Unit-2 Solar Collectors

Unit 2
Solar Collectors
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Overview
 Solar collector and working principle
 Description of a Liquid flat plate collector
 Absorber plates
 Materials for flat plate collector
 Energy balance
 Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat Plate Collectors
 Transmissivity
 Collector efficiency factor
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Overview
 Collector heat removal factor
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Flat Plate Collectors
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Solar Collector
 Solar collectors are the key component of active solar-
heating systems.
 They gather the sun's energy, transform its radiation into
heat, then transfer that heat to a fluid (usually water or air).
 The solar thermal energy can be used in solar water-
heating systems and solar space-heating systems.
 Types of solar collectors:
 Flat plate collectors
 Concentrating collectors
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Solar Collector
 In the flat plate type, the collector area is the same as the
absorber area.
 But in the concentrating type, the area intercepting the solar
radiation is greater, sometimes hundred of times greater
than absorber area.
 By means of concentrating collectors, much higher
temperatures can be obtained than with the flat plate type.
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Working Principle
 The fundamental process used for heat conversion is the

green house effect.
 Most of the energy from the sun in the form of light, is a
shortwave radiation.
 When this radiation strikes a solid or liquid, it is absorbed
and transformed into heat energy.
 The material becomes warm and stores the heat and
reradiates to other materials of lower temperature.
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Working Principle
 This re-radiation is a long wave radiation.

 Glass easily transmits short-wave radiation, but a very poor
transmitter of long-wave radiation.
 Once the sun’s energy has passed through the glass
windows and has been absorbed by some material inside,
the heat will not be reradiated back outside as glass acts as
a heat trap. This is called green house effect.
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Flat Plate Collectors
 Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collector

for solar water-heating systems in homes and solar space
heating.
 A typical flat-plate collector is an insulated metal box with
a glass or plastic cover (called the glazing) and a dark-
colored absorber plate.
 These collectors heat up liquid or air at temperatures
from ambient to 100oC.
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Advantages over other Types of Collectors
 Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components of solar

radiation.
 Do not require orientation towards the sun.
 Easy to make and low in cost.
 Have comparatively low maintenance cost and long life.
 Operate at comparatively good efficiency.
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Description of a Liquid Flat Plate Collector
 A flat absorbing plate, normally metallic, upon which the

short wave solar radiation falls and is absorbed.
 Tubes, channels or passages attached to the absorber
plate to circulate the liquid required to remove the thermal
energy from the plate.
 Thermal insulation is provided at the back and sides of the
absorber plate to minimize the heat losses.
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 A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of

glass or radiation transmitting plastic film or sheet.
 A weather-tight container to enclose the above
components.
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Solar Collector-Absorber Plates
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Three Basic Types of Absorber Plates
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Comparison of Absorber Plates
Type Advantages Disadvantages
(1a) Pipe and fin, all copper Good corrosion resistance, low Expensive
thermal capacity
(1b) Pipe and fin, composite e.g., Fairly cheap, good internal Possibility of external bimetallic
copper pipe and aluminium fin corrosion resistance, low thermal corrosion unless suitably
capacity, flexibility in choices of protected
materials
(2) Semi-water sandwich, plastic Cheap and light Limited to low temperature
applications, liable to UV
damage, high thermal expansion
and high thermal capacity
(3a) Semi-water sandwich, Fairly cheap, readily available Long term corrosion problems,
steel(e.g. pressed steel radiators) suitable for closed systems only,
heavy, high thermal capacity
(3b) Semi-water sandwich, Fairly cheap, light weight Very susceptible to internal
aluminium (e.g. roll-bond type) corrosion specially in mixed
metal circuits
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Materials for Flat Plate Collectors
 Absorber plate- The absorber material should have high

thermal conductivity, adequate tensile and compressive
strength and good corrosion resistance. Copper is mostly
preferred. Other materials are aluminum, steel and various
thermoplastics.
 Insulation- used to reduce heat losses from the absorbing
plate and pipes. It should have low thermal conductivity,
stability at high temperature (200oC), no degassing upto
around 200oC, no contribution in corrosion.
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 Cover plate- The functions of cover plates are:

 To transmit maximum solar energy to the absorber plate.
 To minimize upward heat loss from the absorber plate to
the environment.
 To shield the absorber plate from direct exposure to
weathering.
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 Tempered glass is the most common cover material

because of durability and stability to UV radiation.
 It is highly resistant to breakage both from thermal cycling
and natural events.
 It also reduces radiation loss from the absorber plate
because it is opaque to the longer wavelength IR radiation
emitted by the hot absorber plate.
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Thermal and Optical Properties of Cover Plate Materials
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Heat Transfer in a Flat Plate Collector
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Energy Balance
 Incident solar radiation = useful energy gain + various losses
 Various thermal losses
1. Conductive losses
 Through insulation
2. Convective losses
 In between cover plate and absorber plate
 Suggested value of distance - 1.25 to 2.5 cm
 If honeycomb, cellular structure is placed in between,
losses can be reduced.
 Evacuation reduces losses at great extent but costly.
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Energy Balance
 Various thermal losses
3. Radiative losses
 Can be reduced by the use of spectrally selective
absorber coating (Black chrome, nickel etc.).
 Such coatings have high absorptance ~0.9 in the solar

spectrum and low emittance ~0.1 in the infra-red
spectrum in which the absorber radiates to the
environment.
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Energy Balance
 When there is no glass cover, UL~30-60 W/m2-K
 With one glass cover, UL~5-10 W/m2-K
 With two glass covers, UL~4 W/m2-K
 One layer of glass can transmit as much as 92%
of solar radiation striking it, while greatly
reducing UL.
 This reduction is due to the suppression of
convection loss by introducing air layer between
absorber and glass cover.
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Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat
Plate Collectors
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Performance Analysis
 The analysis will first be done for a steady state situation in
which the liquid is flowing through tubes bonded on the
underside of absorber plate.
 An energy balance on the absorber plate yields the following
equation for the steady state:
𝑞𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑆 − 𝑞𝑙
Where,
𝑞𝑢 = Useful heat gain i.e. the rate of heat transfer to the
working fluid,
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S = Incident solar flux absorbed in the absorber plate.
𝐴𝑝 = Area of the absorber plate
𝑞𝑙 = Rate at which heat is lost by convection and re-radiation
from the top, and by conduction and convection from
bottom and sides.
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 The flux incident on the top cover of the collector is given by
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑟𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑟𝑟
 Each of the terms in the above equation is multiplied by a
term called the transmissivity-absorptivity product (τα) in order
to determine the flux S absorbed in the absorber plate.
 Hence
𝑆 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑟𝑏 τα 𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑟𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑟𝑟 τα 𝑑
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Where,
τ = transmissivity of the glass cover system
Α = absorptivity of the absorber plate
τα 𝑏 = transmissivity-absorptivity product for beam
radiation on the collector
τα 𝑑 = transmissivity-absorptivity product for the diffuse
radiation on the collector
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 In order to evaluate 𝑞𝑢 , it is necessary to derive expressions
for calculating the values of τα 𝑏 , τα 𝑑 and 𝑞𝑙 .
 The instantaneous collection efficiency is given by
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢

𝜂𝑖 = =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐶 𝐼𝑇
 Where
𝐴𝐶 is the collector glass area and 𝐴𝐶 is usually 15 to 20 per

cent more than 𝐴𝑝 .
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 If the liquid flow rate through is stopped, there is no useful
heat gain and the efficiency reduces to zero.
 In this case, the absorber plate attains a temperature such

that 𝐴𝑝 𝑆 = 𝑞𝑙 .This temperature is the highest that the
absorber plate can attain and is sometimes referred to as the
stagnation temperature.
 Knowledge of the stagnation temperature is useful as an

indicator for comparing different collector designs.
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Transmissivity of Cover Plate
 It can be obtained by considering reflection-refraction and
absorption separately and given by,
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑟 𝜏𝑎
 Where,
𝜏𝑟 = Transmissivity obtained by considering only reflection and
refraction
𝜏𝑎 = Transmissivity obtained by considering only absorption
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Transmissivity based on Reflection-Refraction
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 By Snell’s law, which states that
sin 𝜃1 𝑛2
=
sin 𝜃2 𝑛1
 Where,
θ1 = angle of incidence
θ2 = angle of refraction
n1 , n2 = refractive indices of the two media
 The reflectivity ρ (= Ir /Ibn) is related to the angles of incidence

and refraction by the equations.
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1
ρ= (ρI + ρII )
2
sin2 (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )

ρI =
sin2 (𝜃2 +𝜃1 )
tan2 (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )

ρII =
tan2 (𝜃2 +𝜃1 )
 ρI and ρII being two reflectivities of the two components of

polarization.
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 For the special case of normal incidence ( θ1 = 00 ), it can be
shown that
𝑛1 −𝑛2 2
ρ = ρI = ρII =
𝑛1 +𝑛2
 The transmittance 𝜏𝑟 is given by an expression similar to that
for ρ.
 Thus,
1
𝜏𝑟 = τ𝑟𝐼 + τ𝑟𝐼𝐼
2
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 Where τ𝑟𝐼 and τ𝑟𝐼𝐼 are the transmissivities of the two

components of polarization.
 Hence,
τ𝑟𝐼 = (1-ρ1 ) 2 + ρI2(1-ρI)2 + ρI4(1-ρI)2+……….
= (1-ρI)2(1+ρI2+ρI4+…….)
(1−ρ1) 2 1−ρ1
= =
1−ρ21 1+ρ1
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 Similarly,
1−𝜌𝐼𝐼
τ𝑟𝐼𝐼 =
1+𝜌𝐼𝐼
 These results can be readily extended to a system of M
covers for which it can be shown that
1−𝜌𝐼
𝜏𝑟𝐼 =
1+(2𝑀−1)𝜌𝐼
 And
1−ρII
τ𝑟𝐼𝐼 =
1+(2M−1)ρII
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Transmissivity based on Absorption
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 The transmissivity based on absorption can be obtained by
assuming that the attenuation due to absorption is proportional
to the local intensity (Bouger’s law).
 Consider a beam of intensity Ibn incident normally on a
transparent cover of thickness δc and emerging with an
intensity Il (Fig 4.3). From Bouger’s law,
dI = - KI dx
 Where K is a constant of proportionality and is called the
extinction coefficient.
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 It will be assumed to have a value independent of wavelength.
Integrating over the length traversed by the beam, we have
It
𝜏𝛼 = = e−Kδc
Ibn
 In case the beam is incident at an angle θ1 , the path traversed

through the cover would be (δc/cosθ2) where θ2 is the angle of
refraction.
 Then Eq. gets modified in the form
𝜏𝛼 = e−Kδc/cosθ2
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Transmissivity-Absorptivity Product for Diffuse Radiation
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Transmissivity-Absorptivity Product for Diffuse Radiation
 Thus, the net fraction absorbed

(𝜏𝛼) = 𝜏𝛼[1 + (1 − 𝛼)𝜌𝑑 + (1 − 𝛼)2𝜌𝑑2 + ⋯ ]
𝜏𝛼
=
1−(1−𝛼)𝜌𝑑
 The symbol 𝜌𝑑 represents the diffuse reflectivity of the cover
system.
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Overall Loss Coefficient
 Heat lost from the collector
ql = UtAp(Tpm-Ta)
 Where
Ut = overall loss coefficient,
Ap = area of absorber plate,
Tpm = average temperature of the absorber plate, and
Ta = temperature of surrounding air (assumed to be same on
all the sides of the collector)
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 Heat lost from the collector is the sum of heat lost from the
top, bottom and sides.
ql = qt + qb + qs
 Where
qt = UtAp(Tpm-Ta)
qb = UbAp(Tpm-Ta)
qs = UsAp(Tpm-Ta)
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 It will be noted that the definition of each of the coefficients is
based on the area Ap and the temperature difference (Tpm –
Ta).
 This is done for convenience and helps in giving the simple
additive equation.
Ul = Ut + Ub + Us
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Top Loss Coefficient
 The top loss coefficient
Ut is evaluated by
considering convection
and re-radiation losses
from the absorber plate
in the upward direction.
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 Assumptions:
 The transparent covers and the absorber plate constitute a
system of infinite parallel surfaces and that the flow of heat
is one-dimensional and steady.
 Temperature drop across the thickness of the covers is
negligible.
 The outgoing re-radiation is of large wavelengths.
Therefore, the transparent cover will be assumed to be
opaque.
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 A schematic diagram for a two-cover system is shown in
figure 4.7.
 In a steady state, the heat transferred by convection and
radiation between
 The absorber plate and first cover
 The first cover and second cover
 The second cover and the surroundings
must be equal.
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qt σ(T4pm −T4𝑐1 )
= hp−𝑐1 Tpm − T𝑐1 + 1 1
Ap ( + −1)
εp εc
σ(T4𝑐1 −T4𝑐2 )
= ℎ𝑐1 −𝑐2 (𝑇𝑐1 − 𝑇𝑐2 ) + 1 1
(ε +ε −1)
c c
= ℎ𝑤 (𝑇c2 - Ta) + σεc 𝑇𝑐2 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 4

 Where,
hp−𝑐1 = convective heat transfer coefficient between the absorber
plate and the first cover,
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ℎ𝑐1−𝑐2 = convective heat transfer coefficient between the first and
second covers,
ℎ𝑤 = convective heat transfer coefficient between the topmost cover
and the surrounding air,
𝑇𝑐1 , 𝑇𝑐2 = temperatures attained by the two covers
𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 = effective temperature of the sky with which the radiative
exchange takes place,
ε𝑝 = emissivity of the absorber plate for long wavelength radiation,
ε𝑐 = emissivity of the covers for long wavelength radiation,
 These equations have three unknowns 𝑞𝑡 , 𝑇𝑐1 and 𝑇𝑐2 .
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Heat Transfer Coefficient between Parallel Plates
 The natural convection heat transfer coefficient for enclosed
space between the absorber plate and the first cover or between
two covers is calculated by using one of the following correlations
suggested by Buchberg et al.
NuL = 1; RaL cosβ < 1708

1708
NuL = 1+1.446(1- ) ; 1708< RaLcosβ<5900
RaL cos β
NuL = 0.229(RaLcosβ)0.252 ; 5900< RaL cosβ< 9.23 x 104

NuL = 0.157(RaL cosβ)0.285 ; 9.23 x 104 < RaL cosβ < 106
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Heat Transfer Coefficient between Parallel Plates
 Nu and RaL are the Nusselt number and Rayleigh numbers.
 The characteristic dimension L is the spacing between the

surfaces, at which properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean
of the surface temperature.
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Heat Transfer Coefficient at the Top Cover
 The convective heat transfer coefficient (hw) at the top cover has
been generally calculated from the empirical correlation suggested
by McAdams,
hw = 5.7+3.8 V∞
 In which hw is in W/m2K and V∞ is the wind speed in m/s
 Sparrow suggested the following correlation to calculate hw
j = 0.86(𝑅𝑒𝐿∗ )-1/2
 This equation is validated on extensive experiments, hence it is
suggested to use this equation for the calculation.
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Heat Transfer Coefficient at the Top Cover
 Where
j = j-factor given by (hw/ρCpV∞)Pr2/3
Re∗L = Reynold’s number (V∞L*/v) based on the
characteristic dimension
L* = 4Ac/Cc
Ac = collector gross area
Cc = circumference associated with the collector gross area
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Heat transfer Coefficient at the Top Cover
 Test et al. presented results of an experimental investigation to
determine the value of hw from the upper surface of a
rectangular plate of size 1.220 m x 0.813 m inclined at an
angle of 40°.
 The experiments were conducted in the natural environment

at mean wind speeds ranging from 1.5 to 5.6 m/s.
 Based on their data, they suggested the following equation:
hw = 8.55 + 2.56 V∞
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 Where hw is in W/m2-K and V∞ is in m/s.
 The values predicted by above Eq. are typically about twice

the values obtained from eq. given by Sparrow.
 Test et al. state that there is a considerable amount of
turbulence in the wind in a natural environment.
 As a result, tests conducted in a low turbulence intensity wind
tunnel (as was done by Sparrow and his co-workers)
significantly underestimate the value of hw.
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 Results of other investigators (Kumar et al.) substantiate the
arguments of Test et al.
 It is therefore recommended that above eq. be used for
calculating the value of the wind heat transfer coefficient.
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Sky Temperature
 The effective temperature of the sky is usually calculated
from the simple empirical relations,
Tsky = Ta- 6
 Where, Tsky and Ta are expressed in Kelvin.
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Bottom Loss Coefficient
Fig. 4.8 Bottom and side losses from a flat-plate collector

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 The bottom loss coefficient Ub is evaluated by considering
conduction and convection losses from the absorber plate in
the downward direction through the bottom of the collector.
 The flow of heat is one dimensional and steady
 In most cases, the thickness of insulation provided such that
the thermal resistance associated with conduction dominates
and convective resistance is neglected.
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𝑘𝑖
Ub =
𝛿𝑏
 Where,
ki = thermal conductivity of thermal insulation
δb = thickness of insulation
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Side Loss Coefficient
 Similar to bottom loss coefficient, it will be assumed that the

conduction resistance dominates and that the flow of heat is one-
dimensional and steady.
 The area across which heat flows sideways is 2 𝐿3 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ).
 The average temperature drop across the side insulation is
(𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )
.
2
 Thickness of the insulation is δ𝑠.
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Side Loss Coefficient
(𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑞𝑠 = 2 𝐿3 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑘𝑖
2δ𝑠
Also, we know that
𝑞𝑠 = 𝑈𝑠 𝐴𝑝 (𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )
Hence
𝐿3 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑘𝑖
𝑈𝑠 =
𝐿1 𝐿2 δ𝑠
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Improvement in Efficiency of Collector
 Increasing the transmission of energy through the collector to the
working fluid by improving:
 Transmittance of the transparent cover plates.
 Absorptance of the absorber plate to the incident solar
radiation.
 Heat transfer coefficient from the absorbing surface to the
working fluid.
 Reducing thermal losses (conductive, convective and radiative)
from the absorber plate to the outside air.
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Empirical Equation for Top Loss Coefficient
 Klein developed the following convenient empirical equation for

calculating the top loss coefficient.
−1 2 + 𝑇2 𝑇
𝑀 1 σ 𝑇𝑝𝑚 𝑎 𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝑎
𝑈𝑡 = + +
𝐶 𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 0.33 ℎ𝑤 1 2𝑀 + 𝑓 − 1
+ −𝑀
𝑇𝑝𝑚 𝑀+𝑓 𝜀𝑝 + 0.05𝑀 1 − 𝜀𝑝 𝜀𝑐
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Where
2 )(1+0.091M)
𝑓 = (1.0.4ℎ𝑤 +0.0005ℎ𝑤
C = 365.9(1-0.00883β+0.0001298𝛽2 )
M = Number of glass covers
 While using above equation, 𝑇𝑝𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑎 are expressed in
K, ℎ𝑤 in W/𝑚2 − 𝐾, σ 𝑖𝑛 W/𝑚2 − 𝐾 4 and β in degrees.
 The value of 𝑈𝑡 is obtained in W/𝑚2 − 𝐾 . The range of
conditions over which equation is developed are as follows:
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320 ≤ 𝑇𝑝𝑚 ≤420 K
260 ≤𝑇𝑎 ≤ 310 𝐾
0.1 ≤ 𝜀𝑝 ≤0.95
0≤ 𝑉∞ ≤10m/s
1≤ 𝑀 ≤ 3
0≤ 𝛽 ≤ 90𝑜
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 The values of 𝜀𝑐 and L have been taken to be constant and equal

to 0.88 and 2.54 cm respectively.
 Garg and Datta have a detailed study of these correlations as well

as Klein’s correlation and have concluded that the correlation
suggested by Malhotra et al. agrees best with the exact iterative
solution.
 Malhotra et al. have given the following correlation:
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−1 2 + 𝑇2 𝑇
𝑀 1 σ 𝑇𝑝𝑚 𝑎 𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝑎
𝑈𝑡 = + +
𝐶 𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 0.252 ℎ𝑤 1 2𝑀 + 𝑓 − 1
+ 𝜀𝑐 −𝑀
𝑇𝑝𝑚 𝑀+𝑓 𝜀𝑝 + 0.0425𝑀 1 − 𝜀𝑝
Where
9 30 𝑇𝑎
f= ( – 2 ) (316.9)(1+0.091M)
ℎ𝑤 ℎ𝑤
L = spacing (m)
C = 204.429 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)0.252 /𝐿0.24
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Collector Efficiency Factor
 The heat lost from the collector can be calculated, if the average
plate temperature is known.
 However, the plate temperature is generally not known.
 It will, therefore, be necessary to consider the flow of the heat in
the absorber plate and across the fluid tubes to the fluid so that the
values of 𝑇𝑝𝑚 can be related to the value of the inlet fluid
temperature, which is known quantity.
 In order to simplify the problem, the approach adopted will be to
conduct a number of one dimensional analysis.
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 First, the one dimensional flow of heat in the absorber plate in the
direction at the right angles to the direction of fluid flow will be
considered.
 This will be followed by a consideration of the heat flow from the

plate to the fluid across the tube wall.
 Finally, the one dimensional flow of the fluid inside the tubes will
be analysed.
 Consider a collector having an absorber plate of length 𝐿1 and 𝐿2

width.
74
 Assume that there are N fluid tubes and that the pitch of the
tubes is W ( = 𝐿2 /N).
 Let 𝐷𝑖 and 𝐷𝑜 be the inside and outside diameters of the

tube.
75
76
 Consider a section of the absorber plate with two adjacent fluid

tubes.
 The temperature in the plate (𝑇𝑝 ) will vary in the x-direction in the
manner as shown in the figure 4.9.
 It will be assumed that the same distribution exists between any

two tubes.
 Above the fluid tubes, the temperature will be constant, while in

between the tubes, temperature will pass through a maximum.
77
 Taking a slice dy along the flow direction and neglecting heat

conduction in the plate in that direction, we can write an energy
balance for an element dx * dy of the plate.
(Net heat conducted into element) + (Incident energy absorbed) =

Heat loss from element
78
𝑑2 𝑇𝑝
𝑘𝑝 𝛿𝑝 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑆 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑈𝑙 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 (𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑎 )
𝑑𝑥
 Simplifying,
𝑑 2 𝑇𝑝 𝑈𝑙 𝑆
2
= [𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑎 − ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝑈𝑙
 Equation is then solved using the boundary
𝑑𝑇𝑝 𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜
𝑥 = 0; = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = ; 𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇𝑝𝑜
𝑑𝑥 2
79
 This yields the solution
𝑆
𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑎 + cosh 𝑚𝑥
𝑈𝑙
=
𝑆 𝑚 𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜
𝑇𝑝𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 + cosh
𝑈𝑙 2
 Where
𝑈𝑙 0.5
𝑚=
𝑘𝑝 𝑈𝑙
80
 The temperature distribution obtained is similar to that for a long

rectangular fin.
 The rate at which energy is conducted through the plate to one

fluid tube from both sides.
𝑑𝑇𝑝
= −2𝑘𝑝 𝛿𝑝 ∗ 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=
𝑚 𝑊−𝐷𝑜
2
2𝑘𝑝 𝛿𝑝 0.5 𝑚 𝑊−𝐷𝑜

=( ) [𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑝𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 tanh 𝑑𝑦]
𝑈𝑖 2
81
 The rate at which energy absorbed just above the tube flows in
𝐷𝑜 𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑝𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 𝑑𝑦
 Thus the useful energy gain for all the N tubes of the collector over
a length dy is given by:
0.5
𝑘𝑝 𝛿𝑝 𝑚 𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜
𝑑𝑞𝑢 = 𝑁 𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑝𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 ∗ 2 tanh + 𝐷𝑜 𝑑𝑦
𝑈𝑖 2
82
 Above equation can be written in a simpler manner by introducing
the concept of plate effectiveness ø, which is defined as the ratio
of the heat conducted through the plate to the fluid, to the heat
which would have been conducted if the thermal conductivity of
the plate material was infinite.
𝑚 𝑊−𝐷𝑜
tanh
2
 It is easily known that ∅= 𝑚 𝑊−𝐷𝑜
2
1 𝑑𝑞𝑢
Thus = 𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑝𝑜 − 𝑇𝑎 [∅ 𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜 + 𝐷𝑜 ]
𝑁 𝑑𝑦
83
 We next consider the flow of the heat from the plate to the fluid.
 Three thermal resistances in the path are due to the adhesive used
for attaching the tubes to the absorber plate, the tube wall and the
heat transfer coefficient at the inner surface of the tube.
 Assuming the thermal resistance of the tube wall to the negligible,
1 𝑑𝑞𝑢 (𝑇𝑝𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓 )
=
𝑁 𝑑𝑦 𝛿 1
( 𝑎 + )
𝑘𝑎 𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑓
84
Where
𝛿𝑎 = Average thickness of the adhesive
𝑘𝑎 = Thermal conductivity of the adhesive,
𝑇𝑓 = Local fluid temperature,
ℎ𝑓 = Heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the tube
85
 Combining above equations so as to eliminate the intermediate
temperature 𝑇𝑝𝑜 , we have
1 𝑑𝑞𝑢 𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎
=
𝑁 𝑑𝑦 1 𝛿 1
𝑈𝑙 [ + 𝑎 + )]
𝑈𝑙 𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜 ∅ + 𝐷𝑜 𝐾𝑎 𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑓
 Now we define a term called the collector efficiency factor (F’) as
follows:
1
𝐹′ =
1 𝛿 1
𝑊𝑈𝑙 [ + 𝑎 + )]
𝑈𝑙 𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜 ∅ + 𝐷𝑜 𝐾𝑎 𝐷𝑜 𝜋𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑓
86
Substituting this definition, we get
1 𝑑𝑞𝑢
= 𝑊𝐹′𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎
𝑁 𝑑𝑦
Where F’ represents the ratio of the actual useful gain rate per tube
per unit length to the gain which would occur if the collector absorber
plate were at the temperature 𝑇𝑓 .
87
Collector Heat-Removal Factor
88
 The final one dimensional analysis will be performed along the

direction of the fluid flow with the objective of determining the
variation of fluid temperature.
 This analysis will help in linking the useful heat gain rate with the
fluid inlet temperature.
 Consider as a control volume, an elementary length dy of one

tube.
 Applying the first law of thermodynamics,
89
 Rate of change of enthalpy of the fluid flowing through the control

volume = Rate of heat transfer to fluid inside the control volume
ṁ 1
𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇𝑓 = 𝑑𝑞𝑢 = 𝑊𝐹 ′ [𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎 ] dy
𝑁 𝑁
𝑑𝑇𝑓 𝑊𝐹′𝑈𝑙 𝑆
= [ + 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑓 ]
𝑑𝑦 ṁ 𝑈𝑙
𝐶𝑝
𝑁
90
 Integrating and using the inlet condition

𝑦 = 0; 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓𝑖
 We obtain the temperature distribution
𝑆
+ 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑓 𝐿2 𝐹′𝑈𝑙 𝑦
𝑈𝑙
= exp{− }
𝑆 ṁ𝐶𝑝
+ 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖
𝑈𝑙
91
 The fluid temperature 𝑇𝑓𝑜 is obtained by substituting 𝑇𝑓 =

𝑇𝑓𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝐿1 in the above eqn.
 Thus,
𝑆
+ 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 𝐹′𝑈𝑙 𝐿1 𝐿2
𝑈𝑙
= exp{− }
𝑆 ṁ𝐶 𝑝
𝑈𝑙
92
 Subtracting both sides of equation from unity,
𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖 𝐹′𝑈𝑙 𝐴𝑝

= 1 − exp{− }
𝑆 ṁ𝐶𝑝
𝑈𝑙
 Thus, the useful heat gain rate for the collector
𝑞𝑢 = ṁ𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖 )
ṁ𝐶𝑝 𝐹′𝑈𝑙 𝐴𝑝
= 𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 [1 − exp{− }]
𝑈𝑙 ṁ𝐶𝑝
93
𝑞𝑢 = 𝐹𝑅 𝐴𝑃 [𝑆 − 𝑈𝑙 𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 ]
 Where
ṁ𝐶𝑝 𝐹 ′ 𝑈𝑙 𝐴𝑃
𝐹𝑅= [1 − exp{− }]
𝑈𝑙 𝐴𝑃 ṁ𝐶𝑝
 The term 𝐹𝑅 is called the collector heat removal factor.
 It is an important design parameter since it is a measure of the

thermal resistance encountered by the absorbed solar radiation in
reaching the collector fluid.
94
 It can be seen that 𝐹𝑅 represents the ratio of the actual useful heat
gain rate to the gain which would occur if the collector absorber
plate was at the temperature 𝑇𝑓𝑖 everywhere.
 As such value ranges from between 0 and 1.
 The above equation often referred to as the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss

equation.
95
Concentrating Collectors
2/7/2018 96
Overview
 Introduction
 Types of concentrating collectors
 Cylindrical parabolic concentrator
 Performance Analysis of Cylindrical Parabolic
Collector
2/7/2018 97
Introduction
 When higher temperatures are required, it becomes

necessary to concentrate the radiation.
 This is achieved using focusing or concentrating collectors.
 The collector consists of a concentrator and a receiver.
 In case of parabolic concentrator, a mirror reflector having
the shape of a cylindrical parabola, focuses the sunlight on
to its axis, where it is absorbed on the surface of the
absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flowing through it.
2/7/2018 98
Introduction
 In order to achieve a condition so that sun’s rays should always
be focused on the absorber tube, the concentrator has to be
rotated. This movement is called tracking.
 Rotation about a single axis is generally required. Fluid

temperatures up to 400o C can be achieved.
 The generation of still higher temperatures is possible by using

paraboloid reflectors which have a point focus.
 These require two-axis tracking so that sun is in line with the

focus and the vertex of the paraboloid.
2/7/2018 99
Important Definitions
 Aperture (W) - It is the plane opening of the concentrator
through which the solar radiation passes. For a cylindrical
or linear concentrator, it is characterized by the width, while
for a surface of revolution, it is characterized by the
diameter of the opening.
 Area Concentration Ratio (C) - It is the ratio of the effective

area of aperture to the surface area of the absorber. Value
of the C vary from unity (flat plate collector) to a few
thousand for a paraboloid dish.
2/7/2018 100
Important Definitions
 Intercept Factor (ˠ) - It is the fraction of the radiation, which is
reflected or refracted from the concentrator and is incident on the
absorber. The value is generally close to unity.
 Acceptance Angle (2 Ѳ𝑎 ) - It is the angle over which beam

radiation may deviate from the normal to the aperture plane and
reach the absorber.
 Collectors with large acceptance angles require only occasional

adjustments, while collectors with small acceptance angles have
to be adjusted continuously.
2/7/2018 101
Working Principles of Concentrating Collectors
 Unlike solar photovoltaic cells, which use light to produce
electricity, concentrating solar power systems generate
electricity with heat.
 Concentrating solar collectors use mirrors and lenses to
concentrate and focus sunlight onto a thermal receiver,
similar to a boiler tube.
 The receiver absorbs and converts sunlight into heat. The
heat is then transported to a steam generator or engine
where it is converted into electricity.
102
Working Principles of Concentrating Collectors
 A concentrating solar power system that produces 350 MW
of electricity displaces the energy equivalent of 2.3 million
barrels of oil .
103
Types of Concentrating Collectors
1. Flat-plate collector with plane reflectors
2. Compound parabolic collector
3. Cylindrical parabolic collector
4. Collector with fixed circular concentrator and moving receiver
5. Fresnel lens concentrating collector
6. Paraboloid dish collector
7. Central receiver with heliostat

2/7/2018 104
1. Flat-Plate Collector with Plane Reflectors
 Flat plate collector with
adjustable mirrors at the
edges to reflect radiation on to
the absorber plate.
 It is simple in design, has a

concentration ratio a little
above unity and is useful for
giving temperatures around
140o C.
2/7/2018 105
2. Compound Parabolic Collector
 The concentrator consists of
curved segments which are parts
of two parabolas.
 The CR varies from 3 to 10.
 The main advantage of the

collector is that it has a high
acceptance angle and requires
only occasional tracking.
2/7/2018 106
3. Cylindrical Parabolic Collector
 Also called parabolic

troughs, are devices that
are shaped like the letter
“u”. The troughs
concentrate sunlight onto
a receiver tube that is
positioned along the focal
line of the trough.
2/7/2018 107
 In parabolic trough
collector, the image is
formed on the focal axis
of the parabola.
 The aperture area ranges
from 1 m2 to 6 m2.
 The CR range is from 10
to 30.
2/7/2018 108
2/7/2018 109
Fig. 2 Cross-section of parabolic trough Fig.3 Parabolic trough system
110
 Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-axis
tracking.
Fig. 4. One Axis Tracking Parabolic Fig. 5. Two Axis Tracking Concentrator
111
Trough with Axis Oriented E-W

The basic parts are:

 An absorber tube located at the focal axis through which
the liquid to be heated flows
 A parabolic concentrator
 A concentric transparent cover
2/7/2018 112
2/7/2018 113
 The collectors are available from about aperture areas 1 to
60 m2 and widths ranging from 1 to 6 m.
 The absorber tube is usually made of stainless steel or
copper and has a diameter of 2.5 to 5 cm.
 It is coated with a heat resistant black paint and is
surrounded by a concentric glass cover with an annular gap
of 1 or 2 cm.
 In the case of high-performance collectors, the absorber tube
is coated with a selective surface and the space between the
tube and the glass cover is evacuated.
2/7/2018 114
 The liquid heated in the collector depends upon the temperature
required. Usually heat transfer liquids are used.
 The reflecting surface is curved back silvered glass. It is fixed on
a light-weight structure usually made of aluminum sections.
 The proper design of this supporting structure and of the system
for its movement is important, since it influences the shape and
orientation of the reflecting surface.
 Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400° C and produce
steam for generating electricity.
2/7/2018 115
 Multi-megawatt power plants have been built using parabolic
troughs combined with gas turbines (California).
116
Fig. 6 Parabolic trough combined with gas turbines
4. Collector with Fixed Circular Concentrator and
Moving Receiver
 It has a fixed concentrator and a
moving receiver.
 The concentrator is an array of
long, narrow, flat mirror strips fixed
along a cylindrical surface.
 The mirror strips produce a
narrow line image which follows a
circular path as the sun moves.
This path is on the same circle on
which the mirror strips are fixed.
 The CR varies from 10 to 100.
2/7/2018 117
5. Fresnel Lens Concentrating Collector
 Fresnel lens refraction type
focusing collector is made of
an acrylic plastic sheet, flat on
one side, with fine longitudinal
grooves on the other.
 The angles of grooves are
designed to bring radiation to a
line focus.
 The CR ranges between 10 to
80 with temperature varying
between 150oC to 400oC.
2/7/2018 118
6. Paraboloid Dish Collector
 A parabolic dish collector is similar in
appearance to a large satellite dish, but has
mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the
focal point.
 To achieve high CRs and temperature, it is
required to build a point-focusing collector.
 A paraboloid dish collector is of point-
focusing type as the receiver is placed at
the focus of the paraboloid reflector.
2/7/2018 119
 As a typical case, a dish of 6 m in diameter

is constructed from 200 curved mirror
segments forming a paraboloidal surface.
 The absorber has a cavity shape made of
zirconium-copper alloy, with a selective
coating of black chrome.
 The CR ranges from 100 to a few
thousands making to attain maximum
temperature up to 2000º C.
2/7/2018 120
 A parabolic dish system uses a computer

to track the sun and concentrate the sun's
rays onto a receiver located at the focal
point in front of the dish.
 For this, two-axis tracking is required so
that the sun may remain in line with the
focus and vertex of the paraboloid.
2/7/2018 121
7. Central Receiver with Heliostat
 To collect large amounts of heat energy at one point, the
Central Receiver Concept is followed.
 Solar radiation is reflected from a field of heliostats (an
array of mirrors) to a centrally located receiver on a tower.
 Heliostats follow the sun to harness maximum solar heat.
 Water flowing through the receiver absorbs heat to produce
steam which operates a Rankine cycle turbo generator to
generate electrical energy.
2/7/2018 122
 With a central receiver optical system, a large number of
small mirrors installed, each steerable to have an image at
the absorber on the central receiver.
2/7/2018 123
2/7/2018 124
2/7/2018 125
7. Central Receiver with Heliostat with Salt Storage
2/7/2018 126
Performance Analysis of Concentrating
Collectors
127
Thermal Analysis of Concentrating Collectors
 Like a flat plate collector, an energy balance on the absorber

plate yields the following equation under steady state
conditions:
𝑞𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑆 − 𝑞𝑙
Where,
𝑞𝑢 = Useful heat gain i.e. the rate of heat transfer to the
working fluid,
128
S = Incident solar flux absorbed in the absorber plate.

𝑞𝑙 = Rate at which heat is lost by convection and re-radiation
from the top, and by conduction and convection from bottom
and sides.
 Above equation has been written under the assumption that
the contribution of the diffuse component of solar radiation is
negligible.
129
 Now, 𝑞𝑙 can be written in terms of an overall loss coefficient
defined by the equation
𝑞𝑙 = 𝑈𝑙 𝐴𝑝 (𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )
Where,
𝑈𝑙 = Overall loss coefficient
𝑇𝑝𝑚 = Average temperature of the absorber plate
𝑇𝑎 = Temperature of the surrounding air
130
We combine above two equations to obtain
𝑈𝑙
qu = 𝐴𝑎 [𝑆 − (𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑎 )]
𝐶
Where, C = (𝐴𝑎ൗ𝐴𝑝 ) is the concentration ration.
131
Performance Analysis of Cylindrical Parabolic Collector
132
 Consider a cylindrical parabolic concentrating collector whose

concentrator has
W = Aperture
L = Length
ør = rim angle
 The absorber tube has an inner diameter Di and outer diameter D0
and it has a concentric glass cover of inner diameter Dci and outer
diameter Dco around it.
 The fluid being heated in the collector has a mass flow rate ṁ, a
specific heat Cp, an inlet temperature Tfi and outlet temperature Tfo.
133
 In some of the tracking modes, the sun’s rays are incident at
an angle and will, therefore, come to a focus a little beyond
the length of the concentrator.
 We will assume that the radiation flux is the same all along the
length. We will make assumption that the temperature drops
across the absorber tube and the glass cover are negligible.
 The Concentration Ratio of the collector is

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑊−𝐷𝑜 𝐿 𝑊−𝐷𝑜
C= = = ……(1)
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜋𝐷𝑜𝐿 𝜋𝐷𝑜
134
 An energy balance on an elementary slice dx of the

absorber tube, at a distance x from the inlet, yields the
following equation for the steady state:
dqu = [Ibrb(W-Do)ργ(τα)b + Ibrb Do (τα)b – UlπDo (Tp-Ta)]dx ….…(2)
where,
dqu = useful heat gain rate for a length dx
ρ = specular reflectivity of the concentrator surface,
γ = Intercept factor
135
(τα)b = average value of the transmissivity-absorptivity product
for beam radiation
Ul = overall loss coefficient,
Tp = local temperature of absorber tube,
Ta = ambient temperature
 In the above equation, the first term on the right hand
represents incident radiation absorbed in the absorber tube
after reflection, while the second term represents absorbed
incident beam radiation which directly falls on the absorber
tube.
136
 We define an absorbed flux S as follows

𝐷𝑜
S = Ibrb ργ (τα)b + Ibrb (τα)b ……………………………(3)
𝑊−𝐷𝑜
Thus, Eqns. (2) Becomes,

𝑈𝑙
dqu =[𝑆 − (𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑎 )](𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜 )𝑑𝑥 -----------------------------------(4)
𝐶
Also, dqu =hf π Di (𝑇𝑝 -𝑇𝑓 )dx ----------------------------------(5)
= ṁ Cp dTf ………………………………………………………........(6)
137
Hf = heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the tube,

Tf = local fluid temperature
Now combining eqns. (4) and (5), We obtain

𝑈𝑙
dqu = F’ [𝑆 − (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎 )](𝑊 − 𝐷𝑜 )𝑑𝑥 --------------------------(7)
𝐶
F’ = collector efficiency factor

1
F’ = ----------------------------------(8)
1 𝐷𝑜
𝑈𝑙 +
𝑈𝑙 𝐷𝑖 (ℎ𝑓 )
138
Now once again combining eqns. (6) and (7)
𝑑𝑇𝑓 𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝑈𝑙 𝐶𝑆
= 𝐹’ [ − (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑎 )] ------------------(9)
𝑑𝑥 ṁ𝐶𝑝 𝑈𝑙
Integrating and using inlet conditions as x = 0; Tf = Tfi ,
𝐶𝑆
+ 𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇𝑓 𝐹 ′ 𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝑈𝑙 𝑥
𝑈𝑙
= exp −
𝐶𝑆 ṁ𝐶𝑝
𝑈𝑙
139
 Fluid outlet temperature is obtained by Tf = 𝑇𝑓𝑜 and x = L &

subtracting both sides of the resulting equation from unity
(𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖 ) 𝐹 ′ 𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝑈𝑙 𝐿
= 1 − exp −
𝐶𝑆 ṁ𝐶𝑝
𝑈𝑙
 Thus useful heat gain rate is

𝑈𝑙
𝑞𝑢 = ṁCp (Tfo-Tfi) = FR (W-𝐷𝑜 )L[𝑆 − (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑎 )]--------------(10)
𝐶
where 𝐹𝑅 is the heat removal factor defined by:
140
ṁ𝐶𝑝 𝐹 ′ 𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝑈𝑙 𝐿
𝐹𝑅 = [1 − exp − … … … … … . . (11)
𝜋𝐷𝑜 𝑈𝑙 𝐿 ṁ𝐶𝑝
 Now, Instantaneous efficiency is given as

qu
ηi = ----------------------------(12)
(Ibrb+ 𝐼𝑑 𝑟𝑑)WL
 If ground-reflected radiation is neglected, then
instantaneous efficiency can also be calculated based on
beam radiation alone i.e.
qu
ηib = ---------------------------------------(13)
Ib𝑟𝑏WL
141
Overall Loss Coefficient And Heat Transfer Correlations
 We consider the absorber tube and the glass cover around it

to constitute a system of long, concentric tubes.
 We have
𝑞𝑙 1
= h(p-c)(Tm-Tc)π𝐷𝑜 +ϭπ𝐷𝑜 ((Tpm)4-(Tc)4) 1 𝐷𝑜 1 -----(13)
𝐿 + ( −1)
𝜀𝑃 𝐷𝑐𝑖 𝜀𝑐
𝑞𝑙
= hw (Tc-Ta) πDco + ϭπDco(Tc)4-(Tsky)4)--------------(14)
𝐿
142
Overall Loss Coefficient And Heat Transfer Correlations
 Where
𝑞𝑙
= Heat loss per unit length
𝐿
h(p-c) = Convective heat transfer coefficient between the

absorber tube and the glass cover
Tpm = Average temperature of the absorber tube
Tc = Temperature attained by cover
143
Heat transfer coefficient between the Absorber
tube and the Cover
 Heat transfer coefficient hp-c is calculated using correlation

due to Raithby and Hollands
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 1
= 0.317 (𝑅𝑎 ∗) ----------------------------------(16)
4
𝑘
Where,
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = Effective thermal conductivity
1
(𝑅𝑎 ∗) = Modified Rayleigh number
4
144
tube and the Cover
𝐷
1 ln 𝐷𝑐𝑖 1
𝑜
(𝑅𝑎 ∗) =
4
3 5 𝑅𝑎 . -------------------------------(17)
4
1 1 4
𝑏4 3 + 3 )
𝐷5 5
𝑜 𝐷𝑐𝑖
𝐷𝑐𝑖 −𝐷𝑜
Here, b =
2
 The relation b/w the and the equating expressions for the
heat exchange rate per unit length. We have
2𝜋𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑐 = ℎ𝑝−𝑐 𝜋𝐷0 𝑇𝑝𝑚 − 𝑇𝑐
𝐷𝑐𝑖
𝐷0 𝑙𝑛
𝐷𝑜
145
tube and the Cover
 Thus, heat transfer coefficient is

2𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓
hp-c = 𝐷𝑐𝑖 ----------------------------(18)
𝐷0 𝑙𝑛
𝐷𝑜
 The limitation of eqn. (16) are that Ra* should be less

than 107 And b should be less than 0.3 Do.
146
Heat Transfer Coefficient on the Outside Surface
of the Cover
 The convective heat transfer coefficient hw on the outside of
the cover (wind heat transfer coefficient) can be calculated
using the well-known correlation based on the data Hilpert
Nu = C1 Ren.
C1 and n are constants having the following values:
For 40 <Re < 4000, C1= 0.615; n = 0.466
For 4000 <Re < 40000, C1= 0.174; n = 0.618
For 40000 <Re < 400000, C1 = 0.239; n = 0.805
147
Heat Transfer Coefficient on the Outside Surface
of the Cover
 Churchill and Bernstein have made a compressive analysis
of the data available for the cross flow cylinder and
developed the following relation:
1 1
0.62𝑅𝑒 2 𝑃𝑟 3 𝑅𝑒 5 4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.3 + 1 (1 + ( )8 )5
2 4 28200
1+ 0.4𝑃𝑟 3
 The above equation is valid for all values of Re up to 107.
148
Heat Transfer Coefficient on the Outside
Surface of the Cover
 For the range of 20000<Re<400000, Churchill and Bernstein

𝑅𝑒 5 4
recommended that the last term (1 + ( )8 )5 to be
28200
1
𝑅𝑒 2
modified to 1 + .
282000
 Dco is the characteristic dimension to be used in both the

equations. The properties are evaluated at the mean
temperature 𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 /2
149
Heat transfer coefficient on the Inside surface of
the absorber tube
 The convective heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑓 on the inside
surface of the absorber tube can be calculated under the
assumption that the flow is fully developed.
 This assumption is justified because the length to diameter

ratio (L/𝐷𝑖 ) is large. For the Reynolds number less than 2000,
the flow is laminar and the heat transfer coefficient may be
calculated from the equation:
Nu = 3.66
150
the absorber tube
 For Reynolds number greater than 2000, the flow is turbulent

and the heat transfer coefficient may be calculated from the
Dittus-Boelter equation:
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4
Where
Dci is the characteristic dimension to be used in the equations
 The properties are evaluated at the mean temperature
((Tfi+Tfo)/2).
151
the absorber tube
 In most situations, the mass flow rate ṁ is small and the flow
rate is laminar. As a consequence, the value of hf is
sometimes so small as to adversely affect the value of FR.
 This particularly true when the liquid used is heat transfer oil.
152
the absorber tube
 One of the simplest techniques is to use a twisted tape of

width Di inserted ala long the absorber tube.
 Hong and Bergles have suggested the following correlation:
1.78 0.7 0.5
𝑁𝑢 = 5.172[1 + 0.005484{Pr(𝑅𝑒/𝑋) } ]
Where
𝐻
X = tape twist ratio =
𝐷𝑖
H = length over which the tape is twisted through 1800
Di is the characteristic dimension for calculating Nu and Re.
153
the absorber tube
 Calculations with equations show that the use of a twisted
tape results in very significant increases in the heat transfer
coefficient when the Prandtl number is high.
 At the same time, the pressure drop does not increase in the
same proportion.
 The pressure drop may be calculated from the following
correlations based on the work of Date and Singham
𝑅𝑒 0.05
fRe= 38.4 for 6.7 ≤ (Re/X) ≤ 100
𝑋
154
the absorber tube
𝑅𝑒0.03
= C2 ( ) for (Re/X) >100
𝑋
 Where,
f = Friction Factor and
C2 = 8.8201X -2.1193 X2 +0.2108X3-0.0069X4
155
Empirical Equation For Overall Loss Coefficient
 Based on calculations for a large number of cases covering a

broad range of conditions encountered with cylindrical parabolic
collectors, Mullick and Nanda have developed a semi-empirical for
directly calculating the overall loss coefficient.
 This equation eliminates the need for an iterative calculation.
1 1 𝐷0
= 2
+
𝑈𝑙 .25 ϭ 𝑇𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝐶2 𝑇𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝑐 𝐷𝑐𝑜
𝐶3 𝑇𝑝3 − 𝑇𝐶 +
1 𝐷𝑜 1
+ −1
𝜀𝑝 𝐷𝑐𝑙 𝜀𝑝
156
 The constant 𝐶3 has been obtained from the correlation of
Raithby and Hollands and is given by the expression:
17.74
𝐶3 = 0.4
𝑇𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝑐 + 𝑇𝑎
 The cover temperature 𝑇𝑐 is given by
0.4
𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑎 𝐷0 −0.67 6 + 9𝜀𝑝 )𝑇𝑝𝑚
= 0.04075 ℎ𝑤 2 − 3𝜀𝑝 +
𝑇𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑜 100
157
if 333<𝑇𝑝𝑚 <513k and by
0.4
𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑎 𝐷0 −0.67 1 + 3𝜀𝑝 )𝑇𝑝𝑚
= 0.163 ℎ𝑤 2 − 3𝜀𝑝 +
𝑇𝑝𝑚 + 𝑇𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑜 100
 While using above equations 𝑇𝑝𝑚 ,𝑇𝑐 and 𝑇𝑎 are expressed

in K ,𝐷𝑜 ,𝐷𝑐𝑜 in meter, ϭ in W/𝑚2 − 𝐾 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑤 𝑖𝑛 W/𝑚2 − 𝐾.
 The value of 𝑈𝑖 is obtained in W/𝑚2 − 𝐾. The first equation

is developed for the following range:
158
0.1 ≤ 𝜀𝑃 ≤0.95
0.0125 ≤ 𝐷𝑜 ≤0.15m
15 ≤ ℎ𝑤 ≤0.60 W/𝑚2 − 𝐾
273 ≤ 𝑇𝑎 ≤313K
159
Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating
Collectors over Flat-Plate type Collectors
2/7/2018 160
Advantages
1. Reflecting surfaces required less material and are
structurally simpler than flat-plate collector.
2. For a concentrator system, the cost per unit area of solar

collecting surface is therefore potentially less than that for
flat-plate collectors.
3. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than

that of a flat-plate system for same solar energy collection
and therefore, the insolation intensity is greater.
2/7/2018 161
Advantages
4. The working fluid can attain higher temperatures in a
concentrating system than in a flat-plate collector of the
same solar energy collecting surface as the area from which
heat is lost to the surroundings per unit of the solar energy
collecting area is less than that of a flat-plate collector.
5. Owing to the small area of absorber per unit of solar energy

collecting area, selective surface treatment and/or vacuum
insulation to reduce heat losses and improve collector
efficiency are economically feasible.
2/7/2018 162
Advantages
4. Focusing or concentrating systems can be used for electric
power generation when not used for heating or cooling.
5. As the temperature attainable with concentrating collector
system is higher, the amount of heat which can be stored per
unit volume is larger and consequently the heat storage costs
are less for concentrator systems than for flat-plate collectors.
6.
2/7/2018 163
Advantages
6. In solar heating and cooling applications, the higher
temperature of the working fluid attainable with a
concentrating system makes it possible to attain higher
efficiencies, in the cooling cycle and lower cost for air
conditioning with concentrator systems than with flat-plate
collectors.
7. Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a
concentrator systems whereas the entire solar energy
collection surface requires anti-freeze protection in a flat-
plate collector.
2/7/2018 164
Disadvantages
1. Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components,
only beam component is collected in case of focusing
collectors because diffuse component can not be reflected
and is thus lost.
2. In some stationary reflecting systems it is necessary to

have a small absorber to track the sun image; in others the
reflector may have to be adjustable more than one position
if year round operation is required; in other words costly
orienting systems have to be used to track the sun.
2/7/2018 165
Disadvantages
3. Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain
the quality of reflecting surface against dirt, weather,
oxidation etc.
4. Non-uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flat-plate
collector is uniform.
5. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the
intercept loss, so they introduce additional factors in energy
balances.
6. High initial cost.
2/7/2018 166
References
 Book- Solar Energy (Fundamentals and Applications) by H P
Garg and J Prakash
 Book- Non-Conventional Energy Sources by G.D.Rai
 Book- Solar Energy- Principles of Thermal collection and

storage by S P Sukhatme and J K Nayak
 http://www.lth.se/fileadmin/ht/Kurser/MVK160/Project_08/Fa
bio.pdf
2/7/2018 167
Thank You
2/7/2018 168

Unit-2 Solar Collectors

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Unit-2 Solar Collectors

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Unit 2

 Collector heat removal factor

 The fundamental process used for heat conversion is the

 This re-radiation is a long wave radiation.

 Flat-plate collectors are the most common solar collector

 Absorb direct, diffuse and reflected components of solar

 A flat absorbing plate, normally metallic, upon which the

 A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of

 Absorber plate- The absorber material should have high

 Cover plate- The functions of cover plates are:

 Tempered glass is the most common cover material

 Such coatings have high absorptance ~0.9 in the solar

 The instantaneous collection efficiency is given by

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢

𝐴𝐶 is the collector glass area and 𝐴𝐶 is usually 15 to 20 per

 In this case, the absorber plate attains a temperature such

 Knowledge of the stagnation temperature is useful as an

 The reflectivity ρ (= Ir /Ibn) is related to the angles of incidence

sin2 (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )

tan2 (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )

 ρI and ρII being two reflectivities of the two components of

 Where τ𝑟𝐼 and τ𝑟𝐼𝐼 are the transmissivities of the two

 In case the beam is incident at an angle θ1 , the path traversed

 Thus, the net fraction absorbed

= ℎ𝑤 (𝑇c2 - Ta) + σεc 𝑇𝑐2 4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 4

NuL = 1; RaL cosβ < 1708

NuL = 0.229(RaLcosβ)0.252 ; 5900< RaL cosβ< 9.23 x 104

 Nu and RaL are the Nusselt number and Rayleigh numbers.

 The characteristic dimension L is the spacing between the

 The experiments were conducted in the natural environment

 Based on their data, they suggested the following equation:

 The values predicted by above Eq. are typically about twice

 Where, Tsky and Ta are expressed in Kelvin.

Fig. 4.8 Bottom and side losses from a flat-plate collector

 Similar to bottom loss coefficient, it will be assumed that the

 Klein developed the following convenient empirical equation for

320 ≤ 𝑇𝑝𝑚 ≤420 K

260 ≤𝑇𝑎 ≤ 310 𝐾

 The values of 𝜀𝑐 and L have been taken to be constant and equal

 Garg and Datta have a detailed study of these correlations as well

 Malhotra et al. have given the following correlation:

 This will be followed by a consideration of the heat flow from the

 Consider a collector having an absorber plate of length 𝐿1 and 𝐿2

 Let 𝐷𝑖 and 𝐷𝑜 be the inside and outside diameters of the

 Consider a section of the absorber plate with two adjacent fluid

 It will be assumed that the same distribution exists between any

 Above the fluid tubes, the temperature will be constant, while in

 Taking a slice dy along the flow direction and neglecting heat

(Net heat conducted into element) + (Incident energy absorbed) =

 Equation is then solved using the boundary

 The temperature distribution obtained is similar to that for a long

 The rate at which energy is conducted through the plate to one

2𝑘𝑝 𝛿𝑝 0.5 𝑚 𝑊−𝐷𝑜

 Assuming the thermal resistance of the tube wall to the negligible,

𝛿𝑎 = Average thickness of the adhesive

𝑘𝑎 = Thermal conductivity of the adhesive,

𝑇𝑓 = Local fluid temperature,

ℎ𝑓 = Heat transfer coefficient on the inside surface of the tube

Substituting this definition, we get

 The final one dimensional analysis will be performed along the

 Consider as a control volume, an elementary length dy of one

 Applying the first law of thermodynamics,

 Rate of change of enthalpy of the fluid flowing through the control