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 GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 192

Designing energy efficient

multi-residential buildings
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■ Guidance applies to new

multi-residential buildings
with focus on student
accommodation and care
homes
■ Annual savings of £55/bedspace
possible with package of
low-cost measures
■ Integrated package keeps
capital costs low and
maximises energy efficiency
GOOD PRACTICE GUIDE 192

BEST PRACTICE
PROGRAMME
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 3

2 DESIGNING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY 4

3 PASSIVE DESIGN 7

4 INSULATION AND FABRIC ISSUES 9

5 HEATING 11
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6 VENTILATION 15

7 LIGHTING 16

8 CONSTRUCTION AND HANDOVER 17

FURTHER INFORMATION 18

REFERENCES 18

2
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
Demand for multi-residential accommodation –
buildings containing separate residential units that
share some centralised facilities – is set to rise.
More accommodation will be needed for the
growing number of students entering further
education, and to meet the demands for sheltered
housing and care homes for the ageing population.
This Guide, for designers and their clients, aims to
encourage the energy efficient design, construction
and refurbishment of all multi-residential
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buildings. Energy efficient options are illustrated
using two specifications, ‘basic’ and ‘higher’. An
indication of how these specifications compare in
terms of fuel costs is provided in figure 1 on page 5.
The Guide is not exhaustive, and should be used in
conjunction with other more detailed publications
which are referenced throughout the text.
ENERGY COST BENEFITS
The cost of multi-residential housing varies
considerably, but energy efficiency can usually be
greatly improved for between 1% and 2% of the
overall project cost. For example, a package of low-
or no-cost measures applied to a typical building
could reduce annual energy running costs by
£45–55 per bedspace. Slightly higher standards of
insulation and more efficient heating could
provide annual savings of £60–70 per bedspace.
An energy efficient building:
■ reduces energy running costs while
maintaining comfort levels
■ enables residents to enjoy affordable warmth
■ reduces global and local pollution
■ preserves non-renewable energy sources.
Construction costs can be kept to a minimum by:
■ adopting an integrated package of energy
measures
■ assessing the costs and benefits of different
energy saving features
■ carefully choosing designs and constructions
■ including energy measures in the ‘standard’
specification rather than pricing them
as extras.
1 INTRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Burning fossil fuels for heat or to generate
electricity causes emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2),
a major ‘greenhouse’ gas. Energy efficiency reduces
emissions of CO2 and helps to fight global warming.
All building materials have an impact on the
environment, particularly during their
manufacture and transport to site. Careful
selection of materials can reduce a building’s
overall environmental impact.
■ Some insulation materials are produced
using chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) which
deplete the ozone layer. Where possible, use
insulants such as mineral fibre, urea
formaldehyde, recycled cellulose or expanded
polystyrene, that do not contain CFCs or HCFCs.
■ The sum of the energy used in the extraction,
manufacture and transport of materials is
known as the embodied energy. The embodied
energy (and associated CO2 emissions) of a
building can be reduced by, for example, using
locally grown timber rather than steel.
■ Tropical rain forests are beneficial to the climate
and also represent a vast reservoir of biodiversity.
Avoid using tropical timber, or ensure that it is
from a sustainably managed plantation.
REFURBISHMENT OPPORTUNITIES
While new build offers the best opportunity for Good Practice Guide 155
achieving energy efficiency, significant reductions
in energy running costs are available through
refurbishment. Most elements of this Guide can be
applied to refurbishment, though in a reduced
capacity. Measures which can be addressed include:
■ roof insulation
■ external wall insulation
■ cavity wall insulation
■ internal wall insulation (dry lining)
■ double glazing
■ draughtstripping
■ ground floor insulation
■ heating controls
■ lighting controls.
For more information see the Department of the
Environment’s (DOE’s) Good Practice Guide 155[1].
3

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The new five-storey Abraham
Building at Linacre College,
Oxford
ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
2 DESIGNING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
INTEGRATED DESIGN
Multi-residential projects should be designed so
that passive design elements (chapter 3), insulation
(chapter 4), heating and ventilation systems
(chapters 5 and 6), and lighting (chapter 7) work
together. Integrated design ensures that comfort
conditions are optimised at minimum cost and
minimum energy consumption.
Making energy efficiency an integral part of the
design process ensures that appropriate energy
features are included as the design proceeds and
are not removed by accident or to cut costs.
It is important to think about the management
and maintenance of the finished building from
the start. Ideally, the design brief should be
developed in conjunction with those who will be
responsible for managing and maintaining
the accommodation[2].
■ Details of any existing energy policy should be
sought to ensure that specific objectives are
included in the design.
■ Ease of maintenance must be considered at
all stages. This can range from easy access
for cleaning light fittings to providing
adequate isolation points for servicing
heating installations.
■ Where residents are billed, metering and
billing arrangements for fuel should be
considered, together with any specific
requirements for monitoring and targeting
energy consumption.
ENERGY ASSESSMENT AND RATINGS
If the insulation levels of a building are known,
along with details of the heating and hot water
system, it is possible to estimate its future energy
consumption and costs. This can be a useful
decision-making tool when evaluating different
design options[3].
4
Energy assessments can also be used to set
minimum design standards. Performance targets
can be set in terms of energy use or running costs
(either per unit floor area, or per bedspace). In
some accommodation Standard Assessment
Procedure (SAP)[4] targets can be used.
The SAP is one of the principal methods of
assessing energy performance. Others include
computerised energy modelling and detailed
computer simulation.
Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP)
SAP is the government’s standard system for
energy rating of self-contained dwellings, and is
based on the Building Research Establishment’s
Domestic Energy Model (BREDEM). It estimates the
space and water heating costs of a dwelling for a
standard occupancy pattern and converts it into a
rating on a scale of 1 to 100; the higher the
number, the lower the energy consumption. SAP
ratings are now a requirement for new dwellings
under Building Regulations Part L.
Computerised energy modelling programs
Programs based on BREDEM can be used for
estimating the energy use, and hence energy
efficiency, of self-contained dwellings. Energy
models for non-self-contained multi-residential
accommodation buildings are being investigated
by the Building Research Establishment (BRE).
Detailed computer simulation
While not designed specifically for multi-residential
accommodation, detailed computer simulation
programs are available which can be useful if the
design is particularly complex or unconventional.
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
DESIGNING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
SPECIFYING THE OPTIONS
This Guide illustrates energy efficient options using
two specifications, ‘basic’ and ‘higher’, with
examples of typical construction and servicing
details. Table 1 (overleaf) outlines basic and higher
specifications for a range of energy efficiency
measures. A third option is illustrated to highlight
the use of passive design features.
BASIC SPECIFICATION
Experience shows that a package of measures such
as those listed in table 1 can be incorporated into a
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design for little or no extra cost.
The insulation standards for gas and electric
heating were chosen because:
■ they are easy to implement by tried and
tested means
■ computer analysis shows them to offer
optimum cost effectiveness
■ they will reduce energy consumption, running
costs and carbon dioxide emissions further
than required by 1995 Building Regulations.
25%
saving
Heating energy consumption (cost)
Building Regulations Basic spec
Electric storage heating systems are normally
cheaper to install than gas-fired central heating
with radiators, but running costs are usually
greater. If the capital cost difference of installation
is used to pay for higher insulation measures and
other energy efficiency improvements, fuel costs
can be similar to those for buildings heated by gas.
HIGHER SPECIFICATION
Some organisations choose to adopt a higher
standard of insulation combined with more
efficient heating systems. This involves extra
capital cost but payback periods can be attractive.
In some cases the payback period will be within
the design tolerance of the institution, but in
others the additional capital cost needs to be
carefully compared with energy cost savings.
Figure 1 Bar chart showing
relative heating fuel savings
for each specification
33%
saving
Higher spec
5
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

DESIGNING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Basic specification Higher specification

For gas or oil heating For gas or oil heating

■ Ground floors with 50 mm of insulation
■ Walls with, for example, 75 mm fully filled
cavities and lightweight blockwork
■ Roofs with 200 mm of insulation
■ All doors and windows draughtstripped
■ Primary hot water pipework insulated
■ Double glazing
■ Temperature control using thermostatic radiator
valves of zone control
■ Condensing gas or oil-fired boiler
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■ Ground floors with 100 mm of insulation
■ Walls with, for example, 100 mm filled cavities
and lightweight blockwork
■ Roofs with 250 mm of insulation
■ All doors and windows draughtstripped
■ Primary hot water pipework insulated
■ Double glazed windows with low emissivity
coating and argon fill
■ Temperature control using thermostatic radiator
valves or zone control

Table 1 Typical options for
basic and higher energy
efficiency specifications
■ Low energy lights in communal areas, corridors etc ■ Condensing gas or oil-fired boiler
■ Low energy lights throughout
For electric heating
■ Ground floors with 100 mm of insulation
■ Walls with, for example, 100 mm fully filled
cavities and lightweight blockwork
■ Roofs with 250 mm of insulation
■ Double glazed windows
■ All doors and windows draughtstripped
■ Automatic charge control on storage heaters
■ Fan assisted storage heaters in large rooms
■ Low energy lights in communal areas, corridors etc

Basic specification Higher specification

Maximum U-value Example constructions Maximum U-value Example constructions

(W/m2K)* (W/m2K)*

Walls 0.35 75 mm filled cavities, 0.30 100 mm filled cavities,

lightweight blockwork lightweight blockwork

Floors – 50 mm insulation – 100 mm insulation

Roofs 0.20 200 mm insulation 0.15 250 mm insulation

Windows 2.80 Double glazed 2.1 Double glazed with

low emissivity coating
and argon fill

Heating Lead condensing gas boiler and thermostatic Lead condensing gas boiler and thermostatic
radiator valves radiator valves

Typical capital costs £378 additional cost per bed £916 additional cost per bed

Typical annual energy £48 saving per bed £63 saving per bed
costs/savings and payback** Payback: 8 years Payback: 14 years

Typical annual CO2 8 kg/m2 floor area 10.5 kg/m2 floor area
emissions (kg/m2)

*Note that boiler efficiency depends on the oversizing ratio. For this example a boiler size to heat load ratio of 3:1 is assumed, giving an overall efficiency of 64%
for the basic package and 72% with the lead condensing boiler.
**Based on fuel costs – gas 1.5p/kWh, electricity 7.5p/kWh

Table 2 Typical costs and savings for basic and higher specifications

6
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
PASSIVE DESIGN
Passive design seeks to exploit the use of solar
energy for heating and lighting, and utilises
natural ventilation. However, maximum energy
savings can only be achieved if passive design is
fully integrated into the design strategy at the
beginning.
On the whole, it is not necessary to have overly
large south-facing windows for energy saving
reasons, because gains are counteracted by heat
losses with south-facing double glazing.
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Good passive design should be a central part of
any overall energy efficiency strategy. As well as
encouraging buildings to trap and store solar
energy for heating, it aims to:
■ improve daylighting in the buildings
■ encourage the use of natural ventilation
■ avoid overheating.
Additionally, it should not increase the cost of
the building.
Site location and layout of buildings
The energy implications of the building site,
location, form and orientation should be
considered at the planning stage[5]. Decisions that
result in wasted energy are difficult to amend once
planning permission is granted or the master plan
agreed. If the opportunity exists during the
selection of the site, consider:
■ access to daylight[5]
■ protection from winds
■ orientation for solar gain.
If site location is predetermined, try to relate the
above issues to the building location.
Where possible, orient one of the longest façades
of the building within ±45˚ of south. Avoid
overshadowing within ±30˚ of south.
To maximise solar gain, buildings should be spaced
more than twice their height apart from north to
south, with lower buildings on the south edge of
the site and taller buildings on the north.
3 PASSIVE DESIGN
SHELTERING AND OPENINGS
■ On exposed sites reduce exposure
by using existing shelter or by
planting tree shelter belts.
■ Reduce ventilation heat loss by
S
positioning buildings to avoid
openings in exposed façades.
■ Avoid planting trees on south sides,
or plant deciduous trees without dense foliage
to allow sun penetration, particularly in Figure 2 Correct siting
spring, autumn and winter. of building will provide
shelter and improve
BUILDING FORM passive solar gains
Design first for minimal heat loss and then
consider solar improvements. But remember that
fabric heat loss is only one element of the total
energy consumption of a building. Building form
should be integrated with other factors such as
solar gain and daylighting.
Factors that can reduce heat loss include:
■ terraced units
■ a compact building shape
■ enclosed porches and external draught lobbies.
Figure 3 Correct use of space
To maximise solar gains, bedrooms and communal maximises use of daylight
living areas should be south-facing. Service areas, while minimising heat loss
eg stairways and kitchens, should generally be on
the north façade. ✓ ✗
A long thin room with the short wall to the
exterior minimises heat loss, but a shallow
plan room with a wide external wall can
enjoy more daylight. A compromise
solution is to use the former shape and
locate areas requiring daylight, such as desk
space, adjacent to the window.
CONSERVATORIES
Conservatories can provide pleasant and popular additional space, particularly in
care homes.
However, they should not be heated. They should have high levels of insulation
and double glazing with low emissivity coatings, and should be separated from
other living spaces by doors to avoid excessive heat loss in winter.
Although conservatories can provide useful solar gain, they are not in general
energy saving features.
7

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Figure 4 Raising the position
of windows increases the
penetration of daylight
ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
PASSIVE DESIGN
SOLAR GAIN
Shading should be provided where glare and
overheating may be a problem, for example in
conservatories or highly glazed communal living
areas. External shading on south façades can cut
out high summer sun and allow low winter sun to
enter the building. But in most cases internal
blinds will provide an adequate solution.
✓
A more detailed analysis of the required window
area is available in the CIBSE Window Applications
Manual[6] and the Lighting and
Thermal (LT) Method[7].
✗
DAYLIGHTING
Daylighting reduces lighting costs and provides
a pleasant environment. The need for sufficient
window area, however, must be balanced against
the desire for privacy. If residents feel exposed in
a room they may draw curtains and switch on
lights, causing energy consumption to rise. Venetian
blinds can aid privacy while still admitting daylight.
Raising the height of the window head increases
penetration of daylight, and splaying the window
reveals can enhance its distribution. If the reveals
are light-coloured they can also reduce glare.
Glazing below normal sill height (0.8-1.0 m) Figure 5 Shading
provides little useful daylight and can severely should be provided in
affect privacy. heavily glazed areas
Rooflights can improve daylighting in rooms and
corridors on top floors. This is particularly useful
for internal bathrooms, kitchens and large rooms
where more light may be needed than can be
provided by windows.
8
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
4 INSULATION AND FABRIC ISSUES
INSULATING THE BUILDING ENVELOPE
As part of an integrated energy efficient design, all
exposed (and semi-exposed) elements should be
insulated to produce a fully insulated building
envelope. Attention should be paid to avoiding
thermal bridging (see page 10).
Further information on insulation and its
installation is provided in the DOE’s Good Practice
Guides[8].
EXTERNAL WALLS
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Filling cavity walls with insulation is one of the
most cost-effective options. Fully filled cavity walls
will resist rain penetration except in very severe
exposure areas, mainly found in the west of
Britain. Maps are available which divide the UK
into zones according to exposure to wind-driven
rain. It is important to take local conditions
into account and calculate a driving rain index
using BS8104[9]. Further guidance on whether
walls are suitable for cavity fill can be found in the
DOE’s Good Practice Guide 26, ‘Cavity wall
insulation in existing housing’[10].
Timber framed constructions can be well insulated
at low cost. Other constructions, such as partial fill
and wide internal insulating blockwork, can produce
well-insulated walls although costs may be higher.
Constructions other than fully filled cavities should
allow a minimum 50 mm clear residual cavity.
Care should be taken to avoid insulation products
made with ozone-depleting chemicals (page 3).
ROOFS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS
For pitched roofs, at least 200 mm of insulation is
recommended, laid in two layers, one between the
joists and the second across the joists to prevent
thermal bridging. A gap at the eaves allows
ventilation and prevents condensation. If
necessary, battens should be used to raise access
walkways above the insulation.
For most types of flooring, insulation of 100 mm
thickness gives a good standard. A method for the
calculation of ground floor U-values is given in
BRE IP 3/90[11].
Care homes
Care homes and sheltered accommodation are likely to have heating switched on
for long periods. The building should therefore be highly insulated. This will
greatly reduce fuel bills and help to ensure comfortable conditions for occupants[12].
Student accommodation
The heating pattern in student accommodation may be intermittent and
therefore it should be possible to heat the room quickly. A lightweight form of
construction will improve the thermal responsiveness of the building.
WINDOWS
The Building Regulations set acceptable window
areas as a percentage of floor area. Window areas
can be increased, but higher performance windows
will then be required, incurring higher costs.
Gaps of up to 20 mm between panes are
recommended in double glazed units to minimise
heat loss. However, the larger the gap the higher the
cost of the window, and gaps of 12 mm usually
provide an acceptable level of thermal insulation.
When selecting double glazing, specify:
■ units to BS 6262 fitted in accordance with the
Glass and Glazing Federation Manual[13].
■ units ‘kite marked’ to BS 5713
■ trickle ventilators in the top of the frame
(unless full mechanical ventilation is
provided)
■ thermal breaks, if metal frames
are used
■ draughtstripped frames
appropriate for the
exposure rating.
Figure 6 Good
insulation levels
are essential in
an energy efficient
building
9
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

INSULATION AND FABRIC ISSUES

Care homes
Day rooms with large areas of wall and roof glazing are present in many care
homes. As these rooms are usually heated and constantly occupied it is worth
considering installing a higher standard of glazing to improve thermal
performance and the comfort of residents[12].
THERMAL BRIDGING
Heat loss from thermal bridging occurs where one
element of a building is more poorly insulated, and
thus colder, than the other parts. Thermal bridges
are also associated with condensation. This usually
occurs around windows, doors, and at the
junctions between external walls, floors and roofs.

It is best to avoid thermal bridging by maintaining

Insulation not continuity of insulation. Where this is not possible:
pushed down ■ overlap the insulating layers to prevent a direct
thermal bridge
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Blockwork closer omitted ■ use a material with good insulating properties

• to bridge the gap between the layers.

Further information is available in the NHBC guide

‘Thermal insulation and ventilation’[14]; the BRE
✗ publication ‘Thermal insulation: avoiding risks’[15];
the DOE’s Good Practice Guide 174 ‘Minimising
• thermal bridging in new dwellings’[16]; and a DOE
series of detail guides[8].

✓ AIR LEAKAGE
Background air leakage should be minimised and
controllable ventilation provided by means of
Figure 7 Good detailing is purpose-designed openings (see page 15).
important to avoid thermal bridging
The main air leakage paths in dwellings are:
■ joints around components, eg windows
Typical air leakage ■ gaps between one building element and another
paths ■ holes where services pass through the
construction.

Care should be taken to ensure that these areas are

well sealed.

Further information on avoiding air leakage is

provided in the DOE’s detail guides[8].

Figure 8 Good detailing is needed to avoid excessive air leakage

10
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

5 HEATING

FUEL CHOICE On the other hand it cannot respond quickly to

The choice of fuel for heating must be considered changes in solar gains and, even using off-peak BILLING
at the initial planning stage and will be based on tariffs, heating costs can be higher than with gas The arrangements for
the fuels available on site. The level of CO2 and systems. In addition, the thermal charge can be billing will influence the
other emissions, capital cost, plant maintenance depleted too quickly if the manual controls are not plant installed. For
and running costs over the life of the building understood, a secondary (usually on-peak) electric example, where residents
must also be considered. system is usually required, and the storage units will be billed for fuel
can be quite large. directly it may be more
Where mains gas is not available, oil – likely to be appropriate to install
comparable in running cost – should be considered. On-peak electric non-storage heating should be individual systems in each
Some advantages and disadvantages of the various used only in well insulated rooms occupied for unit. Where occupants are
types of heat emitters used with gas-fired and short periods. not billed for heating and
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oil-fired wet systems are listed in table 3. If the
base load of the development is large enough,
combined heat and power (CHP) plant may be
considered[17]. A community heating system may
be an efficient and cost-effective option.
hot water, such as in care
Heating systems must be sized to meet reasonable homes, centralised plant
maximum demand using one of the proven heat may be a more efficient
loss calculation methods. Oversizing leads to option.
inefficient operation and unnecessary capital cost.

Electrical heating equipment is cheap to install and
maintain, but running costs and environmental
impact reduce its attractions. However, in some
circumstances it may be a viable option. As well as
its low capital cost, ease of installation and low
maintenance requirements, electric storage heating
needs no central plant and billing residents is easy.
Whichever system is chosen, it is important to
ensure that the controls are accessible and easily
understood by those operating them.
Further information on choosing a heating system
can be obtained from the DOE’s Good Practice
Guide 182[18].

Advantages Disadvantages

Radiators ■ Flexible layout of boiler and ■ Care must be taken to ensure that
emitters touch temperatures are not too
■ Relatively cheap to install high. (Particularly important in care
■ Low maintenance homes as the elderly are more
■ Occupants familiar with system susceptible to burns)
from domestic use

Finned tube ■ Take up relatively little space ■ Units prone to damage

■ Provide an even distribution
of heat
■ Higher temperature water utilised
■ Fan assisted units can provide
increased heat dissipation

Underfloor ■ Provides even distribution of heat ■ Slow to respond to temperature

■ No risk of damage by occupant control
■ No restriction on room layout ■ Expensive to install
■ Low water and touch temperatures ■ A leak can cause extensive damage

Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of alternative emitters for wet heating systems

11
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
HEATING
Care homes
Space heating in care homes can be in use for up to 24 hours per day during the
heating season. The additional capital cost of providing this heat as efficiently as
possible, by installing condensing boilers for example, can often be recouped in
5 years through reductions in fuel bills[12].
HEATING PLANT
Whether heating and domestic hot water is
supplied from a central boiler house or a series of
local decentralised units will depend on site
characteristics and other factors (see table 4).
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Boilers can be categorised as conventional, high-
efficiency or condensing. The Boiler (Efficiency)
Regulations 1993[19] set minimum efficiencies for
new boilers with a capacity of between 4 and 400 kW.
From the end of 1997 all new boilers within this
range must be either high-efficiency or condensing.
High-efficiency boilers are well suited for:
■ constant high temperature systems
■ systems with short heating periods
■ use as lag boilers on multi-boiler installations
where condensing models serve as lead boilers.
Advantages
Central boiler house ■ Easy maintenance as there is only one
main plant area
■ Provides flexibility to run multiple boiler
installation at near 100% output giving good
operating efficiencies
■ Possibility of heat recovery or CHP
installation
■ Simplified fuel supply
Decentralised boilers ■ No main boiler house and associated flue
required
■ Small boilers make less noise and usually do
not need forced ventilation
■ Increased user control to determine on/off
times of heating system
■ Failures create only local disruption
Table 4 Centralised or decentralised systems
12
Most boilers lose efficiency when operated at part
load. The solution is correct sizing and, instead of
a single large boiler, the use of multiple, smaller
units which improves system reliability by
enabling some heating to be supplied if one boiler
fails. If multiple boilers are used, the lead boiler
should be condensing.
Condensing boilers are also suitable for single
boiler installations and for variable or low
temperature circuits, particularly if the return water
temperature is less than 55˚C.
COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP)
CHP offers a very efficient way of producing
heat and electricity. To provide an acceptable
financial payback, however, requires a fairly
continuous accessible heating requirement and
electricity demand. This may only be achievable
for some large care homes and sheltered
housing. It may also be viable in buildings
which are part of a larger site.
Disadvantages
■ Failure could cause major disruption
■ Increased capital costs for boiler house etc
■ Increased capital costs due to larger pipework
distribution
■ Less control for local user
■ Additional plant room space (cupboards etc)
for zone control
■ Energy loss from distribution mains and
additional pump power
■ Difficult to meter the supply for individual
payment
■ Individual fuel supplies must be provided
■ Large number of units to service
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

HEATING

Applications that encourage the boilers to condense

and achieve higher operating efficiency include:
Condensing
■ weather compensated radiator circuits 100
■ underfloor heating systems.
High

Boiler efficiency (%)

efficiency
Detailed information on condensing boilers is
70
provided in CIBSE Applications Manual AM3[20].

DOMESTIC HOT WATER

Domestic hot water (DHW) is likely to be a major
50
energy user in multi-residential buildings, and
plant sizing must be based on a realistic hot water
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usage profile. This will involve an evaluation of the

daily and annual usage pattern.
The main options for DHW production are:
■ centralised production combined with the
space heating system
■ centralised production separate from space
heating
■ localised production with some storage
■ localised instantaneous hot water production
with no storage.
Alternatively, if space heating is decentralised and the
individual boilers are relatively small, a combination
boiler may be the most efficient method of providing
heating and hot water. It may also be worth
considering a hybrid system. For example, if there
are very long pipe runs it may be more efficient to
install instantaneous DHW heaters in those areas
while retaining centralised production elsewhere.
HEATING CONTROLS
An energy efficient heating system will realise its
potential only if the control regime is appropriate,
understood and used. Simple control systems often
provide a more efficient solution than more complex
arrangements. Basic points to be addressed before
a system is designed include:
■ the level of automation required
■ user access to, and understanding of, controls
■ the level of centralised control required.
A timer/programmer is now required by Building
Regulations. The programmer may give the option
of night set-back, which allows the space or water
temperature to fall to a specified minimum during
the night.
25 50 75 100
Boiler load (%)
Figure 9 Performance
of condensing and high
efficiency boilers
LEGIONNAIRE’S DISEASE
Attention must be given to avoiding the risk
of Legionella when designing hot and cold
water services. This is particularly relevant for
care homes, where occupants may be more
susceptible. The Health and Safety Executive
recommends:
■ hot water storage (calorifiers) at 60˚C
■ hot water delivered to the tap at 50˚C
within one minute
■ cold water storage and distribution
below 20˚C.
For further information see ‘The control of
legionellosis including legionnaire’s disease’[21].
Care homes A hot water temperature of above 50˚C at the tap prevents the proliferation of
Legionella (see above), but it can present a risk of scalding to the elderly.
It is recommended that fail safe, thermostatically controlled mixing valves are
used. These valves are not affected by changes in water pressure and will shut off
the hot water supply if the cold water pressure drops. This will allow the hot
water system to operate at above 50˚C while allowing lower temperatures to be
delivered at the tap, where 43˚C is recommended to avoid the risk of scalding.

13
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

HEATING

Student accommodation Installing optimised start control can produce

The intermittent heating pattern of student accommodation requires controls savings, although the main purpose is to improve
to be very responsive, so that students can obtain heat almost immediately on comfort. The control monitors internal and
entering the room. This can be achieved by fitting TRVs to radiators. The external temperatures and turns the heating
problem, as far as energy efficiency is concerned, is to ensure that the heating system on so that the building reaches the desired
is turned down again when the student leaves the room. Heating control temperature at the appropriate time.
systems which respond automatically to room occupancy are available and
may be appropriate in this type of accommodation. Zone controls allow heating to be adjusted in
response to solar gain and usage patterns in

Care homes
different areas of a building.

Primary control can be achieved by wall-mounted

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Heating in care homes will usually be centralised. Staff will generally be thermostats, averaging several units through an
responsible for adjusting the heating system in response to residents’ requests. intelligent controller or building energy
Some local temperature control, such as room thermostats or TRVs, may be management system (BEMS). Secondary local
worthwhile for extra control[12]. control relies on thermostatic radiator valves
(TRVs) or dampers for finned tube emitters.

More information on controls can be obtained

KEY from DOE and CIBSE documents[22,23].
Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 3

Figure 10 Areas with different

usage can be zoned to allow
different heating patterns

Basic control Additional items

Energy use Basic specification Higher specification
strategy to consider

Time controls Time switch Time switch and optimised start Frost and condensation protection
Occupancy sensors

Temperature Weather compensation Weather compensation Averaging thermostats via central

controls Room thermostat for a single zone TRVs or room thermostats to controller
Heating provide some zone control Zone control in each room

Boiler controls Boiler thermostat Boiler thermostat

Boiler interlock Boiler interlock, Night set-back
Sequencing control on multiple
centralised boilers

Temperature Thermostat Thermostat

controls
Hot water
Time controls Time switch Time switch

Table 5 Options for control of heating systems

14
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
VENTILATION
Effective ventilation is best provided by reducing
air leakage (as discussed on page 10) and by
installing purpose-designed openings over which
there is some control.
Overall ventilation rates of between 0.5 and 1 air
change per hour (ach) are recommended for
residential accommodation. These rates can be
achieved by using trickle vents to all external
window frames, with PSV systems or extract fans
in kitchens and bathrooms. Alternatively, whole
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building ventilation systems with heat recovery
can be used.
Air tightness of the structure should be
tested. Maximum air tightness rates of 10 ach
with trickle vents closed, at 50 pascals, should
be specified.
PASSIVE STACK VENTILATION
In many cases adequate ventilation can be
achieved at low capital cost by passive stack
ventilation, an arrangement of ducts running from
kitchens and bathrooms to vents on the roof. This
reduces the need for extract fans, thereby reducing
electricity consumption.
The ducts extract air by the stack effect, the
upward movement of air caused by the
temperature inside the building being higher than
that outside, and the suction caused by wind flows
over the roof. Fresh air enters the building via
trickle ventilators and other openings.
Figure 11 Passive
stack ventilation
For further information, refer to BRE IP13/94[24]
6 VENTILATION
EXTRACT FANS AND CONTROLS
Humidistat-controlled extract fans turn on
automatically as humidity rises, so keeping levels
down to an acceptable level (less than 70% relative
humidity). Fans in internal bathrooms must also
operate automatically when the light is switched
on, and run for 15 minutes after switch-off. Some
fans incorporate a 30-second delay on the lighting
control; these can save energy, because the fan
may not be needed following brief occupancy.
Extract fans should be appropriately sized for the
application and located:
■ as high as possible in the room
■ close to the source of the pollution or moisture
■ as far as possible from the source of fresh air.
WHOLE HOUSE VENTILATION WITH HEAT
RECOVERY
In whole house ventilation systems, fresh air is
distributed via a duct system throughout the
dwelling with air being extracted by fans from
kitchens, bathrooms and WCs. A heat exchanger
is usually incorporated to extract heat from the
exhaust air and warm the incoming air. A well
sealed dwelling is essential.
Savings in space heating can be offset by the cost
of electricity required to run the fans. Maintenance
costs may be significant[25] and system failure
may have serious consequences if there is no
passive ventilation back-up. However, whole house
mechanical ventilation reduces the risk of
condensation if well installed and maintained.
Figure 12 Whole
house ventilation
with heat recovery
Further details can be obtained from BRE Digest 398[26]
15
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
7 LIGHTING
LIGHTING
Lighting can form a sizeable part of total fuel costs.
It is therefore important to reduce the energy
consumed by the lighting system.
Key areas to address when considering lighting
installation are:
■ the use of daylighting (page 8)
■ lighting design
■ luminaire and lamp choice
■ lighting controls.
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LIGHTING DESIGN
Careful consideration is needed to balance the
functional needs of the user with the aesthetics of
the space. The three different types of lighting
commonly referred to by designers are general, task
and atmospheric (decorative) lighting. Matching
the type of lighting to the room requirements can
help reduce energy use.
Further information can be obtained
from the CIBSE Code for
interior lighting[27].
Figure 13 Lighting controls should allow different
areas of the room to be controlled separately
16
LAMP AND LUMINAIRE
(LIGHT FITTING) CHOICE
The Building Regulations require 95% of the
lighting load to use energy efficient lamps, but
luminaires should be selected to distribute the
light effectively.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Choosing appropriate controls should ensure that
artificial lighting is used only where and when it
is required.
Options include:
■ manual switching
■ photocell control
■ time zone
■ dimming
■ occupancy sensors
■ key fob switches.
Waste can be avoided by ensuring that every light
point has an independent, easily identifiable
switch. In particular, separate switches should be
provided for lights close to windows.
If safety permits, push-button switches should be
used in cupboards and corridors where lights are
frequently left on unnecessarily. Generally,
fluorescent tubes should be switched off for
periods of absence of 5 minutes or longer, and
compact fluorescent lights for 15 minutes or
longer. For this reason they should not be linked to
controls which will give frequent switching. In
bedrooms, switches should be provided near beds.
For more information on choosing luminaires,
lamps and control systems, see Good Practice
Guide 199[28].
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
8 CONSTRUCTION AND HANDOVER
CONSTRUCTION AND HANDOVER
Only when the well designed and constructed
building has been correctly handed over will the
full energy efficiency of the project be realised.
The design documents should provide the
contractor with both technical guidance on the
installation and the operating intent and rationale
of any novel features in the design.
Provision must be made for inspection and testing.
It is difficult to carry out remedial work to bring a
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failed building up to meet its targets, and early
identification and correction of potential problems
is vital.
COMMISSIONING
Infiltration rate tests and infrared thermographic
surveys enable straightforward and accurate
checking of the design and construction standard
of any heated building.
It is preferable to commission many aspects of a
building when it is in use. This allows systems to be
tailored more closely to the requirements of users.
AS-BUILT INFORMATION
Changes are often made to the detailed design of
a building during construction. These must be
documented to provide a complete and accurate
‘as-built’ record. This is required for operating the
building effectively, and becomes essential when
refurbishing or altering.
Comprehensive and accessible manuals are
required for each aspect of a building and its
services. The components installed and the
operating instructions and standard control
settings for all services equipment must be clearly
and accurately communicated. Cross referencing
with layout and schematic drawings is also
required to aid full understanding of the
design intent.
17
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS

FURTHER INFORMATION

The Building Research Establishment Energy Design Advice Scheme (North)

Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM)
Developed by the Building Research Establishment,
BREEAM is a method of assessing the
environmental quality of residential buildings. It
aims to reduce undesirable effects on the
environment at a minimum net cost to the builder.
A description of the assessment method and the
environmental criteria used is given in
‘Environmental Standard: homes for a greener world’
(BR 278), CRC Publications (tel 01923 664444).
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University of Sheffield, PO Box 595, Floor 13
The Arts Tower, Sheffield S10 2TN
Tel 01142 721140. Fax 01142 720676
Energy Design Advice Scheme (South)
The Bartlett School, University College London
Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT
Tel 0171 916 3891. Fax 0171 916 3892
Energy Design Advice Scheme
University of Ulster at Jordanstown

Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland

Energy Design Advice Scheme (EDAS)
EDAS, funded by the Department of Trade and
Industry, aims to improve the energy and
environmental performance of building stock by
making low energy building design expertise more
accessible. For details contact one of the regional
centres listed on the right.
Tel/fax 01232 364090
Energy Design Advice Scheme
Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland
15 Rutland Square, Edinburgh EH1 2BE
Tel 0131 228 4414. Fax 0131 228 2188
Glass and Glazing Federation
44-48 Borough High Street, London SE1 1XB
Tel 0171 403 7177

REFERENCES

[1] Department of the Environment. Energy [5] Building Research Establishment.

[2]
[3]
*This document is available,
priced £35, from CRC Publications
(tel 01923 664444). It should be used
[4]
in conjunction with the 12 sun-on-
ground indicators contained in BRE
folder AP60, priced £10, also from
CRC Publications.
efficient refurbishment of existing housing.
Good Practice Guide 155 (GPG 155). London,
DOE, 1995
Department of the Environment.
Briefing the design team for energy efficiency
in new buildings. Good Practice Guide 74
(GPG 74). London, DOE, 1994
Department of the Environment.
Energy efficiency in new housing. Low
energy design for housing associations. Good
Practice Guide 79 (GPG 79). London, DOE,
1993
Department of the Environment. The
Government’s Standard Assessment Procedure
for energy rating of dwellings. London,
DOE, 1993
Site layout planning for daylight and sunlight:
a guide for good practice. BR 209. Garston,
BRE, 1991.*
[6] Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers. Window Applications
Manual. London, CIBSE, 1987
[7] Cambridge Architectural Research Ltd.
The LT method version 2.0. Cambridge,
Cambridge Architectural Research Ltd, 1994
[8] Department of the Environment.
Detailing for designers and building
professionals. Good Practice Guide nos 93-97
(GPG 93-97). London, DOE, 1993
[9] British Standards Institute. Code of
practice for assessing exposure of walls to
wind driven rain. BS8104. BSI, 1992

18
 ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS
[10] Department of the Environment.
Cavity wall insulation in existing housing.
Good Practice Guide 26 (GPG 26). London,
DOE, 1993
[11] Building Research Establishment.
The U-value of ground floors: application
to Building Regulations. BRE IP 3/90. Garston,
BRE, 1990
[12] Department of the Environment. Energy
consumption guide for nursing and residential
homes. Energy Consumption Guide 57
(ECON 57). London, DOE, 1996
Licensed copy from CIS: atkins, Atkins Plc, 23/02/2018, Uncontrolled Copy.
[13] Glass and Glazing Federation. Glass and
Glazing Federation Manual. London, GGF
[14] National House-Building Council. Good
Practice Guide: thermal insulation and
ventilation. London, NHBC, 1991.
[15] Building Research Establishment.
Thermal insulation – avoiding risks (second
edition). BRE 262. Garston, BRE, 1994.
[16] Department of the Environment.
Minimising thermal bridging in new
buildings. Good Practice Guide 174 (GPG 174).
London, DOE, 1996
[17] Department of the Environment. Small-
scale combined heat and power for buildings.
Good Practice Guide 176 (GPG 176). London,
DOE, 1996
[18] Department of the Environment.
Heating system option appraisal – a manager’s
guide. Good Practice Guide 182 (GPG 182).
London, DOE, 1996
[19] The Boiler (Efficiency) Regulations. No. 3083,
energy conservation. London, HMSO, 1993
[20] Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers. Applications manual 3:
condensing boilers. AM3. London, CIBSE, 1989
[21] Health and Safety Executive. The control
of legionellosis including legionnaire’s disease.
HS(G) 70. Sheffield, HSE, 1991
REFERENCES
[22] Department of the Environment.
Controls and energy savings. Fuel Efficiency
Booklet 10 (FEB 10). London, DOE, 1993
[23] Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers. Applications manual
AMI. London, CIBSE, 1985
[24] Building Research Establishment. Passive
stack ventilation systems: design and
installation. BRE IP13/94. Garston, BRE, 1994.
[25] Department of the Environment. New
low energy multi-residential accommodation.
New Practice Final Report 80 (NPFR 80).
London, DOE, 1995
[26] Building Research Establishment.
Continuous mechanical ventilation in
dwellings: design, installation and operation.
BRE Digest 398. Garston, BRE, 1994
[27] Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers. Code for interior
lighting. London, CIBSE, 1994
[28] Department of the Environment. Energy
efficient lighting – a guide for installers.
Good Practice Guide 199 (GPG 199). London,
DOE, 1996
FURTHER READING
Guides listed on these pages from the Department
of the Environment’s Energy Efficiency Best
Practice programme are available from BRECSU
(contact details on back cover).
Good Practice Guide
73 Energy efficient house design – exploiting
solar energy
General Information Report
27 Passive solar estate layout
19
Licensed copy from CIS: atkins, Atkins Plc, 23/02/2018, Uncontrolled Copy.

The Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice programme provides impartial, Energy Consumption Guides: compare energy use in
authoritative information on energy efficiency techniques and technologies in industry and specific processes, operations, plant and building types.
buildings. This information is disseminated through publications, videos and software,
Good Practice: promotes proven energy-efficient techniques
together with seminars, workshops and other events. Publications within the Best Practice
through Guides and Case Studies.
programme are shown opposite.
New Practice: monitors first commercial applications of new
Visit the website at www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk energy efficiency measures.
Call the Environment and Energy Helpline on 0800 585794
Future Practice: reports on joint R&D ventures into new
For further specific information on: energy efficiency measures.
Buildings-related projects contact: Industrial projects contact:
General Information: describes concepts and approaches
Enquiries Bureau Energy Efficiency Enquiries Bureau yet to be fully established as good practice.
BRECSU ETSU
Fuel Efficiency Booklets: give detailed information on
BRE Harwell, Oxfordshire
specific technologies and techniques.
Garston, Watford WD25 9XX OX11 0RA
Tel 01923 664258 Tel 01235 436747 Introduction to Energy Efficiency: helps new energy managers
Fax 01923 664787 Fax 01235 433066 understand the use and costs of heating, lighting, etc.
E-mail brecsuenq@bre.co.uk E-mail etsuenq@aeat.co.uk © CROWN COPYRIGHT FIRST PRINTED MARCH 1997