Chapter 10 Endocrine System

Chapter 10
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Table 10.1
Classes of Chemical Messengers

Chemical Messenger Description Example
Autocrine Secreted by cells in a local Eicosanoids
area; influences the activity (prostaglandins,
of the same cell or cell type thromboxanes, prostacyclins,
from which it was secreted leukotrienes) Chemical messenger
Autocrine
Paracrine Produced by a wide variety Somatostatin, histamine,

of tissues and secreted into eicosanoids
extracellular fluid; has a Chemical messenger
localized effect on other tissues
Paracrine
Neurotransmitter Produced by neurons; Acetylcholine, epinephrine

secreted into a synaptic cleft
by presynaptic nerve terminals;
travels short distances;
influences postsynaptic cells
Neuron Neurotransmitter
Endocrine Secreted into the blood by Thyroid hormones,

specialized cells; travels some growth hormone, insulin,
distance to target tissues; epinephrine, estrogen,
results in coordinated progesterone, testosterone,
regulation of cell function prostaglandins Hormone
Endocrine
Figure 10.1
Pineal
gland
Pituitary
Parathyroids
Thyroid (posterior
part of
thyroid)
Thymus
Adrenals Pancreas
(islets)
Ovaries
(female) Testes
(male)
Figure 10.2
PTH
Low Increased
blood blood
Ca2+ Ca2+
Endocrine cell
when blood
Osteoclast
Ca2+ is too low
No PTH
secretion
High
Decreased
blood
blood
Ca2+
Ca2+
Endocrine cell
when blood
Ca2+ is too high
Figure 10.3
Neuron
An action potential
(AP) in a neuron
innervating an
endocrine cell
stimulates secretion
of a stimulatory
neurotransmitter.
The endocrine cell AP

secretes its hormone
into the blood where
it will travel to its
target.
Stimulatory
neurotransmitter
Endocrine cell
Hormone Capillary
secreted
Figure 10.4
Stimulatory
Hypothalamus
Releasing hormone
Anterior pituitary
Posterior pituitary
Hormone
Target Target
endocrine
cell
Hormone
Neurons in the hypothalamus release stimulatory hormones, called

releasing hormones. Releasing hormones travel in the blood to the
anterior pituitary gland.
Releasing hormones stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior

pituitary, which travel in the blood to their target endocrine cell.
The target endocrine cell secretes its hormone into the blood, where
it travels to its target and produces a response.
Figure 10.5
Negative feedback by hormones Positive feedback by hormones
Anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary
Tropic hormone Tropic hormone
Negative Positive
feedback feedback
Target Target
Target endocrine Target endocrine
cell cell
Hormone Hormone
The anterior pituitary gland secretes a tropic hormone, which travels in The anterior pituitary gland secretes a tropic hormone, which travels in
the blood to the target endocrine cell. the blood to the target endocrine cell.
The hormone from the target endocrine cell travels to its target. The hormone from the target endocrine cell travels to its target.
The hormone from the target endocrine cell also has a The hormone from the target endocrine cell also has a
negative-feedback effect on the anterior pituitary and positive-feedback effect on the anterior pituitary and increases
hypothalamus and decreases secretion of the tropic hormone. secretion of the tropic hormone.
Figure 10.6
Hormone 1 Hormone 2
Capillary
Circulating
Hormone 2
blood
Hormone 1 cannot bind to
bound to this receptor
its receptor
Hormone 1
receptor
Target cell
for hormone 1
Figure 10.7
Water-soluble hormone
(glucagon, prolactin)
Lipid-soluble hormone Membrane-bound receptor
(thyroid or steroid)
G protein
complex
Cellular ATP Adenylate
responses cyclase
cAMP
Nucleus Protein
kinase
Hormone
Nuclear
receptor
DNA Cellular responses
Figure 10.8
Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through

the cell membrane.
Lipid-soluble
Cell
hormone
Lipid-soluble hormones either bind to membrane
cytoplasmic receptors and travel to the
nucleus or bind to nuclear receptors.
The hormone-receptor complex binds

to a hormone-response element on the Nuclea
DNA, acting as a transcription factor.
rmembrane
Ribosome
The binding of the hormone-receptor
complex to DNA stimulates the
synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA),
which codes for specific proteins.
Nuclear receptor
The mRNA leaves the nucleus, passes Hormone-receptor complex
mRNA
into the cytoplasm of the cell, and binds
to ribosomes, where it directs the
synthesis of specific proteins. DNA
Hormone-
The newly synthesized proteins
response mRNA synthesis
produce the cell's response to the
element
lipid-soluble hormones—for example,
the secretion of the new protein.
Proteins produced
mRNA
Nuclear pore
Figure 10.9
Water-soluble hormone binds to its receptor.
Receptor
γ β α γ β α
GDP GTP
GTP replaces
GDP on α subunit. GDP
Before the hormone binds to its receptor, the G protein consists of After the hormone binds to its membrane-bound receptor, the receptor
three subunits, with GDP attached to the α subunit, and freely floats changes shape, and the G protein binds to it. GTP replaces GDP on the
in the cell membrane. α subunit of the G protein.
bound to its receptor.
separates from its receptor.
Receptor
γ β α γ β α
GTP Phosphate (Pi) GDP

G protein is removed from
separates α subunit separates GTP on α subunit.
from receptor from other subunits. Pi
The G protein separates from the receptor. The GTP-linked When the hormone separates from the receptor, additional G proteins are
α subunit activates cellular responses, which vary among no longer activated. Inactivation of the α subunit occurs when phosphate (Pi)
target cells. is removed from the GTP, leaving GDP bound to the α subunit.
Figure 10.10
After a water-soluble hormone binds to its Water-soluble hormone

receptor, the G protein is activated. bound to its receptor.
The activated subunit, with GTP bound to it, binds to

and activates an adenylate cyclase enzyme so that it
converts ATP to cAMP.
The cAMP can activate protein kinase enzymes,

which phosphorylate specific enzymes activating γ β α
them. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the
activated enzymes produce the cell's response.
GTP
Phosphodiesterase enzymes inactivate cAMP Adenylate cyclase
by converting cAMP to AMP.
ATP
cAMP
Phosphodiesterase
inactivates cAMP.
cAMP is an
Protein intracellular mediator AMP
kinase that activates protein (inactive)
kinases.
Cellular responses
Figure 10.11
Hormone
Receptor
Activated
G proteins
Activated
adenylate
cyclase
cAMP
Activated protein
kinase enzymes
Figure 10.12
Hypothalamus
Third
Optic
ventricle
chiasm
Pituitary
Infundibulum gland
Sella turcica
of sphenoid
bone
Figure 10.12 Contd.
Hypothalamic
nerve cell
Bone
Posterior Anterior
pituitary pituitary Growth
hormone (GH)
Antidiuretic
hormone Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal
(ADH) hormone (ACTH) cortex
Kidney
Thyroid-
tubules
stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Oxytocin
Thyroid
Gonadotropic
gland
hormones
(FSH and LH)
Melanocyte-
Uterus
Prolactin stimulating
smooth
hormone
muscle
Testis
Ovary
Mammary Mammary
glands glands Skin
Table 10.2
Endocrine Glands, Hormones, and Their Target Tissues

Gland Hormone Target Tissue Response
Pituitary gland
Anterior Growth hormone Most tissues Increases gene expression, breakdown of lipids, and
release of fatty acids from cells; increases blood
glucose levels
Thyroid-stimulating hormone Thyroid gland Increases thyroid hormone secretion (thyroxine and
(TSH) triiodothyronine)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Adrenal cortex Increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones,

(ACTH) such as cortisol; increases skin pigmentation at
high concentrations
Melanocyte-stimulating Melanocytes in skin Increases melanin production in melanocytes to make

hormone (MSH) skin darker in color
Luteinizing hormone (LH) or Ovary in females, testis in males Promotes ovulation and progesterone production in
interstitial cell–stimulating ovary; promotes testosterone synthesis and support
hormone (ICSH) for sperm cell production in testis
Follicle-stimulating hormone Follicles in ovary in females, Promotes follicle maturation and estrogen secretion
(FSH) seminiferous tubules in males in ovary; promotes sperm cell production in testis
Prolactin Ovary and mammary gland in Stimulates milk production and prolongs progesterone
females, testis in males secretion following ovulation and during pregnancy
in women; increases sensitivity to LH in males
Posterior Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Kidney Conserves water; constricts blood vessels
Oxytocin Uterus Increases uterine contractions
Mammary gland Increases milk letdown from mammary glands
Thyroid gland Thyroid hormones Most cells of the body Increase metabolic rates, essential for normal process
(thyroxine, triiodothyronine) of growth and maturation
Calcitonin Primarily bone Decreases rate of bone breakdown; prevents large

increase in blood Ca2+ levels following a meal
Table 10.2 Contd.
Parathyroid glands Parathyroid hormone Bone, kidney Increases rate of bone breakdown by osteoclasts;
increases vitamin D synthesis, essential for
maintenance of normal blood calcium levels
Adrenal medulla Epinephrine mostly, Heart, blood vessels, Increases cardiac output; increases blood flow to
some norepinephrine liver,adipocytes skeletal muscles and heart; increases release of
glucose and fatty acids into blood; in general,
prepares body for physical activity
Adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids Kidneys; to lesser degree, intestine Increase rate of sodium transport into body; increase
(aldosterone) and sweat glands rate of potassium excretion; secondarily favor
water retention
Glucocorticoids (cortisol) Most tissues (e.g., liver, fat, skeletal Increase lipid and protein breakdown; increase
muscle, immune tissues) glucose synthesis from amino acids; increase blood
nutrient levels; inhibit inflammation and immune
response
Adrenal androgens Most tissues Insignificant in males; increase female sexual drive,
growth of pubic and axillary hair
Pancreas Insulin Especially liver, skeletal muscle, Increases uptake and use of glucose and amino acids
adipose tissue
Glucagon Primarily liver Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of

glucose into the circulatory system
Table 10.2 Contd.
Gland Hormone Target Tissue Response

Reproductive organs
Testes Testosterone Most tissues Aids in sperm cell production, maintenance of

functional reproductive organs, secondary sex
characteristics, sexual behavior
Ovaries Estrogens, progesterone Most tissues Aid in uterine and mammary gland development
and function, external genitalia structure,
secondary sex characteristics, sexual behavior,
menstrual cycle
Uterus, ovaries, Prostaglandins Most tissues Mediate inflammatory responses; increase uterine
inflamed tissues contractions and ovulation
Thymus Thymosin Immune tissues Promotes immune system development and function
Pineal gland Melatonin Among others, hypothalamus Inhibits secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone,
thereby inhibiting reproduction
Pineal gland
Figure 10.13
Stimuli from the

nervous system
Stimuli within the nervous system Hypothalamic

regulate the secretion of releasing neurons
hormones (green circles) and inhibiting
hormones (red circles) from neurons
of the hypothalamus.
Optic chiasm
Releasing hormones and inhibiting
hormones pass through the
hypothalamohypophysial portal Hypothalamohy- Artery
system to the anterior pituitary. pophysial portal
system
Releasing hormones and inhibiting Anterior pituitary
hormones (green and red circles) leave Releasing
capillaries and stimulate or inhibit the and
release of hormones (yellow squares) Anterior pituitary
inhibiting endocrine cell
from anterior pituitary cells. hormones
In response to releasing hormones,
anterior pituitary hormones (yellow squares) Posterior
travel in the blood to their target pituitary Vein
tissues (green arrow), which in some cases,
are other endocrine glands.
Stimulatory
Target tissue
or endocrine gland
Figure 10.14
Stimuli from the nervous system
Hypothalamic
Stimuli within the nervous system neurons in
cause hypothalamic neurons to supraoptic
either increase or decrease their nucleus
action potential frequency.
Action potentials are conducted by AP

axons of the hypothalamic neurons
through the hypothalamohypophysial
tract to the posterior pituitary. The Hypothalamo-
axon endings of neurons store hypophysial Optic
neurohormones in the posterior pituitary. tract chiasm
Posterior
In the posterior pituitary gland,
pituitary
action potentials cause the release
of neurohormones (blue circles) from Neurohormone
axon terminals into the circulatory
Anterior
system.
pituitary
The neurohormones pass through the

circulatory system and influence the Vein
activity of their target tissues.
Target tissue
Figure 10.15
Pharynx
Posterior aspect
of thyroid gland
Larynx
Parathyroid
Thyroid glands
Thyroid gland
Isthmus
Trachea Esophagus
Trachea
Anterior view Posterior view
Figure 10.15 Contd.
Thyroid follicle
(containing thyroglobulin)
C cells
Follicular cells
Thyroid follicles
Parafollicular
cell
Parathyroid
Parathyroid gland
cells
LM 100x
(d) ©Victor Eroschenko
Figure 10.16
Hypothermia
and other stressors
Stress and hypothermia cause TRH to be

released from neurons within the
hypothalamus. It passes through the
hypothalamohypophysial portal system to TRH
the anterior pituitary. Hypothalamus
TRH causes cells of the anterior pituitary

to secrete TSH, which passes through
the general circulation to the thyroid
gland. Hypothalamohypophysial
portal system
TSH causes increased synthesis and
release of T3 and T4 into the general
circulation.
Anterior
T3 and T4 act on target tissues to pituitary
produce a response.
TSH
T3 and T4 also have an inhibitory effect
on the secretion of TRH from the
hypothalamus and TSH from the anterior
pituitary.
Thyroid gland
T3 and T4
Stimulatory
T3 and T4 in target tissues:
• Increase metabolism
Inhibitory • Increase body temperature
• Increase normal growth and
development
Figure 10.17
Stimulus Response
Receptors and control

centers:
Parafollicular cells increase Effectors:
calcitonin secretion. Decreased bone
reabsorption and
Parathyroid gland decreased uptake
decreases PTH secretion. of Ca2+ from
intestine and
kidney result.
HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

Blood Ca2+ levels increase. Blood Ca2+ levels decrease.
(normal range)
(normal range)
Blood Ca2+
Blood Ca2+
Start here
Figure 10.17 Contd.

Blood Ca2+ levels decrease. Blood Ca2+ levels increase.
Stimulus Response
Receptors and control

centers:
Parafollicular cells decrease Effectors:
calcitonin secretion.
Increased bone
reabsorption and
Parathyroid gland increases
increased uptake of
PTH secretion.
Ca2+ from intestine
and kidney result.
Figure 10.18
Abdominal aorta
Adrenal gland
Adipose tissue
Renal artery
Adrenal
Renal vein
glands
Kidney
Ureter
Anterior view
Figure 10.18 Contd.
Connective
tissue capsule
Secretes
mineralocorticoids
Secretes
Cortex
glucocorticoids Cortex
Medulla
Adrenal
gland
Secretes
androgens
Secretes
epinephrine and Medulla
norepinephrine
LM 100x
(c) ©Victor Eroschenko
Figure 10.19
Stress, physical activity, and • Physical activity

low blood glucose levels act as • Low blood glucose
stimuli to the hypothalamus,
• Other stressors
resulting in increased
sympathetic nervous system
activity. Epinephrine and norepinephrine in the
target tissues:
Hypothalamus
• Increase the release of glucose
An increased frequency of
from the liver into the blood
action potentials conducted
• Increase the release of fatty acids
through the sympathetic
from adipose tissue into the blood
division of the autonomic
• Increase heart rate
nervous system stimulates the
• Decrease blood flow through blood
adrenal medulla to secrete
vessels of most internal organs
epinephrine and some Spinal • Increase blood flow through blood
norepinephrine into the cord Sympathetic vessels of skeletal muscle and the
circulatory system.
nerve fiber heart
• Increase blood pressure
Epinephrine and • Decrease the function of visceral
norepinephrine act on their organs
target tissues to produce • Increase the metabolic rate of
responses. skeletal muscles
Adrenal medulla
Figure 10.20
Increased blood
Stimulatory
K+ levels
or
decreased blood Blood vessels
Na+ levels constrict
Increased blood K+ levels or decreased

blood Na+ levels cause the adrenal cortex
to increase the secretion of aldosterone
into the general circulation. Angiotensin II
Converting
enzyme
The kidneys detect a decrease in blood
pressure. In response, they increase the
Angiotensin I
secretion of renin into the general Decreased blood
circulation. Renin converts angiotensinogen pressure
to angiotensin I. A converting enzyme Aldosterone
changes angiotensin I to angiotensin II, Renin
which causes constriction of blood vessels, Adrenal
resulting in increased blood pressure. cortex
Angiotensinogen
Kidney (from the liver)
Angiotensin II causes increased secretion of

aldosterone, which primarily affects the
• Na+ retention
kidneys.
• K+ excretion
• Decreased
water loss
Aldosterone stimulation of the kidneys

causes Na+ retention, K+ excretion, and
decreased water loss.
Figure 10.21
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is

released from hypothalamic neurons in Low blood glucose and other stressors
response to stress or low blood glucose
and passes, by way of the
hypothalamohypophysial portal system, to
the anterior pituitary.
CRH
In the anterior pituitary, CRH binds to and
stimulates cells that secrete Hypothalamus
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
ACTH binds to membrane-bound

receptors on cells of the adrenal cortex
and stimulates the secretion of Hypothalamohypophysial
glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol. portal system
Cortisol acts on target tissues, resulting in

increased lipid and protein breakdown, Anterior
increased glucose levels, and pituitary
anti-inflammatory effects.
ACTH
Cortisol has a negative-feedback effect
because it inhibits CRH release from the
hypothalamus and ACTH secretion from Cortisol
the anterior pituitary.
Adrenal cortex
(zona fasciculata)
Stimulatory Cortisol in the target tissues:

• Increases lipid and protein breakdown
• Increases blood glucose
Inhibitory • Has anti-inflammatory effects
Figure 10.22
Common bile
duct from liver
Pancreatic duct
Duodenum
(first part of Pancreas
small intestine)
Pancreas
Acini make up the

exocrine portion
of the pancreas, which
secretes enzymes that
Acini move through the ducts
to the small intestine.
Delta cell
Pancreatic (secretes
islets make somatostatin)
up the
endocrine Alpha cell
portion of the (secretes glucagon)
pancreas,
which Beta cell
secretes (secretes insulin)
hormones.
To pancreatic
duct and the
small intestine
LM 400x
To vein
(transports
hormones)
©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Table 10.3
Effects of Insulin and Glucagon on Target Tissues

Target Tissue Insulin Responses Glucagon Responses
Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, Increases glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis; Has little effect
cartilage, bone fibroblasts, increases uptake of amino acids
blood cells, mammary glands
Liver Increases glycogen synthesis; increases use of Causes rapid increase in the breakdown of glycogen
glucose for energy to glucose and release of glucose into the blood;
increases the formation of glucose from amino
acids and, to some degree, from lipids; increases
metabolism of fatty acids
Adipose cells Increases glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, High concentrations cause breakdown of lipids;
lipid synthesis probably unimportant under most conditions
Nervous system Has little effect except to increase glucose Has no effect
uptake in the satiety center
Figure 10.23
Stimulus Response
Receptors and control centers:

Pancreas:
Pancreatic islets detect an increase
in blood glucose and secrete insulin.
Effectors:
Insulin stimulates
Intestine: glucose uptake by most
Digestive hormones (gastrin, tissues and promotes
secretin, cholecystokinin) stimulate glycogen storage in
insulin secretion. skeletal muscle and
liver. Excess glucose is
converted to adipose.
Autonomic Nervous System:
Parasympathetic stimulation of
pancreas promotes insulin secretion.

Blood glucose level increases. Blood glucose level decreases.
(normal range)
Blood glucose
(normal range)
Blood glucose
Start here
Figure 10.23 Contd.

Blood glucose level decreases. Blood glucose level increases.
Stimulus Response
Receptors and control centers:

Pancreas:
Pancreatic islets detect a decrease
in blood glucose and do not secrete
Effectors:
insulin.
Decreased insulin results
Intestine: in decreased glucose
Inactivity of the intestine decreases uptake, increased
insulin secretion. glycogen breakdown by
the liver and skeletal
muscle, and increased
glucose synthesis in
Autonomic Nervous System:
the liver.
Sympathetic stimulation of the
pancreas inhibits insulin secretion,
including during exercise.
Figure 10.24
Table 10.4
REPRESENTATIVE DISEASES AND DISORDERS: Endocrine System

Condition Description
Diabetes insipidus Due to a lack of ADH from the posterior pituitary; results in excessive urination
Hashimoto thyroiditis Autoimmune disease in which thyroid hormone secretion can be decreased; metabolic rate is decreased, weight gain is
possible, and activity levels are depressed
Primary 90% of cases due to adenoma of the parathyroid gland; causes blood PTH levels to increase above normal; elevated
hyperparathyroidism blood Ca2+ levels, weakened bones and possible muscular weakness
Addison disease Low levels of aldosterone and cortisol from the adrenal cortex; low blood Na+ levels, low blood pressure, and excessive
urination
Gestational diabetes Develops in pregnant women due to actions of the placental hormone, human placental lactogen (HPL); in some
women, HPL overly desensitizes the woman’s insulin receptors; causes elevated blood glucose levels in the mother
and, if left untreated, excessive fetal growth
Figure 10.25
SKELETAL
Some increased bone reabsorption
occurs, which can decrease bone
density; increased blood Ca2+
levels can occur in severe cases. MUSCULAR
INTEGUMENTARY
Muscle atrophy and muscle weakness result
Excessive sweating, flushing, and warm skin
from increased metabolism, which causes the
result from the elevated body temperature
breakdown of muscle and the increased use of
caused by the increased rate of metabolism.
muscle proteins as energy sources.
The elevated metabolic rate makes amino acids
unavailable for protein synthesis, resulting in
fine, soft, straight hair, along with hair loss.
NERVOUS
REPRODUCTIVE Graves Enlargement of the extrinsic eye muscles,
Disease edema in the area of the orbits, and
Reduced regularity of menstruation the accumulation of fibrous connective
or lack of menstruation may occur (Hyperthyroidism) tissue cause protrusion of the eyes in
in women because of the elevated 50–70% of individuals with Graves disease.
metabolism. In men, the primary Damage to the retina and optic nerve and
effect is loss of sex drive. paralysis of the extraocular muscles can
Symptoms
• Hyperactivity occur. Restlessness, short attention span,
• Rapid weight loss compulsive movement, tremor, insomnia,
and increased emotional responses are
• Exopthalmos
consistent with hyperactivity of the
• Excessive sweating nervous system.
DIGESTIVE
Treatment
Weight loss occurs, with an associated • Exposure to radioactive io-
increase in appetite. Increased peristalsis dine
in the intestines leads to frequent stools • Treatment with drugs that
or diarrhea. Nausea, vomiting, and inhibit thyroid hormone
abdominal pain also result. Hepatic CARDIOVASCULAR
synthesis
glycogen stores and adipose and
protein stores are increasingly used for • Removal of all or a part An increased amount of blood pumped by
of the thyroid gland the heart leads to increased blood flow
energy, and serum lipid levels (including
through the tissues, including the skin. The
triglycerides, phospholipids, and
heart rate is greater than normal, heart
cholesterol) decrease. The tendency to
sounds are louder than normal, and the
develop vitamin deficiencies increases.
heartbeats may be out of rhythm periodically.
Figure 10.25 Contd.
RESPIRATORY LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE

Breathing may be labored, and the volume Antibodies that bind to receptors for thyroid-
of air taken in with each breath may be stimulating hormone on the cells of the
decreased. Weak contractions of muscles of thyroid gland have been found in nearly all
inspiration contribute to respiratory difficulties. people with Graves disease. The condition,
therefore, is classified as an autoimmune
disease in which antibodies produced by the
lymphatic system result in abnormal functions.

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Chapter 10

PowerPoint Tips: Refer to the Microsoft Help feature for specific

Classes of Chemical Messengers

Paracrine Produced by a wide variety Somatostatin, histamine,

Neurotransmitter Produced by neurons; Acetylcholine, epinephrine

Endocrine Secreted into the blood by Thyroid hormones,

The endocrine cell AP

Neurons in the hypothalamus release stimulatory hormones, called

Releasing hormones stimulate the release of hormones from the anterior

Negative feedback by hormones Positive feedback by hormones

Anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary

Tropic hormone Tropic hormone

Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse through

The hormone-receptor complex binds

GTP Phosphate (Pi) GDP

After a water-soluble hormone binds to its Water-soluble hormone

The activated subunit, with GTP bound to it, binds to

The cAMP can activate protein kinase enzymes,

Endocrine Glands, Hormones, and Their Target Tissues

Adrenocorticotropic hormone Adrenal cortex Increases secretion of glucocorticoid hormones,

Melanocyte-stimulating Melanocytes in skin Increases melanin production in melanocytes to make

Oxytocin Uterus Increases uterine contractions

Mammary gland Increases milk letdown from mammary glands

Calcitonin Primarily bone Decreases rate of bone breakdown; prevents large

Glucagon Primarily liver Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of

Gland Hormone Target Tissue Response

Testes Testosterone Most tissues Aids in sperm cell production, maintenance of

Stimuli from the

Stimuli within the nervous system Hypothalamic

Stimuli from the nervous system

Action potentials are conducted by AP

The neurohormones pass through the

Anterior view Posterior view

(d) ©Victor Eroschenko

Stress and hypothermia cause TRH to be

TRH causes cells of the anterior pituitary

Receptors and control

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

Receptors and control

(c) ©Victor Eroschenko

Stress, physical activity, and • Physical activity

Increased blood K+ levels or decreased

Angiotensin II causes increased secretion of

Aldosterone stimulation of the kidneys

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is

ACTH binds to membrane-bound

Cortisol acts on target tissues, resulting in

Stimulatory Cortisol in the target tissues:

Acini make up the

©Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Effects of Insulin and Glucagon on Target Tissues

Receptors and control centers:

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

HOMEOSTASIS DISTURBED: HOMEOSTASIS RESTORED:

Receptors and control centers:

REPRESENTATIVE DISEASES AND DISORDERS: Endocrine System

RESPIRATORY LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE