DC Machines 3

Electrical
Engineering & Power Control 2015‐2016
Electrical Engineering
and Power Control
DC MACHINES (3)
DC Motor Equations
• Separately Excited DC Motor

= resistance of field winding.
= resistance of the rheostat of control.
= total field resistance.
= resistance of the armature circuit, including the effect of
the bushes.
V f  ( R fw  Rrh )I f  R f I f +
Ea  Vt  Ra I a a
+
Ea  K a  ω m
Te  K a I a _ ωm
+ ‐ _
Vf
Dr Mouloud Denai 1
Electrical Engineering & Power Control 2015‐2016
DC Motor Equations
• Self‐Excited Shunt DC Motor
V f  R f I f  Vt
+
Ea  Vt  Ra I a
I a  It  I f +
Ea  K a   m _ ωm
_
Te  K a I a
DC Motor Equations
Example 1: A DC motor is supplied with 240 V. The armature

resistance is 0.2  and the armature current is 50 A. Calculate
the back emf.
 240  0.2 50   230 V
Dr Mouloud Denai 2
DC Motor Equations
Example 2: A DC machine is connected to 300 V. The armature

resistance is 0.25  and the armature current is 50 A. Calculate:
a) The emf generated when it is operated as a generator
giving 100 A.
b) The back emf generated when is operated as a motor
absorbing 80 A.
a) As a generator: The generated emf is:
Ea  Vt  Ra I a
 300  0.25100  325 V
a) As a motor: The generated back‐emf is:
 300  0.2580  280 V
DC Motor Equations
Example 3: Determine the torque developed by a DC motor

connected to 350 V and running at 900 rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.5  and the armature current is 60 A.
E a  K a  m Ea I a n
Te   m  2
Te  K a I a ωm 60
Need to calculate the back‐emf :
E a  Vt  Ra I a  350  0.560  320 V
The torque is:
Te 
32060  203.7 N - m
2π 900 / 60
Dr Mouloud Denai 3
DC Generator Equations
• Separately Excited DC Generator
Vf  Rf I f
+
Ea  Vt  I a ra
+
Vt  RL I L
Ia  I L _ ωm
_
+
Vf ‐
Ea  K a   m
• Self‐Excited Shunt DC Generator
V f  R f I f  Vt
Ea  Vt  ra I a +
Vt  RL I L
+
Ia  IL  I f _ ωm
_
E a  K a  m
Dr Mouloud Denai 4
• Self‐Excited Series DC Generator

+
Vt  Ea  (ra  Rs ) I a
Ea  K a   m +
Ia  I f  IL _
ωm
_
• Self‐Excited Compound DC Generator – Short shunt
Vt  Ea  ra I a  Rs I L
IL  Ia  I f +
Ea  ra I a
If  (Vt  V f ) +
Rf
ωm
Ea  K a ( shunt   series )m
_ _
Short shunt
(+) Cummulative (‐) Differential
Dr Mouloud Denai 5
• Self‐Excited Compound DC Generator – Long shunt
Vt  Ea  (ra  Rs ) I a
I L  Ia  I f +
Vt
If  +
Rf
ωm
Ea  K a ( shunt   series )m
_ _
Long shunt
Example: Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which

generates an emf of 200 V. The armature current on the load is
30 A and the armature resistance is 0.3.
Ea  Vt  I a ra
Vt  Ea  ra I a
 200  0.330  191 V
Dr Mouloud Denai 6
Example: A generator is connected to a 60  load with a current

of 8 A flowing through this load. The armature resistance is 1 .
Determine:
a) the terminal voltage.
b) the generated emf.
a) Terminal voltage
Vt  Rload I a  608  480 V
b) Generated emf
E a  Vt  I a ra  480  18  488 V
Power Flow and Efficiency of DC Machines
• Power flow and efficiency calculation in a DC machine are

illustrated on a short‐shunt compound generator/motor.
• When the machine is operating as a generator, the input
power is the mechanical power provided by the prime mover.
 Part of this input power is lost in the form of rotational
losses (friction, rotor core loss).
 The rest of the power is converted into electrical power
(i.e. ).
Dr Mouloud Denai 7
 Part of this developed power is lost in (armature circuit

losses, which includes brush contact loss)
 Part is lost in (shunt field winding losses)
 Part is lost in (series field winding losses)
• The remaining power is available at the output as electric
power.
• The efficiency  of the machine is defined by:
Poutput Poutput
 
Pinput Poutput  total losses
• DC Generators
Mechanical
Losses
Electrical Losses
Vt I L

Vt I L  ( Ra I a2  R f I 2f  Rs I L2 )  mech. losses
Vt I L

E a I a  mech. losses
Dr Mouloud Denai 8
Example: A 10 kW shunt generator has an armature resistance

of 0.75 and a field resistance of 125 and generates a
terminal voltage of 250 V at full load. Determine the efficiency
of the generator at full load if the iron, friction and windage
losses in the machine are 600 W.
The efficiency is:

Vt I L

Vt I L  ( Ra I a2  R f I 2f  Rs I L2 )  mech. losses
We need to determine: Ia If IL
The output power is:

10000
Vt I L  10 kW  IL   40 A
250
The field current:
Vt 250
V f  R f I f  Vt  If   2A
R f 125
The armature current:
I a  I L  I f  40  2  42 A
The efficiency:
10000
  100  89.9%
  
10000  0.75  42 2  125  2 2  600 
Dr Mouloud Denai 9
• DC Motors
Mechanical
Losses
Electrical Losses
Poutput Pin  total losses

 
Pinput Pin
Vt I L  ( Rs I L2  R f I 2f  Ra I a2 )  mech. losses E a I a  mech. losses
 
Vt I L Vt I L
Example: A DC series motor supplied with 400 V drives a load

at 30 rev/sec and absorbs a current of 10 A. The total
resistance of the motor is 2. The mechanical losses (iron and
windage) are 300 W. Determine the efficiency of the motor.
The efficiency is:
Vt I L  ( Rs I L2  R f I 2f  Ra I a2 )  mech. losses
  100%
Vt I L

400  10  2  10 2   300  100%  87.5 %
400  10
Dr Mouloud Denai 10
Torque‐Speed Characteristics of DC Motors
• Separately‐Excited and Shunt DC Motor

Vt  Ea  Ra I a
Vt  Ra I a +
Ea  K a   m  m 
Ka
+
T  K a I a
_ ωm
Rewriting this, _
m
Vt
Vt Ra
m   T Ka
K a  ( K a ) 2 Slope =
Ra
( K a  )2
• Series DC Motor
Ea  Vt  ( Ra  Rs ) I a +
E a  K a  m
Neglecting saturation +
  K1 I f  K1 I a ωm
_ _
E a  K a K1 I a  m  K s I a  m
Therefore,
Ea V  ( Ra  R s ) I a V R  Rs
m   t  t  a
Ks Ia KsIa KsIa Ks
Dr Mouloud Denai 11
Since
T  K a I a  K a K1 I a I a  K s I a2
T T
KsIa    Ks T
Ia T
Ks
Hence m
Vt Ra  Rs
m  
Ks T Ks
• Compound DC Motor
Vt Ra
m   T
K a  ( K a ) 2
Typical Speed‐Torque characteristics of DC motors.
Dr Mouloud Denai 12
Reversing the Direction of Rotation
• The direction of rotation is determined by how the

magnetic field coils interact.
• The interaction depends on the polarity of the fields,
which is determined by the direction of the current
flowing through them.
• The direction of the motor will not change by simply
reversing its power supply connections.
• If the power supply connections were reversed, the
relative direction of the magnetic flux lines between the
armature and the field coils would not change. Therefore,
the motor would not reverse direction.
• To change the relative direction of flux lines between the

armature and the field coils, either (not both) the field
windings or the armature windings need to be reversed.
• In practice, it is recommended that only the armature
connections be reversed.
• Note
 If the motor has compensating (interpole) windings, the
windings must also be reversed because they are a part
of the armature circuit.
Dr Mouloud Denai 13
_ _ _
+ + +
Shunt field Shunt field Shunt field
Series Series Series

field field field
Original connection of Reversing the armature Reversing the field

a compound motor connections to reverse connections to reverse
the direction of rotation the direction of rotation
Starting of DC Motors
• When a DC motor is started the armature is stationary and

there is no back‐emf ( ) being generated.
• The only component to limit the starting current is the
armature resistance, which in most DC motors has a very
low value (~ 1 ohm or less).
V  Ea V
Ia  t when E a  0  I a  t 
Ra Ra
• Example: Consider a 10 hp ( 7500 W) motor with an
armature resistance of 0.4 ohms. If the motor is supplied
by a DC source of 260 V, the resulting current would be:
This current is approximately 12 times the
260  0
Ia   650 A actual full‐load current for this motor and
0 .4 would cause severe damage to the brushes,
commutator or windings.
Dr Mouloud Denai 14
Starting of DC Motors
• In order to reduce this very high starting current, an

external resistance must be inserted in series with the
armature during the starting period.
• As the motor gains speed, its back emf builds up and
the starting resistance is cut out.
• Starting resistors are usually inserted into the motor to
limit this current to 125 to 200% of full‐load current.
+ Starting
_ Resistance
Braking of DC Motors
• DC motor are often used for lifting and moving heavy

inertia loads.
• These motors will take time to come to a stop. This
deceleration time is often inacceptable and therefore a
braking torque is necessary to ensure a rapid stop.
• One way of generating a braking torque is through
mechanical friction (like in the car).
• Another way of doing this is by circulating a reverse
current in the armature so as to brake the motor
electrically.
Dr Mouloud Denai 15
• The two common methods for braking a DC motor are:

Dynamic braking and plugging.
• Dynamic braking
 This is achieved by reconnecting a running motor to
act as a generator immediately after is it turned off.
 In this braking circuit, the armature terminals of a
DC motor are disconnected from the power supply
and immediately connected across a resistor ,
which acts as a load.
 The smaller the resistance, the greater the rate of
energy dissipation and the faster the motor slows
down.
 In practice, is sized for an external inertia equal to 2

or 3 times that of the motor. The initial braking torque
is then 2 or 3 times the normal torque of the motor.
 This is illustrated on the shunt motor:
+ +
+ _
_
+
_ _
Motor running normally Motor disconnected and
running as a generator
Dr Mouloud Denai 16
• Plugging
 This method can be used to stop the motor even more
rapidly. This consists of suddenly reversing the
armature current by reversing the terminals of the
source.
 Under normal motor conditions, the armature current
is given by:
V  Ea
Ia  t
Ra
 If we suddenly reverse the terminals of the source, the
net voltage acting on the armature circuit becomes:
E a  Vt
 i.e. the back‐emf adds to the supply voltage,

producing a large current of, perhaps, 50 times greater
than the full‐load armature current.
 This resulting current would cause an arc around the
commutator, destroying the segments, brushes, etc.
before the line circuit breakers open.
 To prevent this, a resistance is introduced in series with
the reversing circuit.
Dr Mouloud Denai 17
_ + _
+
+ +
_ _
_ _
+ +
Motor with reversed terminals:
(a) without resistance (b) with resistance
Armature Reaction in DC Machines
• So far it has been assumed that the only flux acting in a DC

machine is that due to the main poles and called the main
flux.
• When a motor runs at no‐load, the small current flowing in
the armature does not appreciably affect the main flux.
• However, if a load is connected, a larger current will flow
through the armature windings.
• This current also creates its own magnetic flux (called
armature flux) that distorts and weakens the main flux
coming from the machine’s poles.
Dr Mouloud Denai 18
• This distortion and field weakening take place in both

generators and motors.
• The action of the armature flux on the main flux is called
armature reaction.
1 : Flux distribution 2 : Flux created by the 3 : Resulting flux

under no‐load condition armature current under distribution under full‐
(flux produced by the load condition. load condition.
main poles).
• This non‐uniform distribution of the

flux produces two important effects:
 Neutral plane shift
 The magnetic neutral plane is the
zone within the machine where the
velocity of the armature wires is
exactly parallel to the magnetic flux
lines, so that the induced voltage in
the conductors in the plane is exactly
zero.
 The armature reaction tends to shift
the neutral plane towards the left
this results in a poor commutation
with sparkling at the brushes.
Dr Mouloud Denai 19
 Flux Weakening
 Due to the armature reaction, in
some places under the poles,
both fluxes (main and armature)
will sum together, in other places,
they will subtract from each
other. Therefore the average flux
at full‐load (3 ) will be slightly
less than the flux at no‐load (1 ).
 In generators, flux weakening
reduces the voltage supplied by a
generator.
 In motors, flux weakening cause
the speed to increase with load.
• There are two principal methods by which the effect of

armature reaction can be overcome:
1) The first method is to adjust the position of the brushes so
that they are in the neutral plane when the machine
produces its normal load current.
2) The second method is to install special poles called
commutating poles or interpoles between the main poles
to counteract the effect of armature reaction.
Such poles are located directly over the conductors being
commutated and provide the flux that can exactly cancel
the voltage in the coil undergoing commutation.
Interpoles are so small that they only affect the few
conductors being commutated and therefore do not change
the operation of the machine.
Dr Mouloud Denai 20
 The interpoles have a few

turns of large wire and are
connected in series with the
armature.
For generators, the
interpoles are wound and
placed so that each interpole
has the same magnetic
polarity as the main pole
ahead of it, in the direction
of rotation. Main Poles Interpoles
For motors, the interpoles A stator of a six‐pole
must be of the same DC machine with interpoles.
polarity as the previous
main pole.
 As the load increases and the rotor current increases, the

magnitude of neutral‐plane shift and the size of Ldi/dt effects
increase too increasing the voltage in the conductors undergoing
commutation.
 However, the interpole flux increases too producing a larger
voltage in the conductors that opposes the voltage due to neutral‐
plane shift. Therefore, both voltages cancel each other over a wide
range of loads.
 Consequently, the amount of shift caused by the interpoles will
equal the shift caused by armature reaction since both shifts are a
result of armature current. Therefore, the field produced by the
interpoles cancels the armature reaction for all values of load
current by causing a shift in the neutral plane opposite to the shift
caused by armature reaction.
 This approach works for both DC motors and generators.
Dr Mouloud Denai 21
Speed Control of DC Motors
• The speed equation for a separately excited DC motor is:

Vt Ra Vt R
m   Te or m   a Ia
K a  ( K a ) 2 K K
• For a given torque, the motor speed is a function of the
following three parameters:
1) Resistance of the armature circuit: When a resistance
in added to the armature circuit, the motor speed
decreases.
2) Terminal (armature) voltage: Increasing the armature
voltage increases the motor speed.
3) Field flux (or field voltage): Reducing the field voltage
reduces the flux and the motor speed increases.
• Speed control by adding resistance

 The motor speed is given by:
Vt R  Radd +
m 2   a Te Radd
K  K  2
+
+
Vt R  Radd
m 2   a Ia
K K _
_ ωm
_
 The motor speed decreases as is increased. Note

that the no‐load speed is unchanged.
Dr Mouloud Denai 22
• Speed control by adjusting the armature voltage

 A common method of controlling the speed is to adjust
the armature voltage.
Vt Ra
m   Te
K  K  2
+
+
Vt R
m   a Ia _ ωm
K K _
 When the armature voltage is reduced, the no‐load

speed 0 is also reduced.
 When changing the armature voltage we assume that
the field voltage is maintained constant.
• Speed control by adjusting the field voltage
 The motor speed has been shown to depend on the field
flux . +
Vt Ra
m   Te
K  K  2 +
Vf
Vt R
m   a Ia _ ωm
K K _
 The no‐load speed 0 is inversely proportional to .

 The slope of the speed‐torque characteristic is inversely
proportional to  2.
Dr Mouloud Denai 23
 Normally employed for speed control above the rated

motor speed.
 When the motor speed is controlled from the field,
the following need to be taken into account:
 should not exceed its maximum rating.
 Large reductions in may result in excessive speed.
 Since / Φ, reducing the field causes the
armature current to increase.
Dr Mouloud Denai 24

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DC Machines 3

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Electrical

• Separately Excited DC Motor

• Self‐Excited Shunt DC Motor

Example 1: A DC motor is supplied with 240 V. The armature

Example 2: A DC machine is connected to 300 V. The armature

Example 3: Determine the torque developed by a DC motor

• Separately Excited DC Generator

• Self‐Excited Shunt DC Generator

• Self‐Excited Series DC Generator

• Self‐Excited Compound DC Generator – Short shunt

• Self‐Excited Compound DC Generator – Long shunt

Example: Determine the terminal voltage of a generator which

Example: A generator is connected to a 60  load with a current

• Power flow and efficiency calculation in a DC machine are

 Part of this developed power is lost in (armature circuit

Example: A 10 kW shunt generator has an armature resistance

The efficiency is:

The output power is:

Poutput Pin  total losses

Example: A DC series motor supplied with 400 V drives a load

The efficiency is:

• Separately‐Excited and Shunt DC Motor

• The direction of rotation is determined by how the

• To change the relative direction of flux lines between the

Shunt field Shunt field Shunt field

Series Series Series

Original connection of Reversing the armature Reversing the field

• When a DC motor is started the armature is stationary and

• In order to reduce this very high starting current, an

• DC motor are often used for lifting and moving heavy

• The two common methods for braking a DC motor are:

 In practice, is sized for an external inertia equal to 2

 i.e. the back‐emf adds to the supply voltage,

• So far it has been assumed that the only flux acting in a DC

• This distortion and field weakening take place in both

1 : Flux distribution 2 : Flux created by the 3 : Resulting flux

• This non‐uniform distribution of the

• There are two principal methods by which the effect of

 The interpoles have a few

 As the load increases and the rotor current increases, the

• The speed equation for a separately excited DC motor is:

• Speed control by adding resistance

 The motor speed decreases as is increased. Note

• Speed control by adjusting the armature voltage

 When the armature voltage is reduced, the no‐load

 The no‐load speed 0 is inversely proportional to .

 Normally employed for speed control above the rated

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