GIÁO TRÌNH

NGỮ ÂM - ÂM VỊ HỌC TIẾNG ANH

ENGLISH PHONETICS & PHONOLOGY

COMPILED BY NGUYEN QUOC BAO

HCM CITY 2014

 CONTENTS
PART ONE: PHONETICS

INTRODUCTION
UNIT 1 - THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS 5
1. Three factors in the production of speech sounds
2. The vocal tract
3. Larynx – Positions of the glottis

UNIT 2 - CONSONANTS AND VOWELS 9

1. Differences between vowels and consonants
2. Vowels 9
a. Definition
b. Classification
c. Vowel chart
d. Characteristics
3. Diphthongs 10
a. Definition
b. Diphthong tree
c. Diphthong chart
d. Characteristics
4. Consonants 12
a. Definition
b. Classification
c. Consonant chart

UNIT 3 – PLOSIVES / STOPS 14

1. Definition
2. Classification
3. Facial diagrams
4. Characteristics

UNIT 4 – FRICATIVES AND AFFRICATES 16

1. Fricatives
a. Definition
b. Classification
c. Facial diagrams
d. Characteristics
2. Affricates 17
a. Definition
b. Classification
c. Characteristics

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UNIT 4 – NASALS AND OTHER CONSONANTS 18
1. Nasals
a. Definition
b. Classification
c. Facial diagrams
d. Characteristics
2. Lateral 19
a. Definition
b. Characteristics
3. Approximant 20
a. Definition
b. Characteristics
4. Semi-vowels / Semi-consonants 20

PART TWO: PHONOLOGY

UNIT 5 – PHONOLOGY 23
1. Phoneme
2. Allophone
3. In Complementary Distribution (CD)
4. Minimal pair
5. Transcription

UNIT 6 – SYLLABLE 26
1. Definition
2. Structure of an English syllable
3. Strong and Weak syllable

UNIT 7 – STRESS 30
1. Nature of stress
2. Levels of stress
UNIT 8 - STRESS WITHIN A WORD 31
1. Placement of stress within a word
2. One-syllable words
3. Two-syllable words
4. Three-syllable words
5. More than three-syllable words
6. Complex word stress
a. Final syllable stressed
b. Penultimate syllable stressed
c. Prefixes
7. Compound word stress

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 d. Stress on the 1st word
e. Stress on the 2nd word

UNIT 9 - SENTENCE STRESS 33

1. Variable stress
2. Types of word stressed in a sentence

UNIT 10 - WEAK FORM 34

UNIT 11 - ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH 37

1. Assimilation
2. Elision
3. Linking

UNIT 12 – INTONATION 41
1. Definition
2. Functions of intonation
3. Different intonation contours

REFERENCES 46

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PART ONE: PHONETICS

INTRODUCTION
Phonetics and Phonology is a part in the study of language, linguistics. The purpose of
the course is to explain how speech sounds are produced (Phonetics) and how they
function in the language (Phonology). In other words, Phonetics is the study of the
production of speech sounds and Phonology or Phonemics is the study of the function of
speech sounds. Phonetics consists of Articulatory phonetics which deals primarily with
the production of speech sounds and Acoustic phonetics which deals with the perception
of speech sounds. (Buchanan, 1961: 16)

UNIT 1: THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH SOUNDS

1. Three factors in the production of speech sounds

The production of speech sounds depends upon three factors:
a. A source of energy to cause vibration: outgoing air stream.
b. A vibrating body: vocal bands.
c. A resonator or resonance chambers to modify the speech sounds produced: the
pharynx, the oral and nasal cavities. (Buchanan, 1961: 22)
The process of producing speech sounds: the air stream going out from the lungs through
the windpipe (trachea) will go past the larynx (voice box / Adam’s apple) in which are
located two vocal bands. If the vocal bands are stretched (under tension) and partially
open, the air will make them vibrate. The vibrations at some frequency will produce
speech sounds which will be resonated or amplified and modified in the resonance
chambers (pharynx, nasal & oral cavities) before going out and reaching our ears.

2. The vocal tract

The vocal tract is the breathing passage through which the air travels. The vocal tract
begins with the lungs, which furnish the source of energy for the vocal sound, and then
continues with the windpipe or trachea. At the top of the windpipe is the larynx, a box-
shaped structure composed of cartilage. Passing through the larynx, the air goes into the
pharynx, or upper throat, and escapes outside through the mouth or the nose.
The organs of the vocal tract are located in the head, throat, and chest. They are involved
in the process of producing or modifying the speech sounds, including articulators and
points of articulation. (Buchanan, 1961: 23-24)
Articulation is the formation of speech sounds.
Articulators are the movable organs of the vocal tract which are involved in articulation,
including the tongue, the most movable articulator, and the lower lip.
Points of articulation are the parts of the vocal tract which cannot move or just move a
little, but which are involved in articulation. The upper lip, the teeth, the alveolar ridge,
the hard palate, the soft palate or velum, the pharynx, and the larynx are points of
articulation. (Buchanan, 1961: 37-38)

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Articulation consists of bringing an articulator into contact with a point of articulation
while the breath stream is released. The point of contact between an articulator and a
point of articulation is Place of articulation. The articulator and point of articulation in
use are written in the form of an adjective.
Ex: /p/ : lower lip (articulator) + upper lip (point of articulation) => bilabial (place of art.)
Here follows a facial diagram with different organs and parts of the vocal tract.

hard palate
velum
alveolar ridge

lips tongue
teeth pharynx

larynx

Facial Diagram
Pharynx => Pharyngeal Soft Palate (Velum) => Velar
Hard Palate => Palatal Alveolar ridge => Alveolar
Teeth => Dental Lips => Labial
Larynx => Laryngeal Glottis => Glottal
Tongue => Lingual
The tongue consists of different parts: Tip; Front; Center; Back;

Larynx and different positions of the glottis

a. Larynx
The larynx is in the neck. It is made of cartilage, attached to the top of the trachea or
wind pipe. The front of the larynx comes to a point usually called the Adam’s apple.
The larynx is also called the voice box.
Inside the larynx, there are two vocal bands / folds / cords which are two bands of elastic
tissue attached to the side walls of the larynx and can move. The opening between the
vocal bands is called the glottis. (Roach, 1989: 26-27)
front

thyroid cartilages
vocal folds / bands
glottis

arytenoid cartilages

The inside of the larynx seen from above

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b. Different positions of the glottis.
Since the vocal bands can move, the glottis (the opening between the vocal bands) can be
of different positions and thus, different sounds are produced.
1. Wide apart: During normal breathing, the glottis is open as far as possible: the vocal
bands are not under tension, but relax. This is also the position for voiceless sounds
(sounds produced while the vocal bands are not vibrating) (Fig. 1)
2. Narrow glottis: The opening is very narrow. When the air goes through it, a sound
like a whispered vowel is produced: the / h / sound, called a voiceless glottal fricative.
(Fig. 2)
3. Partially open / closed: The edges of the vocal bands are touching each other, or
nearly touching, air passing through the glottis will usually cause vibration. This is the
position for vocal band vibration and thus, voiced sounds. (Fig. 3)
4. Tightly closed: The vocal bands are firmly pressed together so that air cannot pass
between them. This is the position for a glottal stop or plosive. (Fig. 4)

1. Wide apart 2. Narrow glottis

Position for normal breathing Position for /h/ sound
and voiceless consonants

3. Partially open 4. Tightly closed

Position for vocal band vibration The air cannot pass
Voiced sounds Position for glottal plosive / stop

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 TEST 1
WEEK 1: Articulation: organs of articulation, facial diagram, positions of the glottis.
1. The organs of articulation are located in:
a. along the vocal tract b. the chest c. the throat d. the head
2. The vocal sounds are produced in the:
a. trachea b. larynx c. lungs d. pharynx
3. The produced vocal sounds are resonated & modified in the:
a. nose b. pharynx c. mouth d. resonators
4. The vocal tract is the air passage beginning with the lungs and ending in:
a. the mouth & nose b. the front c. the head d. pharynx

A B

C D
5. Which of the above figures presents the position of the glottis for voiced sounds? …….
a. A b. B c. C d. D
6. Which of the above figures presents the position of the glottis for voiceless sounds? …….
a. A b. B c. C d. D
7. Which of the above figures presents the position of the glottis for / h / sound? …….
a. A b. B c. C d. D
8. Which of the above figures presents the position of the glottis for the first sound in ‘knight’?
a. A b. B c. C d. D
9. Which of the above figures presents the position of the glottis for the underlined sound in
‘knight’?
a. A b. B c. C d. D
10. Which of the above figures presents the position of the glottis for the final sound in ‘laugh’?
a. A b. B c. C d. D
11. Vocal folds are two elastic bands of tissue located in the:
a. larynx b. pharynx c. trachea d. mouth
12. The velum is the front part of the roof of the mouth which is formed by a bony structure
a. False b. True
13. Vibration happens when …
a. vocal folds are under tension & partially opened b. the glottis is narrow

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 c. the vocal bands are wide apart d. vocal bands are tightly closed
14. Soft palate which can be touched by the tongue, at the back of the mouth is called:
a. alveolar b. velum c. uvula d. palate
15. …… is (are) considered the most important speech instrument inside the larynx.
a. Adam’s apple b. Glottis c. Trachea d. Vocal cords
16. When the glottis is wide apart, we can …
a. breathe normally & produce some consonants b. produce vowels
c. produce all consonants d. produce vowels & diphthongs
17. For the voiceless sounds to be produced, the glottis is ……
a. narrow b. mi-open c. wide apart d. tightly closed
18. The most movable speech instrument along the vocal tract is:
a. tongue b. lips c. teeth d. vocal folds
19. A sound produced while the vocal folds are not vibrating is called:
a. voiced b. consonants c. voiceless d. vowels
20. Fill in the following facial diagram with the organs of the vocal tract

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 UNIT 2: CONSONANTS AND VOWELS

1. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONSONANTS AND VOWELS

Consonants and vowels are different from each other in:

a. Manner of articulation: The way how the sound is produced / how the air stream is
obstructed
 Consonants: In the production of consonant sounds, there is obstruction of the
air stream, totally or partially.
Ex: / p /: the air is obstructed / stopped totally
/ s /: the air is obstructed partially
 Vowels: In the production of vowel sounds, there is no obstruction of the air. The
air escapes freely.
Ex: / a: /: the air escapes freely

b. Distribution: The position of occurrence of the sound in an English syllable.

 Consonants: In an English syllable, there may be no or many consonants
occurring before or after the vowel.
Ex: Are / a: /; On / ɒn / ; Car / ka: /; play / pleı /; Spring / sprıŋ / ;
Banks / bæŋks / ; Texts / teksts /.
 Vowels: In an English syllable, there must be one and only one vowel as the
center / peak of the syllable.
Ex: Cat / kæt / ; Food / fu:d / ; Could / kʊd /

2. VOWELS
a. Definition: Vowels are sounds produced with a totally unobstructed oral cavity.
(Buchanan,1961: 16). The air goes out freely.
In English, there are 12 simple vowels or pure vowels (written as only one sound)
divided into two groups: 7 short vowels / ı; ɒ; ʊ; ʌ; ə; æ; e / and 5 long vowels
/ i: ɔ: u: a: 3: / with two dots to mark the length of the sound.
Besides, there are 8 compound vowels or diphthongs (written as two sounds)
/ aı eı ɔı əʊ aʊ ıə eə ʊə /
and 5 triphthongs (written as 3 sounds): / aıə eıə ɔıə əʊə aʊə /

b. Description / Classification of Simple vowels

12 simple vowels in English can be described or classified basing on the following
criteria:
 The height / position of the tongue : Close / High – Mid – Open / Low
 The part of the tongue used: Front Center Back
 The shape of lips: Spread Neutral Rounded

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  The length of sound & tension of muscles: Long / Tense Short / Lax
The vowels are described basing on the above criteria.
Ex: / i: / : close – front – spread – long – tense vowel

c. English Vowel Chart.

Front Center Back

/i:/: bee i: u: / u:/ food

/ı/: bit Close ʊ /ʊ/ foot

/ə/: ago ə /3:/ bird

/e/: bed Mid e ɜ: ɔ: / ɔ:/ warm

/ʌ/: mud Open ʌ /a:/ bar

/æ/: bad æ a: ɒ /ɒ/ hot

spread neutral rounded

d. Characteristics
 Shortening: Vowels are a bit shortened when preceding a final voiceless
consonant. Symbol [ v ]
Ex: Bit [ bǐt ]; Beat [ bivt ]
 Nasalization: Vowels are nasalized when preceding a final nasal. Symbol [ ̴ ]
Ex: Pin [ pĩn ] ; Time [ taĩm ] ; Singer [ ′sĩŋə ]

3. DIPHTHONGS
a. Definition: Diphthongs are sounds consisting of a glide from one vowel to another in
which the first one is much longer and stronger than the second (Roach, 1989: 20)

b. Diphthong tree
Diphthongs

Centring Closing

ending in ə ending in ɪ ending in ʊ

ɪə eə ʊə eɪ aɪ ɔɪ əʊ aʊ
beer bear tour play my boy go now

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c. Diphthong chart (The arrows show the direction of the glide)

Front Center Back

Close i ʊ

Mid e ə ɔ

Open
a a

TEST 2
1. English vowels and consonants are different from each other in:
a. manner of articulation &distribution b. voicing c. place of articulation
2. Which of the following words contains a short vowel?
a. touch b. smooth c. mere d. bear
3. The English …………. end in / ɪ /
a. closing diphthongs b. centering diphthongs c. triphthongs
4. Diphthongs
a. are the combinations of two single vowels
b. consist of a glide from one vowel to another
c. are two single vowels appearing within a syllable
5. Which of the followings is not a criterion to classify English simple vowels?
a. tongue height b. tongue part c. voicing d. length of sound
6. Vowels followed by nasal consonants are:
a. lengthened b. devoiced c. shortened d. nasalized
7. / i: / & / u: / are different in:
a. tongue position b. length c. muscle tension d. lip shape
8. Which of the following diphthongs is pronounced differently from the others?
a. really b. hear c. fear d. bear
9. Which of the vowels in the following words is pronounced differently from the others?
a. pour b. touch c. double d. country
10. / i: / in ………. is shorter than the others.
a. mean b. meat c. bead d. bee
11. The sound beginning with a mid central vowel, then gliding towards a high back vowel is
a. ɪə b. aɪ c. əʊ d. aʊ
12. Diphthongs
a. consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another, the former of which is much
longer and stronger than the other.
b. are the combinations of two single vowels.
c. are two single vowels appearing within a syllable.

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13. Which of the following is not included in the criteria to classify English vowel?
a. place of articulation b. tongue height c. lip shape d. muscle tension
14. A vowel is ………………. when preceding a final fortis / voiceless sound
a. devoiced b. nasalized c. shortened d. none of the above
15. The vowel in …… is pronounced differently from the others.
a. fool b. food c. pool d. foot
16. Which of the following words does not contain a central vowel?
a. hat b. worm c. but d. ago
17. Which of the statement is true?
a. Vowels and consonants differ from each other in relation to how much they obstruct the
air flow and what position they can occupy.
b. Vowels and consonants differ from each other in their distribution.
c. Vowels and consonants differ from each other in the way the air flow is obstructed when
producing the sound.
18. / ɔ:/ in ….. is the longest
a. thought b. store c. fork d. port
19. Both ……… are front vowels
a. /i:/ & /e/ b. /i:/ & /u:/ c. /a:/ & /3:/ d. /a:/ & /u:/
20. Which of the following is true?
a. All vowels are the centers of syllables
b. Consonants are produced without obstruction of the air stream.
c. All consonants are voiced.
d. Vowels are produced with a complete closure in the vocal tract.

4. CONSONANTS
a. Definition.
Consonants are sounds produced with obstruction of the air stream whether total or
partial.

b. Description or classification.
24 English consonants can be described or classified basing on three criteria:
 Manner of articulation: the way how the sound is produced or how the air is
released.
o Plosives or stops: the air is stopped totally then released sharply with a
small plosion. 6 plosives in English / p b t d k g /
o Fricatives: the air is stopped partially and forced to escape through a
narrow passage with a friction. 9 fricatives / fv θð sz ʃƷ h/.
o Affricates: the air is stopped totally then forced to escape with a
friction. In other words, affricates begin as a stop and end as a fricative.
2 affricates / ʧ ʤ /
o Nasals: the air is stopped in the mouth and thus escapes through the
nose. 3 nasals / m n ŋ /
o Lateral: the air is stopped in the middle of the tongue and escapes
along its both sides (lateral). One lateral / l /

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 o Approximants: One articulator approaches another but does not touch
it. 3 approximants / r w j /
o Semi-vowels or semi-consonants: the sounds which are both similar to
vowels and consonants. 3 semi-vowels / h w j /.
 Manner of articulation: similar to vowels (no obstruction of the
air flow)
Ex: / w / similar to / u /; / j / similar to / i /
 Distribution (position of occurrence in a syllable): similar to
consonants (can occur before a vowel).
Ex: a wet year / ə wet jɪə /; a uniform /ə ‘junɪfɔ:m/
vcv vcv
 Place of articulation: the point of contact between an articulator and a point
of articulation to obstruct the air (the place where the air is stopped)
o Bilabials: lower lip against upper lip / p b m /
o Labio-dentals: lower lip against upper teeth / f v /
o Inter-dentals: tongue tip between lower and upper teeth / θð /
o Alveolars: tongue tip against / close to the alveolar ridge /t d n s z/
o Alveo-palatals: tongue front between alveolar ridge and hard palate /ʃ ʒ/
o Palatal: tongue front towards hard palate / j /
o Velars: tongue back against velum / soft palate / k g ŋ /
o Glottal: in the glottis / h /
 Voicing: the vibration of the vocal bands / folds
o Voiced sounds: the sounds produced while the vocal bands are
vibrating. Ex: / b d g n /
o Voiceless sounds: the sounds produced while the vocal bands are not
vibrating. 9 voiceless sounds in English /p t k f θ s ʃ ʧ h /

b. Consonant chart
Manner of Place of articulation
articulation
Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Alveo- Palatal Velar Glottal
dental palatal
Plosive pb td kg
Fricative fv θð sz ʃʒ h
Affricate ʧʤ
Nasal m n ŋ
Lateral l
Approximant w r j

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 UNIT 3: PLOSIVES / STOPS

1. Definition: Plosives or Stops are sounds produced by stopping the air totally then
releasing it sharply with a small plosion.
Four phases in the production of a plosive:
 Closure phase: the articulators move to close all passages so that no air can
escape from the vocal track.
 Hold phase: the compressed air is held behind the closures.
 Release phase: the articulators move so as to allow air to escape.
 Post-release phase: the compressed air escapes with a strong puff of air
causing a plosion.

2. Classification
Voicing Place of articulation
Bilabial Alveolar Velar
Voiceless p t k
Voiced b d g

3. Facial diagrams

/p b/ /t d/ /k g/
Bilabial articulation Alveolar articulation Velar articulation
Velum raised; lower Velum raised; Tongue Velum raised;
lip against upper lip tip against alveolar ridge Tongue back against velum

NOTE: Voiceless plosives / p t k / are also called fortis (strong) as they are produced
with more force than / b d g / which are called lenis (weak); voiced sounds.

4. Characteristics
 Aspiration: sounds articulated / produced with a strong puff of air. Symbol:[h ]
o Aspirated: In English, voiceless plosives / stops /p t k / are aspirated in
the following cases:
 At the beginning of a word.
Ex: Pin [pĩn]; time [taĩm]
 Between two vowels (inter-vocalic); the 2nd is stressed
Ex: appear [ə ‘phɪə]; fourteen [fɔ:’thĩ: n

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 o Unaspirated: voiceless stops /p t k / are unaspirated in the following
cases:
 After initial / s /. Ex: Stop [stɒp]; Skill [skɪl]
 Between two vowels (inter-vocalic); the 2nd is unstressed
Ex: Happen [ ´hæpən]; forty [´fɔ:ti]

 Released & Unreleased: the air is released or not.

o Released: In isolation, at final position, and when followed by pause, / p
t k / are pronounced with the air released. (no symbol)
Ex: But /bʌt/; First /f3:st/
o Unreleased: In an utterance and followed by a consonant, / p t k / are
pronounced with the air unreleased. Symbol: [ ˉ ]
Ex: but my mother... [bʌtˉ maɪ …];
I want to see you [aɪ wɒntˉ tə..]

 Devoicing: Voiceless plosives /p t k/ at initial position devoice the

following / w r j l /. Symbol [ º ]
Ex: Play [ pļeɪ ]; Train [ tŗeɪn ]

 Shortening: Voiceless plosives at final position shorten the preceding vowels

or diphthongs. Symbol [ v ]
Ex: Bit [ bɪvt ]; Beat [ bivt ]; Goat [ gəvʊt ]

TEST 3
1. Which of the following words begins with a voiceless, post-alveolar, fricative sound?
a. enough b. soldier c. shoes d. phenomenon
2. Which of the following statements is not true?
a. Plosives are produced with the total or partial obstruction of the air stream.
b. Nasals are continuant sounds.
c. Hissing sound is a characteristic of fricatives.
d. The fortis fricatives and plosives in final position often shorten the vowel preceding
them.
3. The consonant /n/ & /z/ are different from each other in their
a. length b. place of articulation c. voicing d. manner of articulation
4. The main difference between / d / & / z / is
a. manner of articulation b. place of articulation c. voicing d. length
5. Sounds produced with a momentarily total obstruction to the airflow are
a. plosives b. fricatives c. nasals d. approximants
6. Which of the following is the final sound in ‘debt’
a. / e / b. / b / c. / bt / d. / t /
7. ………. are pronounced with the contact made between lower lip & upper teeth
a. labio-dentals b. alveolars c. bilabials d. dentals

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8. …………..consonants have the effect of shortening a preceding vowel or diphthong
a. lenis b. fortis c. voiced d. fortis / voiceless
9. Voiceless stops are aspirated when occurring after the initial / s /.
a. True b. False
10. Lips can be pressed together, brought into contact with the teeth or rounded to produce the
lip- shape for…
a. vowels and some consonants b. consonants c. bilabial plosives d. vowels
11. In manner of articulation, the important factor to help distinguish consonants & vowels is …
a. voicing b. obstruction to airflow c. lip shape d. tongue height
12. The most important difference between initial voiceless and voiced plosives is the…
a. aspiration b. voicing c. plosion d. length
13. The initial sound of ‘cold’ is a(n) …
a. alveolar b. palatal c. dental d. velar
14. Consonants are classified according to their place of articulation, manner of articulation and:
a. vibrations of vocal bands b. position of occurrence c. position of tongue d. lip shape
15. For the voiceless sounds to be produced, the vocal cords are ……………………………
a. mi-closed b. wide apart c. partially open d. completely closed
16. When plosives are made, the escape of the compressed air will produce a small ………..
a. hissing noise b. friction c. plosion
17. Lenis consonants are produced with ……………………. force than the fortis ones.
a. less b. more c. same d. most
18. Fortis consonants at final position have the effects of ……..a preceding vowel.
a. shortening b. lengthening c. devoicing d. nasalizing
19. The final sound in ‘ache’ is a(n)…
a. voiceless velar plosive b. voiced palato-alveolar plosive
c. voiced velar plosive d. voiceless palato-alveolar plosive

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 UNIT 4: FRICATIVES AND AFFRICATES

I. FRICATIVES
1. Definition: A fricative is a sound with the characteristic that the air is forced to
escape through a narrow passage, causing an audible friction noise or hissing
sound.
2. Classification
Voicing Place of articulation
Dental Labio- Alveolar Palato- Glottal
dental alveolar
Voiceless θ f s k h
Voiced ð v z g

3. Facial diagrams

/fv/ /θð/
Labio-dental fricative Dental fricative
Velum raised; Lower lip against upper teeth Velum raised; tongue tip between lower
& upper teeth
⇒ / f v /; / θ ð / the passage is wide horizontally as a slit => slit fricatives

/s z/ /ʃʒ/
Alveolar fricative Alveo-palatal fricative
Velum raised; tongue tip close to alveolar ridge Velum raised; tongue front close to
with spread lips post-alveolar with lips rounded

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 ⇒ / s z / ; /ʃ ʒ / the sides of the tongue are raised, forming a groove down the
middle of the tongue => groove fricatives
Since groove fricatives make a loud hissing sound, they are also called
sibilants.

4. Characteristics
 Fortis fricatives / f θ s ʃ / at final position shorten the preceding vowel or
diphthong as do fortis plosives. Ex: Left [ levft ]; Wash [ wɒvʃ /.
 Lenis (voiced) fricatives / v ð z ʒ / have very little or no voicing in initial
and final positions, but may be voiced when they occur between voiced
sounds.
 Glottal fricative / h /
o Phonetically (production) / h / is a voiceless vowel with the quality
of the voiced vowel that follows it. It means that there is no
obstruction to the air flow (similar to vowels), but when the air
passes through the narrow glottis, it does not make the vocal bands
vibrate. / h / is produced with a very soft friction noise (fricative).
o Phonologically (distribution) / h / is a consonant, occurring before
a vowel in a syllable.
Ex: A hat / ə h æ t /; Happen / ´h æ `p ə n /
vc v c v c
o / h / is fully voiced when occurring between two voiced sounds.
Ex: ahead; behind

II. AFFRICATES
1. Definition
Affricates are sounds produced by stopping completely the air stream then forcing it to
escape with a friction noise. In other words, an affricate consists of a stop followed by a
fricative. It combines the characteristics of a stop plus a fricative.
However, this combination makes only one sound, and not any group of a stop and a
fricative makes up an affricate. The stop and fricative in an affricate must be
homorganic, i.e. having the same organ of articulation or place of articulation.
Ex: Cheap / ʧi:p / => /ʧ/: one sound; /t/ : alveolar ; / ʃ/: post-alveolar (same organ)
Box / bɒks /=> /ks/: 2 different sounds; /k/: velar; /s/: alveolar (2 organs)

2. Classification: only 2 affricates in English:

/ʧ/: voiceless, palato-alveolar, affricate
/ʤ/: voiced, palato-alveolar, affricate

3. Characteristics
 /ʧ/ is slightly aspirated at initial position.

19
  /ʧ/ in final position has the effect of shortening the preceding vowel or
diphthong.
 /ʧ, ʤ/ have rounded lips.
 /ʧ, ʤ/ are produced with a loud hissing noise => sibilants.

TEST 4
1. The sounds articulated with a strong hissing noise are called ………..
a. plosives b. groove fricatives c. slit fricatives d. sibilants
2. Phonetically, the fricative / h / is similar to
a. vowel b. consonant c. diphthong d. triphthong
3. The initial sound in ‘chef’ is a(n)
a. approximant b. affricate c. fricative d. plosive
4. Homorganic sounds have the same ……
a. organ of articulation b. manner c. voicing d. sound
5. In speech, the……..is raised so that the air cannot escape through the nose.
a. palate b. uvula c. velum d. tongue
6. The final sound of ‘laugh’ is a(n)…
a. labio-dental b. dental c. glottal d. velar
7. When fricatives are made, the escape of air through a small passage produces a(n) ………….
a. plosion b. loud hissing noise c. soft hissing noise d.friction noise
8. To be an affricate, the two component sounds must…………………….
a. be homorganic b. have the same voice c. have the same manner
9. The fricatives articulated with a strong hissing noise are also called …………………..
a. groove fricatives b. sibilants c. slit fricatives d. plosives
10. Phonologically, the fricative / h / is similar to ………………………..
a. vowel b. consonant c. diphthong d. triphthong
11. ………. is not the type of consonant classified according to the place of articulation
a. plosive b. palatal c. velar d. dental
12. ……. are pronounced with the air flow escaping through a narrow passage
a. fricatives b. approximants c. affricates d. plosives
13. By distribution, the fricative / h / is similar to ……………..
a. consonant b. vowel c. diphthong d. triphthong
14. The initial sound in ‘chief’ is a(n):
a. plosive b. approximant c. fricative d. affricate
15. Which of the following statements is true?
a. Hissing noise is one of the characteristics of fricatives.
b. Nasals are not continuant sounds.
c. Plosives are produced with the total or partial obstruction of the air stream
d. The fortis fricatives and plosives at initial position often shorten the vowel following them.
16. Phonemically, the fricative / h / is similar to ……………..
a. vowel b. consonant c. diphthong d. triphthong
17. The initial sound of ‘jam’ is a(n):
a. affricate b. approximant c. fricative d. plosive

20
 UNIT 5: NASALS AND OTHER CONSONANTS

I. NASALS
1. Definition: Nasals are sounds with the characteristic that the air escapes
through the nose (velum raised).
There are some similarities and differences between plosives and nasals:
 They have a complete closure in the mouth at some point.
 They have the same point of articulation: / p, b, m /: bilabial; / t, d, n /:
alveolar; / k, g, ŋ /: velar.
 They have different positions of the velum: for plosives, the velum is raised
to block the passage through the nose; for nasals, the velum is lowered to
open the passage through the nose.
 They have different ways of releasing the air: for plosives, the air escapes
through the mouth, so plosives are oral sounds; for nasals, the air escapes
through the nose => nasal sounds.
 In the production of plosives, the air stream is interrupted => stop sounds;
in the production of nasals, the air continues to escapes by the nose =>
continuant sounds.

2. Classification
/ m /: voiced, bilabial, nasal
/ n / : voiced, alveolar, nasal
/ ŋ / : voiced, velar, nasal

3. Facial diagrams

The facial diagrams for /m, n, ŋ / are similar to those for the plosives /p b, t d, k g / with
only a difference in the position of the velum:
/p b, t d, k g / the velum is raised
/m, n, ŋ / the velum is lowered
/m/ /n/ /ŋ/
Lower lip against upper lip Tongue tip against alveolar ridge Tongue back against
velum.

→ Velum is lowered to open the passage through the nose and let the air escape
through the nose. All nasals are voiced.

4. Characteristics
 Distribution
o / m n / can occur at all positions.

21
 o / ŋ / never occurs at initial position
o / ŋ / never occurs after a long vowel or diphthong.
 Pronunciation of –ng
-ng →/ŋ/ + at final position of a morpheme.
Ex: Sing / sɪŋ /; Long / Iɒŋ / ; Singer / sɪŋə /
→ / ŋg / + in the middle of a morpheme. Ex: finger / fɪŋgə /
+ Comparative & superlative of adjectives ending in -ng
Ex: longer / Iɒŋgə /; youngest / jʌŋgɪst/

 Velarized n: When occurring before a velar sound /k, g/ ⇒ / n => ŋ/

Ex: Bank /bæŋk/; Monkey /´mʌŋki/

 Syllabic consonant
Usually the center or the peak of a syllable is a vowel or diphthong, but in some
cases, in a weak syllable a consonant stands as the center of the syllable instead
of a vowel. This type of consonant is called syllabic consonant. Only the
consonants / m, n, ŋ, l, r / can be syllabic. Symbol [ ˌ ]
o Syllabic ņ
 Words with an alveolar plus -en, -on, ion, -ent, -ant…..
Ex: Threaten [´θretņ]; Horizon [ hə´raizņ ]
 After / f, v / syllabic is optional
Ex: Seven [ ′sevņ ] or / ′sevən /; Often [ ′ɒfn ] or / ′ɒfən /
 When the plosive is preceded by a nasal: not syllabic
Ex: London / ′lʌndən / ; Lantern / ′læntən /

 Nasalization: At final position, / m, n, ŋ / nasalize the preceding vowel or

diphthong. Symbol [ ~ ]
Ex: Pin [ pĩn ] ; Time [ taĩm ] ; Singer [ ´sĩŋə ]

II. LATERAL
1. Definition: A lateral is a sound produced by raising the tongue tip towards the
alveolar ridge to stop the air in the middle of the tongue and let it escape along
both sides of the tongue.
Only one lateral in English / l /: voiced, alveolar, lateral

2. Characteristics
 Clear l: before a vowel, with the tongue tip raised towards the alveolar ridge.
Ex: Love / lʌv /; Belong / bɪ′lɒŋ /

22
  Dark l: after a vowel, with the tongue back raised towards the velum and lips
rounded. Ex: Bill [ bɪɫ l ] ; Milk [ mɪɫk ] ; Children [ ′ʧɪɫdrən ]
 Devoiced l: After initial fortis / p, t, k / , / l / is devoiced, symbol [o]
Ex: Play [ pļeɪ ]; Clear [ kļɪə ]
 Syllabic ļ symbol [ˌ]
o Words ending with a consonant plus -le.
Ex: Bottle [ ′bɒtļ ]; Castle [ ′kæsļ ]
o Words ending with a consonant plus -al, -ial, -el, -iel, …
Ex: Petal [ ′petļ ]; Social [ ′səʊʃļ ]; Parcel [ ′pa:sļ ]

III. APPROXIMANT
1. Definition: An approximant is a sound in which an articulator approaches a point
of articulation but does not touch it.
/ r /: + the tongue tip approaches the alveolar ridge but does not touch any part of the
roof of the mouth.
+ the tip is curled backwards, so / r / is also called Retroflex.
+ the air escapes through an opening down the middle of the oral cavity.
+ the lips are slightly rounded.
+ the point of articulation is post-alveolar.

2. Characteristics
 Devoiced ŗ: When preceded by / p, t, k / the approximant / r / is devoiced and
slightly fricative. Ex: Press [pŗes]; Tress [tŗes]; Cress [kŗes]
 Non-rhotic: In British English, / r / only occurs before vowels. When
occurring after a vowel, it is not pronounced (usually called non-rhotic or R-
less).
Ex: Car /ka:/; Card /ka:d/; Warm /wɔ:m/; Work /w3:k/
 Rhotic: Many accents of English, such as American, Scots, West of England
pronounce / r / in both initial and final positions (called Rhotic accents).
Ex: Car / ka:r /; Work / wɜ:rk /
 Linking r: At final position and when followed by a word beginning with a
vowel, / r / is pronounced as a liaison. Ex: her / hɜ: / => Her eyes / həraɪz /
 Intrusive r: an intrusive linker is a liaison between a vowel and another vowel.
When the preceding word ends in / ə, ɜ: / and the following word begins with a
vowel, an intrusive ‘r’ is pronounced.
Ex: Formula A / ´fɔ:mjələreɪ / ; Media event / mɪdɪərɪvent /

23
IV. SEMI-VOWELS / CONSONANTS
1. Definition
Semi-vowels or consonants are sounds which are similar both to vowels and
consonants. Phonetically, they are similar to vowels: there is no obstruction of the air
flow. Phonemically, they are similar to consonants: they can occur before a vowel in
an English syllable. Three semi-vowels: /w j h/
Ex: A wet day; A university A hat
ə wet deɪ ə ju:nɪ’vɜ:səti ə hæt
2. Classification
3 semi-vowels in English: + / w /: voiced, bilabial, semi-vowel.
+ / j /: voiced, palatal, semi-vowel.
+ / h /: voiceless, glottal, semi-vowel.
Note: / w, j / are also called approximants and / h / fricative.

3. Characteristics
 Devoiced: / w, j / are devoiced and slightly fricative when occurring after
initial / p, t, k /. Ex: Pure / pįʊə /; Twin /twɪn /
 Intrusive w: When the preceding word ends in / ʊ, u: / and the following word
begins with a vowel, an intrusive ‘w’ is pronounced.
Ex: Go into / gəʊwɪntu /
 Intrusive j: When the preceding word ends in / 1, i: / and the following word
begins with a vowel, an intrusive ‘j’ is pronounced.
Ex: Very interesting / verijɪntrəstɪŋ /

TEST 5
1. / ŋ / never occurs at
a. initial position b. medial position c. final position
2. The sound / l / when occurring after a vowel is called
a. devoiced b. clear c. dark d. syllabic
3. To let the air escape through the nose, the velum must be ……….
a. lowered b. raised c. pushed forwards d. drawn back
4. The sound / l / when following an initial fortis plosive is called
a. devoiced b. dark c. clear d. syllabic
5. The sounds that never occur in final position are
a. /w,j,h,/ b. /m,n,l,g/ c. /r,w,h,k/ d. /h,w,j,p/
6. The sound / l / when preceding a vowel is called:
a. dark b. clear c. devoiced d. syllabic
7. To prevent the air from escaping through the nose, the soft palate must be:
a. closed b. lowered c. raised d. a&c
8. In British English, the approximant sound in ‘card’ is:
a. non-rhotic b. rhotic c. devoiced d. shortened
9. The main difference between / b / & / m / is:
a. manner of articulation b. voicing c. place of articulation

24
10. Which of the following is the final sound in ‘climb’
a. / b / b. / m / c. / mb /
11. A syllabic consonant stands as the center of a weak syllable instead of a vowel
a. True b. False
12. The underlined sound in ………………… is phonetically similar to a vowel.
a. hat b. honor c. plow d. jam
13. Vowels occurring before final /m, n, ŋ / are …
a. lengthened b. devoiced c. shortened d. nasalized
14. / n / occurring before / k, g ŋ / is …
a. velarized b. labialized c. dentalized d. nasalized
15. The underlined sound in lantern is:
a. not syllabic b. syllabic c. nasalized d. devoiced
16. The …………consonant is made with the air escaping along the sides of the tongue.
a. approximant b. lateral c. semi-vowel d. semi-consonant
17. The initial sound in …………… is a voiced, bilabial, approximant.
a. bin b. wet c. red d. man
18. Clear [l] only occurs before:
a. vowels b. consonants c. diphthongs d. a&c
19. The underlined sound in London is:
a. not syllabic b. syllabic c. nasalized d. devoiced
20. The underlined sound in initial is:
a. oral b. nasal c. nasalized d. devoiced

25
 PART TWO: PHONOLOGY

UNIT 5: PHONOLOGY
1. PHONEME
a. Definition: A phoneme is the smallest unit of language with the following
characteristics:
 Indivisible: we cannot divide a phoneme into smaller units (the smallest one).
Ex: / p /; / a: /….
 In isolation a phoneme is meaningless. Ex: / p /; / 1 /; / n /
 In combination, different phonemes can form a larger meaningful unit.
Ex: / pɪn / = pin; /bæt/ = bat
 Phonemes are able to cause a change in meaning by substitution i.e. if we
substitute one phoneme for another, the meaning of the unit will change.
Ex: / pɪn / ♯ / bɪn / ♯ / bæt / ♯ / bæn / …
b. Types of phoneme
 Segmental phoneme: the phonemes that occur on the same segment of
language, one after another. Consonants and vowels are segmental phonemes.
Ex: Cat / kæt /; Father / ´fa:ðə /
 Supra-segmental phoneme: the phonemes that do not occur on the same
segment of language as consonants and vowels, but over them.
Ex 1: Stress: Present / ´preznt/ = N: gift; Present /prɪ´zent/ = V: introduce
Ex 2: Intonation: + You are a student↓ (a statement)
+ You are a student↑ (a question)
Ex 3: Juncture ( a pause between two words)
+ Those who sell quickly → make a profit (quickly modifies sell)
+ Those who sell → quickly make a profit (quickly modifies make)

2. ALLOPHONE
Allophones are different realizations (pronunciations) of the same phoneme when it
occurs at different positions. This difference does not affect the meaning of the unit.
Ex://t t/ /
Ex: [ th ] aspirated; initial position. Ex: Top
[ t ] unaspirated; after initial / s /. Ex: Stop
[ t ] tap or flap; between 2 vowels, the 2nd one is unstressed. Forty
[ t¯ ] unreleased; final position followed by a consonant. Ex: but my
3. IN COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION (in CD)
Two sounds are said to be in CD when there is strict separation of places where
particular realizations can occur. In other words, where one sound occurs, the
other cannot.
Ex: [ th ] & [ t ]; [ t ] & [ t¯

26
 4. MINIMAL PAIR
Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other in only one
phoneme at the same position of occurrence.
Ex: Pin & Bin; Shoe & Zoo; Wash & Watch
/pɪn/ & /bɪn/ /ʃu:/ & /zu:/ /wɒʃ/ & /wɒʧ/

5. TRANSCRIPTION
Transcription is the symbols for the pronunciation of speech sounds. There are
two types of symbol:
 Phonemic transcription / Broad transcription: symbols for phonemes. They
do not indicate exact quality of the sound. They are written between slanted
lines
/ /. A phonemic symbol may have different variations usually called
allophones, so this type of transcription is called broad transcription.
Ex: Pin / pɪn /; Time / taɪm /

 Phonetic transcription / Narrow transcription: symbols for exact

pronunciation of a speech sound, with all the details necessary for the exact
quality of the sound. They are written between square brackets. Each phonetic
symbol is for only one pronunciation, so this type of transcription is called
narrow transcription.
Ex: Pin [ phĩn ] ; Time [ thaĩm ]; Put [ phʊvt¯ ]

TEST 6
1. Transcribe phonemically and phonetically the following words:
Calf /ka:f/ [khavf] learnt
Cool team
Curl tone
Style out
Coil meat
Toad dark
Card lips
Speed partake
Book goat
Toast appeared
Friend fright
Home foot
2. Phonetic transcription is the symbol for
a. a precise pronunciation of a sound b. a phoneme c. a&b
3. Phonemic transcription is written between
a. parentheses b. square brackets c. slanted lines
4. Broad transcription is written between
a. slanted lines b. square brackets c. parentheses

27
5. Phonemic transcription is the symbol for
a. a precise pronunciation of a sound b. a phoneme c. a&b
6. An allophone of a phoneme is another pronunciation of that phoneme which does not cause
a difference in …………..
a. meaning b. pronunciation c. spelling d. stress
7. [ t ] & [ th] are called the ……………….. of the phoneme / t /
a. transcription b. allophones c. minimal pair d. homophones
8. How many phonemes are there in the word ‘would’
a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5
9. A minimal pair is
a. a pair of words of the same pronunciation
b. two allophones of the same phoneme
c. a pair of words which differ from each other by only one phoneme at the same position
d. a&c
10. Bean and dean are a minimal pair because
a. they contain the same vowel sound.
b. they are both singular nouns
c. they differ in only one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.
11. Which of the followings does not form a minimal pair with night?
a. height b. kite c. light d. knight
12. Supply another word for the following pairs to form minimal pairs
Ex: pin – bin
Cat lamp
Kind night
Pig fill
Miss lift
Shoe save
Sell sort
13. A consonant is a ………….. phoneme
a. segmental b. super-segmental c. over-segmental d. b&c
14. Stress, able to cause a change in meaning of a word, is a ……….. phoneme
a. segmental b. super-segmental c. over-segmental d. b&c
15. Which of the following is a phoneme?
a. t b. / t / c. [ t ] d. { t }
16. Which of the following is an allophone?
a. [ t ] b. t c. / t / d. { t }
17. The phonetic transcription is written between:
a. [ ] b. / / c. { } d. ( )
18. The broad transcription is written between:
a. / / b. [ ] c. { } d. ( )

28
 UNIT 6: SYLLABLE
1. Definition
A syllable is a group of sounds consisting of a center or peak or nucleus (a vowel or
diphthong) preceded and followed by consonants called onset and coda respectively.
2. Structure of an English syllable.
(ONSET) CENTER / PEAK (CODA)
[Initial Consonant(s)] Vowel / Diphthong [Final Consonant(s)]
0–3 1 0-4
a. Center / Peak / Nucleus: In an English syllable, there must be a vowel or
diphthong as the center of the syllable and only one. (Except for the case of some weak
syllables in which a syllabic consonant stands for the vowel).
b. Onset (0 – 3)
Number Pre-initial Initial Post-initial Examples
0 Are /a:/
1 Consonants except Cat; Book Dog
/ ŋ /; / ʒ / is rare /kæt/ /bʊk/ /dɒg/
2 Consonants / l, r, w, j / Play; Try Quick; Few
/pleɪ/ /traɪ/ /kwɪk/ /fju:/
2 /s/ Consonants Spin; Smell Scan
/spɪn/ /smel/ /skæn/
3 /s/ / p, t, k / / l, r, w, j / Spring String Screen
/sprɪŋ/ /strɪŋ/ /skri:n/
Note: If there is only one consonant, it is always initial.
In onset, pre-initial is always / s /; and post-initial: /l. r, w, j/ if any.
c. Coda (0 – 4)
Number Pre-final Final Post 1 Post 2 Post 3 Example
1 Any, except Cat / kæt /
/ h, w, j / Book / bʊk /
2 mnŋls pktdf Bump /bʌmp/
Bent /bent/
2 pktdf sztdθ Bets /bets/
Beds /bedz/
3 mnŋls pktdf sztdθ Helped /helpt/
Banks /bæŋks/
Twelfth /twelfθ/
3 pktdf sztdθ sztdθ Fifths /fɪfθs/
Next /nekst/
Lapsed /læpst/
4 mnŋls pktdf sztdθ sztdθ Twelfths /twelfθs/
Prompts /prɒmpts/
4 pktdf sztdθ sztdθ s z t d Sixths /sɪksθs/
θ Texts /teksts/

29
Note: + When there is one consonant, it is always final.
+ The grammar markers (the parts added to show grammar form) are post-final.
+ The first ones to be identified are the finals /p k t d f/
+ There is only one pre-final in the CODA

3. Strong & Weak syllables

In English, many syllables are weak; the others are strong. A weak syllable is an
unstressed one (less prominent); a strong syllable is a stressed one (more prominent).
Any strong syllable has as its peak one of the vowel or diphthong phonemes except / ə /
Weak syllables usually have the following as peak:
 / ə / (schwa): the common pronunciation of a vowel in weak syllables.
Ex: Attend / ə´tend/; Particular /pə´tɪkjələ/; Tomorrow /tə´mɒrəʊ/
 The close front vowel / i / and close back vowel / u /.
When close vowels are in weak syllables, it is very difficult to distinguish whether
they are long or short. According to many RP speakers (Received Pronunciation),
it is between / i: & ɪ /; / u: & ʊ /. Here we use / i / & / u /.
o / i / usually occurs:
+ at final position, spelt with ‘-y’, ‘-ey’, ‘-e’
Ex: Happy /´hæpi/; Valley /´væli/ ; He /hi/ …
+ In prefixes ‘re-‘; ‘pre-‘; ‘de-‘ …
Ex: React /ri´ækt/; Prefer /pri´fɜ:/
o / u / usually occurs at final position, spelt with ‘-ou’; ‘-o’ …
Ex: You /ju/; to /tu/
 A syllabic consonant: the consonants / l r m n ŋ / when standing for a vowel
in a weak syllable. Ex: Bottle [´bɒtļ ]; trouble [´trʌbļ ]

TEST 7
1. Basing on the structure of a syllable, put the sounds in the following words in
appropriate case (1m)
Word Pre- Initial Post- Peak Pre-fin Final Post1 Post2 Post3
init ini
Stopped s t ɒ p t
Screens
Lapsed
Twelfths
Sixths
Prompts
Next
Scripts
Sprayed
Texts

30
2. In a weak syllable, the vowel is usually pronounced as
a. schwa b. approximant c. syllabic d. semi-vowel
3. The shortest English syllable consists of
a. CV b. C c. V d. VC
4. ONSET consonants in an English syllable are
a. consonants preceding the PEAK b. consonants following the CENTER
c. sound(s) in the center of a syllable d. vowels or diphthongs
5. The maximum number of consonants in ONSET of an English syllable is
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
6. In an English syllable, the consonants following the NUCLEUS are called
a. CODA b. ONSET c. PEAK d. NUCLEUS
7. The prominence of a stressed syllable is made up by the length, pitch, quality and
a. loudness b. tension c. strength d. pronunciation
8. A syllable in English is identified by
a. consonant b. vowel c. stress d. semi-vowel
9. The peak of an English syllable should always be a vowel, diphthong or a(n)
a. syllabic consonant b. approximant c. semi-vowel d. consonant
10. The longest syllable structure in English may be
a. CCCVCCC b. CCCVCCCC c. CCVCCCC d. CCCCVCCC
11. The shortest English syllable consists of:
a. one sound b. one consonant c. one vowel and a consonant d. a&b
12. When not emphasized, most ……..words are pronounced with a weak form
a. functional b. lexical c. auxiliary d. preposition
13. Auxiliaries are in strong form in:
a. final position b. medium position c. initial position d. all positions
14. 5. The maximum number of consonants in CODA of an English syllable is
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4

31
 UNIT 7: STRESS

1. Nature of stress
A stressed syllable is more prominent than an unstressed one. Four factors make
up the prominence of a stressed syllable:
 Loudness (louder)
 Length ( longer)
 Pitch (higher)
 Quality (clearer)

2. Levels of stress. Usually 3 levels of stress are used:

a. Primary / ′ /: Doctor /′dɒktə /
b. Secondary stress / ‚ /: Conversation /,kɒnvə′seɪʃn/
c. Unstressed: Worker / ′wɜ:kə/

STRESS WITHIN A WORD

1. Placement of stress within a word: Stress placement depends on:
a. Morphological structure: simple, complex or compound words
A simple word is a word consisting of only one morpheme. Ex: boy; girl; father
A complex word consists of a base plus affix(es). Ex: teacher; boys; stopped …
A compound word consists of 2 or more words. Ex: armchair; bad-temper; …
b. Grammatical category: noun, adjective, verb, adverb ….
c. Number of syllables
d. Phonological structure: long, short vowel, diphthong, consonant …

2. One –syllable words

When pronounced in isolation, monosyllable lexical words receive primary stress.
Ex: ′Green; ′House; ′Cat; ′Dog.
When used in combination with other words, the stress may vary.
Ex: A ′green house (a special kind of house, compound word)
A green ′house (a house which is green, grammatical structure)
A ′hot dog (a kind of cake, compound word)

3. Two-syllable words
 1st syllable stressed if the 2nd syllable contains:
+ a short vowel. Ex: doctor /′dɒktə /; enter /′entə/
+ /əʊ/. Ex: narrow /′nærəʊ/; follow /′fɒləʊ/
+ one final consonant. Ex: happen /´hæpən/
 2nd syllable stressed if the 2nd syllable contains:

32
 + a long vowel. Ex: concern /kən′sɜ:n/; abroad /ə′brɔ:d/; begin /bɪ′gi:n/
+ a diphthong. Ex: design /dɪ′zain/; divine /dɪ′vaɪn/; arrive /ə′raɪv/
+ more than 1 final consonant. Ex: correct /kə′rek/; attract /ə′trækt/
 Word-class pairs: pairs of 2-syllable words with identical spelling but
different parts of speech.
+ 1st syllable stressed if it is a noun or adjective;
+ 2nd syllable stressed if it is a verb.
Ex: present (n) /′preznt/; present (v) /prɪ′zent/
abstract (A,V); conduct (N,V); contract (N,V,); contrast (N,V);
desert (N,V); escort (N,V); export (N,V); import (N,V); insult
(N,V); object (N,V); perfect (A,V); permit (N,V); produce (N,V);
protest (N,V); rebel (N,V); record (N,V); subject (N,V)

3. Three-syllable words
a. Verb. Usually the stress is on the 2nd or 3rd syllable.
 2nd syllable stressed if the final syllable contains:
+ a short vowel. Ex: encounter / ɪŋ′kaʊntə/
+ one consonant. Ex: determine /dɪ′t3:mɪn/
 Final syllable stressed if it contains:
+ a long vowel or diphthong. Ex: entertain /‚entə′teɪn/
+ more than one consonant. Ex: resurrect /‚rezə′rekt/
b. Noun. Usually the stress is on the 1st or 2nd syllable.
 2nd syllable stressed if it contains:
+ a long vowel. Ex: disaster /dɪ′za:stə/
+ a diphthong. Ex: potato /pə′teɪtəʊ/
 1st syllable stressed: other cases. Ex: cinema /′sɪnəmə/;
Intellect /′ɪntəlekt/; alkali /′ækəlaɪ/

5. Complex word stress: Complex words are words consisting of a stem plus affixes
a. More than 3-syllable words.
For words of more than 3 syllables, the stress usually falls on the 3 rd one from the
end.
Ex: Photography /fə′tɒgrəfi/; international /,ɪntə′næʃnəl/.
b. Final syllable stressed: words ending in: -ade; -oon; -ee; -ese; -eer; -ette; -ine;
esque; -ain; -ique… Ex: ‚Lemo‫׳‬nade; bal‫׳‬loon; trai‫׳‬nee; ‚Vietna‫׳‬mese; ‚engi‫׳‬neer;
ciga‫׳‬rette; ‚maga‫׳‬zíne; ‚pictu‫׳‬resque; u′níque.
c. Penultimate syllable stressed (the syllable before the last): words ending in –ic’
-ial; -ian; -ion; -ient; -ience; -iar; -eous; -ious; -ity; -aphy; -ive…

33
 Ex: Pho′netic; arti‫׳‬fícial; elec‫׳‬trícian; ‚conver‫׳‬sation; suf‫׳‬fícient; con‫׳‬venience;
fa‫׳‬míliar; advan‫׳‬tageous; de‫׳‬lícious; uni‫׳‬versity; pho‫׳‬tography; re‫׳‬flexive.
d. Prefixes: Usually prefixes do not affect the stress placement.
Ex: ′Comfortable => un‫׳‬comfortable; ′pleasant => un‫׳‬pleasant.

6. Compound word stress:

Compound words are units made of two or more words joined together. Compound
words may be written in different ways:
 As one word. Ex: Armchair; sunflower; sunglasses ….
 Words separated by a hyphen. Ex: ice-cream; first-class; bad-tempered.
 Words separated by a space. Ex: a green house; a coffee cup; a desk lamp
a. Stress on the 1st word
 Usually compound nouns (N + N; A + N) forming only one unit with a
particular meaning receive the primary stress on the 1st word.
Ex: ′suitcase; ′sunflower; a ′green house; a ′gold fish.
b. Stress on the 2nd word
 Adjective + -ed. Ex: bad-′tempered; heavy-′hearted; heavy-′handed.
 Number + noun. Ex: Three-′wheeler; second-′class.
 Compounds functioning as adverb. Ex: down-′stream; head-′first.
 Adverb + verb. Ex: down-′grade; back-′pedal; ill-′treat.
 Compound proper names. Ex: New′York ; Bob ′Smith.
 Compound verbs / phrasal verbs. Ex: pick ′up; turn ′on; look ′after.

TEST 8
1. A simple word is a word consisting of
a. 1 syllable b. 1 morpheme c. a base and affix(es) d. 2 words joined together
2. A complex word contains at least
a. 1 syllable b. 1 affix c. 1 suffix d. 1 prefix
3. Identify the following units as simple word, complex word, compound word, or grammatical
structure.
1. knave 2. knavish
3. telegraph 4. aquanaut
5. bicycle 6. workman
7. a sharp ′shooter 8. passbook
9. a ′bull’s eye 10. a bull’s ′eye
11. glowworm 12. import
13. inaccessible 14. outlast
15. rattlesnake 16. philosophy
17. refusal 18. enable
19. oyster 20. pur

34
4. Which one is not a factor making up the prominence of a stressed syllable?
a. strength b. pitch c. quality d. loudness
5. Mark the stress on the following words. Try to explain your stress placement.
Protect bellow below clamber menace festoon disconnect
Detest entering offer prefer event even captain
Career injury paper connection converse emperor intellect
Intelligent opportunity opportune luxury luxurious photograph photographic
Universe university determine determination balloon polite impolite
6. The stress is on the penultimate syllable in words ending in
a. –iar b. –oon c. –een d. –ette
7. The stress is placed on the last syllable in words ending with
a. –ic b. –ness c. –ese d. –er
8. ………… always occurs in English syllable.
a. vowel b. consonant c. onset d. coda
9. Which of the following is not true?
a. A minimum syllable would be a single vowel and a coda.
b. Some syllables may have no onset but have a coda.
c. Some syllables have an onset.
d. Some syllables have an onset and a coda.
10. The stress is on the …… syllable in the word uncomfortable
a. first b. second c. third d. last

35
 UNIT 8: SENTENCE STRESS

1. Variable stress (shifting stress)

The stress placement may vary because of the following reasons:
 To avoid adjacent primary stresses to ease the ears. Usually in a sequence of
syllables, English favors an alternation of weak with strong stresses.
Ex: un′known, ′thief => un‵known ′thief; fif′teen, ′girls => fif‵teen ′girls
 Not all speakers of RP (Received Pronunciation) agree on the placement of
stress in some words.
Ex: Controversy /′kɒntrəvɜ:si/ / kən′trɒvəsi /
Kilometer /′kɪləmi:tə/ /kɪ′lɒmɪtə/
Advertisement /əd′vɜ:tɪsmənt/ /,ædvə′taɪzmənt/

2. Types of word stressed in a sentence

Four groups of words are usually stressed in a sentence:
 Lexical words: Noun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb.
 Interrogative words at the beginning of the question: when, what…
 Demonstrative words: this, that, these, those.
 Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, hers….
Functional or grammatical words are usually unstressed in a sentence except the
case that they are at final position, negative form, or emphasized.

However, in spoken language, in an utterance, usually only one syllable receives

the primary stress, called tonic syllable; the other stressed syllables are reduced to
secondary stress.
Ex: 2What job are you 3 doing1 ?

36
 UNIT 9: WEAK FORMS
Certain English words have two forms: strong & weak. They are functional /
grammatical words, including pronoun, preposition, conjunction, auxiliary, and
determiner. Usually, functional words are weak, and the vowel is pronounced as / ə /
(schwa); they are strong in the following cases:
 At final position. Ex: Paul is talking to Mary /pɔ:l ɪz ′tɔ:lkɪŋ tə ´meri/
But: Who is he talking to? /hu ɪz i ′tɔ:lkɪŋ tu/
 When being used contrasted with another word.
Ex: The letter’s from him, not to him / ðə ´letəz ´frɒm ɪm nɒt ´tu: ɪm/
 A co-ordinated use of preposition.
Ex: I travel to and from DL a lot / aɪ ′trævI ´tu: ən ´frɒm DL ə lɒt/
 When being “cited” or “quoted”.
Ex: You shouldn’t put ‘and’ at the end of a sentence
/ju ′ʃʊdnt pʊt ‘ænd’ ət ði end əv ə ′sentəns/
 In negative form. Ex: I can’t speak French / aɪ kænt spi:k ´frenʧ /
 For the purpose of emphasis. Ex: You must give me more money.
/ju ´mʌ st ´gɪv mi mɔ: ´mʌni/
Some special words
 That: + weak / ðət/: conjunction and relative pronoun.
Ex: He thinks that you love him /hi θɪŋks ðət ju lʌv ɪm/
+ strong / ðæt /: demonstrative
Ex: That book is mine / ðæt bʊk ɪz maɪn/
 Some: + weak /səm/: countable noun plural and uncountable
Ex: I have some dogs /aɪ hæv səm dɒgz/
I need some money / aɪ ni:d səm ´mʌni/
+ strong /sʌm/: countable singular noun and final position
Ex: I think some boy broke it. / aɪ θɪŋk sʌm ´bɔɪ ´brəʊk ɪt/
I take some. / aɪ teɪk sʌm /
 There:+ weak /ðə(r)/: formal subject.
Ex: There is a book on the table / ðə(r) ɪz ə bʊk ɒn ðə ′te1b!/
+ strong / ðeə(r)/: adverb and in final position
Ex: There it is / ðeə(r) ɪt ɪz/
Put it there / pʊt ɪt ðeə /
 Must: + weak /məst/: obligation, duty.
Ex: I must go now. /a1 məst gəʊ naʊ/
+ strong /mʌst/: deduction and final position
Ex: He left at 7:00; he must have arrived here by now.
/hi ´left ət 7:00 hi mʌst həv ə′raɪvd hɪə baɪ naʊ /

37
 UNIT 10: ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH

1. Assimilation
a. Definition: Assimilation is a change in pronunciation of one sound because of the
influence of a neighboring sound to be more alike. In other words, a phoneme is
realized differently as a result of being near some other phoneme belonging to a
neighboring word.
The purpose of assimilation is to ease the pronunciation. Assimilation occurs in
rapid, casual speech and usually affects consonants.

b. Position of occurrence: Assimilation can occur at different positions:

 Across word boundaries (between two words)
Ex: That pen [ðæt pen => ðæppen]
 Within a word
+ Across morpheme boundaries (between two morphemes)
Ex: Dogs /dɒgz/
+ Within a morpheme.
Ex: Bank /bæŋk/

c. Classification
 Basing on the direction of the assimilation
+ Regressive assimilation: Final consonant ( Cf ) of the preceding word
changes to become like Initial consonant ( Ci ) of the following word. In
other words, the following consonant affects the preceding one.
Ex: That side [ðæt saɪd => ðæssaɪd]
+ Progressive assimilation: Initial consonant ( Ci ) of the following word
changes to become like the final consonant ( Cf ) of the preceding word. In
other words, the preceding consonant affects the following one.
Ex: Hit you [hɪtju: => hɪʧju:]

 Basing on what is changed

+ Assimilation of manner: 2 sounds of different manners of articulation
will change to have the same manner of articulation.
Ex 1: That side [ðæt saɪd => ðæssaɪd] (stop => fricative)
Ex 2: Good night [gʊdnaɪt => gʊnnaɪt] (stop => nasal)

+ Assimilation of voice (voiceless => voiced or vice versa)

Ex: Newspaper [nju:z peɪpə => nju:speɪpə] (voiced => voiceless)
Have to [hæv tu => hæftu]
Birth /bɜ:θ/ => Birthday [bɜ:ðdeɪ]

38
 + Assimilation of place of articulation: 2 words of different points of
articulation will change to have the same point of articulation. This
assimilation affects most final alveolars / t, d, n, s, z /.

p: that pen [ðæt pen => ðæppen] (alveolar => bilabial: labialized)
t
k: that case [ðæt keɪz => ðækkeɪz] (alveolar => velar: velarized)

b : good boy [gʊd bɔɪ => gʊbbɔɪ] (labialized)

d
g : bad cold [bæd kəʊld => bægkəʊld] (velarized)

m: green pine [gri:n paɪn => gri:mpaɪn] (labialized)

n
ŋ : one cup [wʌn kʌp => wʌŋkʌp (velarized)

s => ʃ before / j & ʃ / Ex: this year [ðɪs jɪə => ðɪʃjɪə];
this shoe [ðɪs ʃu: => ðɪʃʃu:]
z => ʒ before / j & ʃ / Ex: those years [ðəʊz jɪəz => ðəʊʒjɪəz]
those shops [ðəʊz ʃɒps => ðəʊʒʃɒps]

2. Elision: Sounds disappear or are deleted under certain circumstances. Elision occurs
in rapid, casual speech.
 Loss of weak vowels after initial / p, t, k / (the vowels disappear and p, t, k
become slightly aspirated).
Ex: Potato [ph′teɪtəʊ]; Tomato [th′ma:təʊ]; Perhaps [ph′hæps]; Today
[th′deɪ]
 Avoidance of complex consonant clusters.
Ex: George the Sixth’s throne /ʤɔ:ʤ ðə sɪksθsθrəʊn/ => /… sɪksθrəʊn.../
 Loss of final / v,d / in ‘of, and’ before consonants.
Ex: Lots of them /lɒts əv ðəm => lɒts ə ðəm / ;
Waste of money /weɪst əv mʌni => weɪst ə mʌni /
Come and see /kʌm ənd si: => kʌm ən si: /
3. Linking. In real connected speech, words are sometimes linked together.
a. Linking: When the preceding word ends in a consonant and the following word
begins with a vowel, we link sounds together.
Ex: A cup␣of coffee; Her␣eyes.
+ Intrusive j: -i + vowel. Ex: Very interesting /veri j ɪntrəstɪŋ/
+ Intrusive w: -u + vowel. Ex: Go into /gəʊ w ɪntu/

39
TEST 9
1. When not emphasized, most ……… words are pronounced with a weak form
a. auxiliary b. lexical c. functional d. preposition
2. Auxiliary is in strong form in
a. negative form b. medial position c. initial position d. all positions
3. The underlined word in the sentence ‘You must study hard to pass the exam’ is in:
a. strong form b. weak form c. normal form d. b&c
4. The underlined word in the sentence ‘You mustn’t put ‘and’ at the end of a sentence’ is in:
a. strong form b. weak form c. normal form d. b&c
5. The underlined word in the sentence ‘You mustn’t put ‘and’ at the end of a sentence’ is in:
a. weak form b. strong form c. normal form d. b&c
6. The underlined word in the sentence ‘You haven’t eaten anything all day; you must be
hungry now’ is in:
a. strong form b. weak form c. normal form d. b&c
7. Which of the following sentences is not true?
a. In a sentence, functional words are always weak.
b. In a sentence, usually lexical words are stressed.
c. When being in weak form, the vowel is usually pronounced as /ə/.
8. In rapid and casual speech, ‘and you’ can be pronounced as /ənʤu/ as a result of assimilation
of
a. manner & place b. voice c. place d. manner
9. In natural connected speech, ‘today’ can be pronounced as /t′deɪ/ as a result of
a. linking b. assimilation c. elision d. dissimilation
10. In rapid and casual speech, ‘hit you’ can be pronounced as /hɪʧu/ as a result of
assimilation of
a. manner, place & voice b. voice c. place d. manner
11. The pronunciation /kʌm ən si:/ of ‘come and see’ is the result of
a. linking b. elision c. assimilation d. dissimilation
12. The assimilation in ‘dogs’ is:
a. progressive assimilation of voice b. progressive assimilation of place of articulation
c. progressive assimilation of manner d. regressive assimilation of voice

40
 UNIT 11: INTONATION

1. Definition.
Tone is the change of pitch a speaker uses in the pronunciation of a syllable or word.
Intonation is the movement of pitch a speaker uses in an utterance.
A tone language is a language in which the tone can determine the meaning of a word,
and changing from one tone to another can completely change the meaning. Ex:
Vietnamese: ma – má – mà – mả – mã… (Chinese, Thai …)
An intonation language is a language in which the tone used can affect the meaning of
an utterance. Ex: 2You are a 3student1↓ (statement)
You are a student ↑ (question)
2 3 3

The tone may vary with the speaker, but in general, there are 5 tones in English:
 Fall ↓
 Rise ↑
 Fall - Rise ⋁
 Rise - Fall ⋀
 Level / Constant ─
2. Functions of intonation
Intonation is used to carry information over and above what is expressed by the words
in the sentence. Intonation plays different functions:
a. The accentual function: Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on
syllables that need to be perceived as stressed, by placing a primary stress on a particular
syllable, to mark the most important word in the utterance.
Ex: I walked to the ′party
I ′walked to the party
I walked ′to the party

b. The grammatical function: Intonation helps to recognize the grammar and

syntactic structure of what is being said, such as the boundaries between phrases, clauses,
sentences… questions, statement …
Ex: 2
You are a 3student1 ↓ (statement)
2
You are a 3student3 ↑ (question)
2
Those who 3sold2 → 2quickly made a 3profit1 ↓ (quickly modifies made)
Those who sold 3quickly2 → 2made a 3profit1 ↓ (quickly modifies sold)
2

c. The attitudinal function: Intonation helps to express emotion and attitudes as we

speak, and this adds a special kind of meaning to spoken language.
Ex: My boyfriend is very handsome. Is he? ↗ (interested, polite)

41
 My boyfriend is very handsome. Is he? ↘ (uninterested)

Some functions of English tones.

 Fall Yes, No To express finality, no interest, nothing more to say.
Ex: Do you know John Smith? No↘
 Rise Yes, No To express interest, something more to say, encouragement
Ex: My girlfriend is very pretty. Really? ↗ (interested)
Excuse me? - Yes? ↗ (What would you like?)
I’m very nervous about the exam.
Don’t worry! You’ll pass! ↗ (encouraging)
 Fall – Rise Yes, No ⋁ To express limited agreement, or response with
reservations, uncertainty, and doubt.
Ex: I’ve heard that it’s a good school. Yes ⋁
 Rise – Fall Yes, No ⋀ To convey rather strong feelings of approval,
disapproval, or surprise.
Ex: You wouldn’t do such a thing, would you? No⋀
 Level Yes, No ___ To convey something routine, boring.
Ex: John Smith? - Yes___ (calling the names)
Have you ever been in prison? No___

3. Intonation contours
Intonation contour is made up by the distribution of the pitch levels (numbers) plus
the terminal juncture (arrows).
a. Pitch: Every syllable in English is uttered at some level of pitch. We use 4 levels
of pitch.
 Extra-high 4
 High 3
 Normal 2
 Low 1
Our normal pitch when speaking is level 2
Stressed syllable is level 3
Level 4 is used for special emphasis
Level 1 when lowering the voice
b. Terminal juncture: Juncture is the relationship between one sound and the sound
that immediately precedes and follows it. Terminal juncture is at the end of an utterance,
separated by a silence. There are three types of terminals
 Falling ↓
 Rising ↑

42
  Sustained →
Every utterance has its own intonation contour. In symbolizing intonation contour, we
should indicate the pitch levels (numbers) at 3 positions:
+ the beginning of the grammatical unit
+ the beginning of the syllable bearing the primary stressed (tonic syllable)
+ the end of unit before the terminal
Ex: 2We drove to the 3lake1 ↓

TYPES OF INTONATION CONTOURS

a. Falling 231 ↓
 Statement or declarative sentence Ex: 2We drove to the 3lake1 ↓
 Command. Ex: 2Go to the 3room1 ↓
 Wh-question. Ex: 2Where are you 3going1 ↓
b. Rising 223 ↑ or 233 ↑
 Yes – No question in question form Ex: 2Are you a 3student3 ↑
 Yes – No question in statement form Ex: 2You are a 3student3 ↑
c. Sustained 232 →
 Initial grammatical unit Ex: 2In 3short,2 →
 More to say (incompleteness) Ex: 2He is very 3handsome2 → … (but..)
d. A call
 At initial position 32 ↓ or 223 ↑
Ex: 3Harry2↓ 2
Ma2rie3 ↑ 3
Harry1 ↓ (threatening)
 At final position 12 ↑ or 33 ↑
Ex: 2Where are you 3going1 ↓ 1Jane2 ↑
2
Will you come 2tonight3? ↑
e. A choice
 A choice of two possibilities (one or the other) 233 ↑ 231↓
Ex: 2Do you want 3tea3 ↑ 2or 3coffee1 ↓
 A proposal of a yes-no question (these ones or something else)233↑233↑
Ex: 2Do you want 3tea3 ↑ 2or 3coffee3↑
f. One word question (who? when?...)
 To repeat the known information 23↑
Ex: 2Jane has a new 3piano teacher1 ↓ 2
Who3 ↑(who has…?)
 To ask for new information 31↓
Ex: 2Jane has a new 3piano teacher1↓ 3Who1↓(who is the new piano teacher?)

43
 g. Quoter clause: repeat the last number
Ex: 2Where are you 3going1 ↓ 1he 1asked1↓
Are you 3going3 ↑
2 3
he 3asked3 ↑
f. Tag question:
 Sure: 31↓ Ex: 2You’re a 3student1 ↓, 3
aren’t you1 ↓?
 Not sure: 23↑ Ex: 2You’re a 3student1 ↓, 2aren’t you3 ↑?

Variations for emphasis: To emphasize a certain word, number 3 will be moved to that
word.
Ex: Normal: 2Are you walking to the 3party3 ↑?
Emphatic: 2Are you 3walking to the party3 ↑?
Emphatic: 2Are you walking 3to the party3 ↑?

TEST 10
Supply pitches and terminals for the following utterances to show their intonation contour.
Ex: 2You are a 3student1 ↓
1. He walked to the lab.
2. Get out of my sight!
3. Where is my necktie?
4. She won’t be home till twelve?
5. Are you going to the game early?
6. To tell the truth, I haven’t learned to dance.
7. Unless you take the car, I won’t go.
8. When do we eat?
9. If you’ll come,
10. For the most part,
11. He’s very handsome, (but)
12. George, come home at once.
13. We’re going to eat in Chicago. Where? (in what city did you say?)
14. We’re going to eat in Chicago. Where? (in which restaurant?)
15. Will you have hot chocolate or milk? (one or the other)
16. Will you have hot chocolate or milk? (or something different)
17. I’m taking physics, chemistry, German, and American history.
18. “When are you driving home?” she asked.
19. Give me a lift, Peter.
20. Would you like your coffee black or white?
21. The tone used to convey strong feeling is:
a. rise-fall b. rise c. fall-rise d. fall
22. The tone used to convey finality is:
a. fall b. rise c. fall-rise d. rise-fall

44
23. The function of intonation in distinguishing the two different meanings of the utterance
‘Those who sold quickly made a profit’ is:
a. grammatical b. accentual c. attitudinal d. all of them
Which tone is used to convey ______?
24. Uninterested: a. Fall b. Rise c. Fall-rise d. Rise-fall
25. With reservation: a. Fall-rise b. Rise c. Fall d. Rise-fall
26. Interest: a. rise b. fall c. Fall-rise d. Rise-fall
27. The assimilation in dogs is:
a. Progressive assimilation of manner of articulation
b. Regressive assimilation of place of articulation
c. Regressive assimilation of voice
d. Progressive assimilation of voice
28. The assimilation in Green pine is:
a. Progressive assimilation of manner of articulation
b. Regressive assimilation of place of articulation
c. Regressive assimilation of voice
d. Progressive assimilation of voice

45
 REFERENCES

Fromkin, V. 1990. An Introduction to Language. Australia: Helt, Rinehart and

Winston.

Gussenhoven C., & Jacogs, 1998. Understanding Phonology. London: JW

Arrowsmith Ltd, Bristol.

Hudson, G. 2000. Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

Lyons, J. 1971. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge University Press

Norman C. Stageberg, 1983. An Introductory English Grammar. Japan: Hold-

Saunders.

O’Connor, J.D. (?) Sounds English. Longman.

O’Grady, W. 1993. Contemporary Linguistics. New York: St. Martin Press.

Roach, Peter. 2000. English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge University Press.

Underhill, Adrian, 1994. Sound Foundations. Oxford: Heinemann.

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 ANSWER KEY
Test 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
A B D A C A B C C A A A A B D A C A C
Test 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A A A B D D D A A B C A A C D A A B A A
Test 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
C A D A A D A D B A B A D A B C A A A
Test 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
D B C A C A D A B A A A B D A A A
Test 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A C A A A B C A A B A A D A A B B D A A
Test 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A C A B S B B C C D A B B A A B
Test 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
A C A C A A B A B A A A D
Test 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B A C C A A B
3. Identify the following units as simple word, complex word (Cplx), compound word (CW), or
grammatical structure (GS).
1. Knave: Simple 2. Knavish: Cplx
3. Telegraph: Complex 4. Aquanaut: Cplx
5. Bicycle: Complex 6. Workman: CW
7. A sharp ′shooter: GS 8. Passbook: CW
9. A ′bull’s eye: CW 10. A bull’s ′eye: GS
11. Glowworm: CW 12. Import: Cplx
13. Inaccessible: Cplex 14. Outlast: CW
15. Rattlesnake: CW 16. Philosophy: Cplx
17. Refusal: Cplx 18. Enable: Cplx
19. Oyster: Simple 20. Pure: Simple
Test 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
C A B A B A A A C A B A
Test 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A A A A A D B

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