction proliferated in 16th-century Europe
based on the trace italienne design.[9]

French sappers during the Battle of Berezina in 1812

By the 18th century, regiments of foot (infantry) in the British, French, Prussian and other
armies included pioneer detachments. In peacetime these specialists constituted the
regimental tradesmen, constructing and repairing buildings, transport wagons, etc. On
active service they moved at the head of marching columns with axes, shovels, and
pickaxes, clearing obstacles or building bridges to enable the main body of the regiment
to move through difficult terrain. The modern Royal Welch Fusiliers and French Foreign
Legion still maintain pioneer sections who march at the front of ceremonial parades,
carrying chromium-plated tools intended for show only. Other historic distinctions include
long work aprons and the right to wear beards. In West Africa, the Ashanti army was
accompanied to war by carpenters who were responsible for constructing shelters and
blacksmiths who repaired weapons.[10]
The Peninsular War (1808–14) revealed deficiencies in the training and knowledge of
officers and men of the British Army in the conduct of siege operations and bridging.
During this war low-ranking Royal Engineers officers carried out large-scale operations.
They had under their command working parties of two or three battalions of infantry, two
or three thousand men, who knew nothing in the art of siegeworks. Royal Engineers
officers had to demonstrate the simplest tasks to the soldiers, often while under enemy
fire. Several officers were lost and could not be replaced, and a better system of training
for siege operations was required. On 23 April 1812 an establishment was authorised, by
Royal Warrant, to teach "Sapping, Mining, and other Military Fieldworks" to the junior
officers of the Corps of Royal Engineers and the Corps of Royal Military Artificers,
Sappers and Miners.
The first courses at the Royal Engineers Establishment were done on an all ranks basis
with the greatest regard to economy. To reduce staff the NCOs and officers were
responsible for instructing and examining the soldiers. If the men could not read or write
they were taught to do so, and those who could read and write were taught to draw and
interpret simple plans. The Royal Engineers Establishment quickly became the centre of
excellence for all fieldworks and bridging. Captain Charles Pasley, the director of the
Establishment, was keen to confirm his teaching, and regular exercises were held as
demonstrations or as experiments to improve the techniques and teaching of the
Establishment. From 1833 bridging skills were demonstrated annually by the building of a
pontoon bridge across the Medway which was tested by the infantry of the garrison and
the cavalry from Maidstone. These demonstrations had become a popular spectacle for
the local people by 1843, when 43,000 came to watch a field day laid on to test a method
of assaulting earthworks for a report to the Inspector General of Fortifications. In 1869
the title of the Royal Engineers Establishment was changed to "The School of Military
Engineering" (SME) as evidence of its status, not only as the font of engineer doctrine
and training for the British Army, but also as the leading scientific military school in
Europe.