CHAPTER 6.

Agricultural Water Management

Definitions:
o Water harvesting in its broadest sense will be defined as the
"collection of runoff for its productive use".
o Runoff may be harvested from roofs and ground surfaces as well as
from intermittent or ephemeral watercourses.
FLOODWATER HARVESTING
o The main goals of water harvesting
① Increase the productivity of arable and grazing land which suffers
from inadequate rain fall to
i. Increase yields of rain fed farming
ii. Minimize the risk of crop failure
②Combat desertification by afforestation, fruit tree planting or
agroforestry
③ Supply drinking water for animals
④ Supply domestic water
What are the benefits of water harvesting?
① Higher productivity (higher yields and less risk)
② Soil conservation
③ Suppression of salinity in soil (more productive land)
④ Water conservation (tapping unused water)
⑤ Underground water recharges (more water available)
⑥ Improved re-/afforestation (less desertification)
⑦ Pasture improvement (more livestock)
⑧ Crop production in areas where is normally not feasible
⑨ Fish and duck production
⑩ Generate electricity
What are the limitations of water harvesting?
① Climatic risks still exist
② No guarantee for high yields
③ Methods scientifically not well established
④ Very often limited experience of extension service
⑤ Possible conflicts between people upstream and downstream
⑥ Possible harm to fauna and flora
⑦ Larger schemes and structures are difficult to implement
(need acceptance by people, political backing and financial
support
For which areas is WH suitable?
① Arid & semi-arid areas
② Where water demand of crops is higher than supply because of:
i. Low rainfall and/or
ii. Uneven seasonal distribution of rainfall and/or
iii. High temperature (high evapotranspiration
Basic Categories of Water Harvesting Systems for Plant
Production
The water harvesting techniques described in basic categories whose
main characteristics are summarized as follows:
Microcatchments (rainwater harvesting): (sometimes referred to
as "Within-Field Catchment System")
Main characteristics:
✓ overland flow harvested from short catchment length
✓ catchment length usually between 1 and 30 metres
✓ runoff stored in soil profile
✓ ratio catchment: cultivated area usually 1:1 to 3:1
✓ normally no provision for overflow
✓ plant growth is even
Principle, concept, and components
o The basic components of a water harvesting system are a
catchment or collection area, the runoff conveyance system, a
storage component and an application area.
o In some cases the components are adjacent to each other, in other
cases they are connected by a conveyance system.
o The storage and application areas may also be the same, typically
where water is concentrated in the soil for direct use by plants.
Catchment or collection area: this is where rain in the form of runoff
is harvested.
o It may be a rooftop, a paved road, compacted surfaces, rocky areas
or open rangelands, cultivated or uncultivated land
• Conveyance system: this is where runoff is conveyed through
gutters, pipes, rill, gully or channel flow and either diverted onto
cultivated fields or into specifically designed storage facilities.
• Storage component: this is where harvested runoff water is stored
until it is used by people, animals or plants.
o Water may be stored in the soil profile as soil moisture
o Application area or target: this is where the harvested water is put
into use either for domestic consumption (drinking and other
household uses), for livestock consumption, or agricultural use
(including supplementary irrigation).
 Catchment
Area
Conveyance
system
Storage Conveyance Application
system
area

Figure of Basic components of WH systems

 Rainwater Supply

o The volume of rainwater supply over a given period depends upon the
amount of rainfall in that period, the catchment area and the runoff
coefficient.
o Volume of rainfall supply = rainfall amount catchemen /
roof area ∗ runoff
o Therefore, rainfall amount and pattern should be analyzed and compared
with demand distribution to help come up with the most appropriate and
economical storage tank size.
o If rainfall is uniformly distributed over the year, then, storage
requirement/tank size is smaller; if it is highly seasonal, the storage
required would be bigger for the same amount of rainfall.
 Water Requirements of Crops have been discussed
o Climate -A certain crop grown in a sunny and hot climate needs
more water per day than the same crop grown in a cloudy and
cooler climate.
o There are, however, apart from sunshine and temperature, other
climatic factors which influence the crop water need.
o These factors are humidity and wind speed. When it is dry, the crop
water needs are higher than when it is humid.
o In windy climates, the crops will use more water than in calm
climates.
o Crop grown in different climatic zones will have different water
needs. For example, a certain maize variety grown in a cool climate
will need less water per day than the same maize variety grown in a
hotter climate.
o It is therefore useful to take a certain standard crop or reference crop
and determine how much water this crop needs per day in the
various climatic regions. As a standard crop (or reference crop) grass
has been chosen.
o The daily water needs of the grass depend on the climatic zone
(rainfall regime) and daily temperatures.
o Table of Effect of major climatic factors on crop water needs
crop type on crop water needs-
The influence of the crop type on the crop water need is important in
two ways.

a. The crop type has an influence on the daily water needs of a fully
grown crop; i.e. the peak daily water needs of a fully developed
maize crop will need more water per day than a fully developed
crop of onions.

b. The crop type has an influence on the duration of the total growing
season of the crop
 Requirements for Water Harvesting
Soil Requirements for Water Harvesting

o The physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil affect

the yield response of plants to extra moisture harvested.

o Generally, the soil characteristics for water harvesting should be

the same as those for irrigation.

o Ideally, the soil in the catchment area should have a high runoff
coefficient while the soil in the cultivated area should be a deep,
fertile loam

o The following are important aspects of soils, which affect plant

performance under WH systems
o Texture- The texture of a soil has an influence on several
important soil characteristics including infiltration rate and
available water capacity.
o Soil texture refers to its composition in terms of mineral particles.
o Structure- Soil structure refers to the grouping of soil particles into
aggregates, and the arrangement of these aggregates.
o A good soil structure is usually associated with loamy soil and a
relatively high content of organic matter.
o Unavoidably, under hot climatic conditions, organic matter levels
are often low, due to the rapid rates of decomposition.

o The application of organic materials such as crop residues and

animal manure is helpful in improving the structure.
o Depth- Deep soils have the capacity to store the harvested runoff as
well as providing a greater amount of total nutrients for plant
growth.
o Soils of less than one meter deep are poorly suited to WH
o Fertility- In many of the areas where WH systems may be
introduced, lack of moisture and low soil fertility are the major
constraints to plant growth.
o Some areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, may be limited by
low soil fertility as much as by lack of moisture.
o Nitrogen and phosphorus are usually the elements most deficient in
these soils.
o While it is often not possible to avoid poor soils in areas under WH
system development, attention should be given to the maintenance of
fertility levels.
o Salinity/sodicity- Sodic soils, which have a high exchangeable
sodium percentage and saline soil which have excess soluble salts,
should be avoided for WH systems.
o These soils can reduce moisture availability directly, or indirectly, as
well as exerting direct harmful influence on plant growth.
o Infiltration rate- The infiltration rate of a soil depends primarily on
its texture.
o On the other hand, a low infiltration rate leads to high runoff, which
is desirable for the catchment area.
o The soils of the cropped area however should be sufficiently
permeable to allow adequate moisture to the crop root zone without
causing waterlogging problems.
o Therefore, the requirements of the cultivated area should always
take precedence.
 Socio-economic factors

o Socio-economic factors are particularly important.

o Obviously, if the small scale farmer is the "customer" or beneficiary,
then she/he must understand and be happy with a system which is
appropriate, and which she/he is able to manage and maintain.
o People's priorities- If the objective of rainwater harvesting projects
is to assist resource-poor farmers to improve their production
systems, it is important that the farmer/agro pastoralist’s priorities
are being fulfilled, at least in part.
o Otherwise, success is unlikely.
o If the local priority is drinking water supply, for example, the
response to water harvesting systems for crop production will be
poor
o Participation- It is becoming more widely accepted that unless
people are actively involved in the development projects which are
aimed to help them, the projects are doomed to failure.
o It is important that the beneficiaries participate in every stage of the
project.
o When the project is being planned, the people should be consulted,
and their priorities and needs assessed and during evaluation and
monitoring
Gender and equity-If water harvesting is intended to improve the lot
of farmers in the poorer, drier areas, it is important to consider the
possible effects on gender and equity.
Agricultural land drainage principles
o Drainage control and management is used both urban and rural
areas for safe exposal of excess runoff and/or to utilize for productive
purposes with out causing damages/loss.
o In addition to water, plants get oxygen for their root respiration from the
soil. Both water and air occupy the pore spaces and hence compete for
space.
o When all the pores are filled with water, plants will suffer from oxygen
deficiency and show poor growth.
o Drainage is the removal of excess gravitational water from soils by natural
or artificial means.
o Adequate drainage improves soil structure and increases the productivity
of soils.
o Drainage is the first essential in reclamation of waterlogged saline and
alkali soils.
 Drainage benefits

Benefits:
1. facilitates early plowing and planting,
2. lengthens the crop-growing season,
3. provides more available soil moisture and plant food by increasing
4. the depth of root-zone soil,
5. helps in soil ventilation (increases oxygen supply to the roots),
6. decreases soil erosion and gullying, by increasing water infiltration
into soil,
7. helps growth of soil bacteria,
8. leaches excess salts from soil and assures higher soil temperatures
 Hazards

1. adversely affect the environment

2. Land where drainage would lower the ambient (surrounding)
water
3. decrease of water table
4. Land where excessive drainage would adversely affect capillary
water rise in deep sand soils and deep organic soils.
5. Wet soils that contain excess amounts of iron sulfide (FeS2,
pyrite, fool’s gold) should not be drained. On being drained, the
iron disulfide oxidizes to ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid, thereby
lowering the pH.
5. Land where drainage, particularly for soils low in fertility, may
cost more than the increased value of crops grown on the soil
 Soils that need drainage

o The light-gray colors indicate long periods of continuous saturation.

o Poor internal drainage is caused by shallow depths to bedrock or by

low-permeability clayey layers.

o Most organic soils need drainage; they are formed because of poor
drainage.
o Soils may also have poor drainage conditions simply because they
simply accumulate more water (high rainfall or collection of runoff
water) than they can dissipate by their slow natural drainage.

o After heavy rains, poorly drained soils take longer to lose surface
water.
 Types of drainage systems

1. Surface drainage system

Surface drainage system is the collection and removal of excess water
from the surface of the soil via open ditches. Surface drainage
systems are best adapted to drain flat or nearly flat soils that are:

1. slowly permeable,
2. shallow over rock or fine clay,
3. have surface depressions that trap water,
4. receive runoff or seepage from uplands,
5. require the removal of excess irrigation water, and require lowering
of the water table
Surface drainage layout
 2. Subsurface drainage system

o In subsurface drainage drains are laid below the soil

surface and are covered.
o The drains do not interfere with normal movement of
farm implements and cultivation practices and no area is
wasted for constructing drains.
o Many of the finest-textured clays have such small pores
between the particles that they are too slowly permeable
to be drained adequately by many subsurface drainage
systems.
 Cont’s

o Such soils must be drained by a surface drainage technique or an

open-ditch system.
o Tiles are short sections of pipe made from fired clay or concrete
and may be 30-60 cm long and 10-30 cm or more in diameter.

o Porous plastic tubes are now made in similar diameters but are a
hundred meters or more long per section.

o To inhibit the entrance of soil particles into openings in the sides of

tile or plastic drain pipe, gravel is usually poured around the tile
and pipe when laid or before backfilling.
 Drainage system selection

o The major factors to be considered when selecting a

drainage system are soil permeability (the cause of the
poor drainage) and the topographic features of the area.

o Some of the more important relationships to be

considered when choosing a drainage system are
presented in the following Table.
 Cont’s
No. Parameter Suggested drainage system
1 Sloping areas Interceptor lines in low areas or seepage spots
2 Closed basins, level areas Outlet problems, may need to pump
3 Deep, permeable sands Any system is adequate
4 Deep, impermeable clays Careful irrigation management; surface and open
ditch drains
5 Shallow permeable soil Tube or tile drains just above impermeable layer;
over impermeable layers careful irrigation management
6 Deep (2.8-3.7 m thick), Sump or well drainage; surface and open-ditch
impermeable soils over drains in humid areas
coarse sands, gravels
7 Water table fluctuates with Tube drain system on a grid and careful irrigation
irrigation control
8 Water table fluctuates with Surface drainage is better; also, consider tube or
rainfall tile drains
9 Ponded water in fields Surface grading (sloping) and surface drains