KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS

Kinetic Molecular Theory Defined

The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) will help you understand the behavior and properties of the three
states of matter. It provides a model for ideal gases – a hypothetical gas that perfectly fits all the
assumptions of the KMT. The behavior of solids, liquids and gases is explained by the kinetic molecular
model that was established based on the kinetic molecular theory.

The molecules of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Properties of Gases

 Expansion: gas particles fill their container and therefore have the shape and volume of their
container.

 Fluidity: gas particles flow past one another making them fluids along with liquids.

 Low Density: gas particles are very far apart, so the mass is very small while the volume can be very
large.

 Compressibility: most of a gas is empty space, so the particles can be moved into that empty space.

 Diffusion: spontaneous mixing of the particles of two substances caused by their random motion.

 Effusion: process by which gas particles pass through a tiny opening.

Properties of Liquids

 Relatively high density: particles are much closer together than gases.

 Relatively incompressibility: particles are too close together to compress very much

 Ability to diffuse: diffusion is slower in liquids than gases, because liquid particles move slower than
gas particles, and therefore have less kinetic energy.

 Surface Tension: a force that tends to pull adjacent parts of a liquid’s surface together, thereby
decreasing surface area to the smallest possible size.

 Capillary Action: the attraction of the surface of a liquid to the surface of a solid.

 Vaporization: the process by which a liquid change to a gas.

 Evaporation: the process by which particles escape from the surface of a nonboiling liquid and enter
the gas state.

 Boiling: the change of a liquid to bubbles of vapor that appear throughout the liquid.

 Freezing: the physical change of a liquid to a solid by removal of energy as heat.

Properties of Solids

 Definite shape and volume

 High Density and incompressibility: particles of a solid are more closely packed.

 Definite melting point: the temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid

 Low rate of diffusion: it does occur, but is millions of times slower than in liquids

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

There are two kinds of forces or attractions that operate in a molecule

-Intramolecular forces and Intermolecular forces

Intramolecular forces -are the forces that hold atoms together within a molecule

- Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms in a molecule

- Stronger than Intermolecular forces (chemical bonds)

- Determine chemical behavior of a substance

- Categorized into covalent, ionic and metallic bonds

Intermolecular forces -are forces that exist between molecules

- Intermolecular forces are the forces that hold molecules in a substance

- Weaker than Intramolecular forces (attractive force)

- Determine the state of matter and their physical properties

- Categorized into dipole-dipole forces, London dispersion and hydrogen bonding forces

Types of Intramolecular forces of attraction

1. Ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms.

2. Covalent bond- This bond is formed between atoms that have similar electronegativities

–the affinity or desire for electrons. Because both atoms have similar affinity for electrons and
neither has a tendency to donate them, they share electrons in order to achieve octet
configuration and become more stable.

Nonpolar covalent Polar covalent

A Nonpolar covalent bond is formed between same atoms or atoms with very similar electronegativities
A Polar covalent bond is formed when atoms of slightly different electronegativities share electrons.

Intermolecular forces of attraction are much weaker than the intramolecular forces of
attraction but are important because they determine the physical properties of molecules like their
boiling point, melting point, density, and enthalpies of fusion and vaporization.

Dipole-dipole interactions

Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces between polar molecules (molecules that possess dipole

moments). The partial negative side of one molecule is attracted to the partial positive side of

another molecule.

Ion-dipole interactions

Ion- Dipole Interaction is an attractive force that results from the electrostatic attraction between an ion
and a neutral molecule that has a dipole.

Hydrogen Bonding

This is a special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom
bonded to either an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom.

London Dispersion Force

The weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of molecules, whether ionic or
covalent – polar or nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger the London forces are.

PROPERTIES OF WATER

*Water covers about two-thirds of Earth’s surface

*water is renewable resource, available water for the community is limited

* Oceans constitute 97.4 percent of the total surface water; ice caps, glaciers, and groundwater make
up 2.50 percent; whereas lakes, rivers, atmosphere, and soil moisture are just about 0.014 percent.

* estimated to be about 60 percent to 75 percent of the body weight of an average human being

* The human brain is about 95 percent water, blood is about 82 percent and the lungs, about 90
percent.

Water is essential to the mechanisms of the human body.

❑regulate body temperature

❑transport nutrients to all cells and organs

❑transport oxygen to cells

❑serve as a lubricant for various joints of the body

❑transport substances into, within and out of a

living organism

❑maintain a chemical balanced in the body by

flushing out waste products

❑regulate metabolism

❑prevent diseases
Water as a solvent

Water molecules are also attracted to other polar molecules and to ions.

A charged or polar substance that interacts with and dissolves in water is said to be hydrophilic: hydro
means “water”, and philic means “loving”.

In contrast, nonpolar molecules like oils and fats do not interact well with water. They separate from it
rather than dissolve in it and are called hydrophobic: phobic means “fearing”.

Cohesion/Adhesion

Cohesion refers to the attraction of molecules for other molecules of the same kind, and water
molecules have strong cohesive forces thanks to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with one another.

Adhesion refers to the attraction of molecules for other molecules of a different kind.
Heat of Vaporization

It also takes an unusual amount of heat to vaporize a given amount of water, because hydrogen bonds
must be broken in order for the molecules to fly off as gas.

Water has a high heat of vaporization – the amount of energy needed to change one gram of a liquid
substance to a gas at constant temperature
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

What are crystalline and amorphous solids?

*Crystalline and amorphous are two states that describe typical solids in chemistry. Using x-ray
diffraction experiments, the structures of solids can be categorized into crystalline or amorphous (non
crystalline)

Crystalline Solids

* exist either as single crystals or as groups of crystals fused together. Most solids are crystalline solids.

* The total three-dimensional arrangement of particles of a crystal is called a crystal structure.

* The arrangement of particles in the crystal can be represented by a coordinate system called a lattice.
The smallest portion of a crystal lattice that shows the three- dimensional pattern of the entire lattice is
called a unit cell. Each crystal lattice contains many unit cells packed together.

*Crystalline solids generally do not flow because their particles are held in relatively fixed positions.

*Crystalline solids that can exist in various forms are called allotropes
Four Types of Crystals

Ionic Crystals

* Ionic crystal structure consists of positive and negative ions arranged in a regular pattern. The ions can
be monoatomic or polyatomic.

The strong binding forces between the positive and negative ions gives the crystals properties such as
hard, brittle, have high melting points and are good insulators.

Covalent network crystals

* In covalent network crystals, the sites contain single atoms. Each atom is covalently bonded to its
nearest neighboring atoms.

The network solids are nearly always very hard and brittle. They have rather high melting points and
are usually nonconductors or semiconductors.

Metallic crystals

* Metallic crystal structure consists of metal atoms surrounded by a sea of valence electrons. The
electrons are donated by the metal atoms and belong to the crystal as a whole.

The freedom of the outer-structure electrons to move throughout the crystal explains the high electric
conductivity of metals.

* The melting points of metallic crystals vary greatly.

Covalent molecular crystals

* Covalent molecular crystal structure consists of covalently bonded molecules

held together by intermolecular forces. Covalent molecular crystals have low melting point. They are
easily vaporized, are relatively soft, and are good insulators.
Amorphous Solids

* Amorphous solid is one in which the particles are arranged in no particular order or randomly
arranged. The word amorphous comes from the Greek for “Omorphe” which means shapeless or
“without shape”.

* Unlike the atoms that form crystals, the atoms that make up amorphous solids, such as glasses and
plastics, are not arranged in a regular pattern. They have no regular or natural shape and no definite
melting point.

* They have the ability to flow over a range of temperatures. Therefore, they are sometimes classified as
super cooled liquids. These properties exist because the particles in amorphous solids are arranged
randomly, much like the particles in a liquid.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
* Properties that depend on the number of solute particles that are dissolved in a given quantity of the
solvent not on the type of solute particles.

- A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts electric current is called an
electrolyte.

-A substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that does not conduct electricity is called a
nonelectrolyte.

Strong electrolytes dissociate completely when dissolved in water. They are good conductors of
electricity. Almost all soluble salts, strong acids (HCl, HNO3 , H2SO4 ) and strong bases (NaOH and KOH)
are strong electrolytes.

Weak electrolytes are poor conductors of electricity. They are partially ionized or dissociate partially
when dissolved in water.

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONSC

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapor that is in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid in a
closed system at a specified temperature. A substance that evaporates readily is called volatile. If the
liquid is volatile, the escaping tendency of the molecules is high and the vapor pressure is high. On the
other hand, a nonvolatile substance has a low vapor pressure because it has a low escaping tendency.

❑ If a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in water, the solute molecules take up space at the surface and
thus preventing the escape of the solvent molecules. The presence of a nonvolatile solute in a solvent
lowers the vapor pressure of the solvent.

❑ The lowering of the vapor pressure depends on the concentration of solute particles. The greater the
concentration of solute present, the greater the vapor pressure reduction is.

Why is there a VAPOR PRESSURE lowering?

The attractive forces between solute molecules or ions and solvent molecules tend to tie up the solvent
molecules, thus preventing them from escaping to the vapor. The more solute molecules or ions are
present, the more solvent molecules are tied up, thus, the lower the vapor pressure of the solution.

The amount in the decrease of vapor pressure is explained by Raoults Law. It states that the pressure of
the solvent escaping from a solution is equal to the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution
multiplied by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION
It occurs when the freezing point of a liquid is lowered or depressed by adding another compound to it.
The solution has a lower freezing point than that of the pure solvent.

Freezing Point Lowering or FP Depression

Freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phase coexist and their
vapor pressures are the same.

❑ If a nonvolatile solute is added to a solvent, the freezing point of the solvent is lowered and the
reduction depends on the number of moles of solute present.

❑ The effect of electrolytes as solutes is greater than nonelectrolytes because electrolytes ionize in
solution and such contain a greater number of particles.

Molal FREEZING POINT constant

The molal freezing-point constant (Kf), is the freezing-point depression of the solvent in a 1-molal
solution of a nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte solute.

Freezing Point Lowering or FP Depression

❑If one mole of nonelectrolyte solute is dissolved in one kilogram water, the freezing point of water is
reduced by 1.860C.

❑If two moles of nonelectrolyte solute is diddolved in one kg of water, then the freezing point is
reduced by 3.720C.
Boiling Point Elevation

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the
prevailing atmospheric pressure. If a liquid has a high vapor pressure it means that the molecules
evaporate faster and it takes a shorter time to equalize the vapor pressure of the liquid and the
atmospheric pressure. Therefore, the boiling point is low.

Water boils at 100C at 1 atm of pressure but a solution of salt water does not.

When table salt is added to water, the resulting solution has a higher boiling point than the pure solvent
(water)

BOILING POINT ELEVATION

It is the phenomenon that occurs when the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) is increased when
another compound is added such that the solution has a higher boiling point than the pure solvent.

❑ The boiling point of the solution is greater than the boiling point of a pure solvent.
Boiling Point Elevation

❑ The boiling point of the solution is greater than the boiling point of a pure solvent.

❑ The vapor pressure of a solution containing a nonvolatile solute is lower than the vapor pressure of
the pure solvent. This means that more heat will be required to raise the vapor pressure of the solution
to equal the atmospheric pressure.

Osmotic Pressure Elevation

Osmosis is the movement of solvent through a semipermeable membrane from a region of low
concentration to a region of high concentration.

A semipermeable membrane allows the passage only of a certain molecules. In the case of osmosis, a
semipermeable membrane allows the passage of solvent but not the solute.

Osmotic Pressure Elevation

The movement of solvent through a semipermeable membrane from the side of lower solute
concentration (or higher solvent concentration) to the side of higher solute concentration (or lower
solvent concentration) is called osmosis.

Osmosis is the tendency of a solvent to move through a semi-permeable membrane from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated solution. A semipermeable membrane allows the passage of small
solvent molecules but not large hydrated solute particles. The greater the concentration of a solution,
the greater the osmotic pressure of the solution.

A semipermeable membrane allows the passage of small solvent molecules but not large hydrated
solute particles. The greater the concentration of a solution, the greater the osmotic pressure of the
solution.

Osmosis play a very important role in biological system:

➢ Osmosis can be stopped by counterbalancing the osmotic pressure of the solution and reversed by
applying a higher pressure. This process is called reverse osmosis.

➢ People eating a lot of salty foods may experience swelling called edema. Too much fluid retention in
tissues and intercellular spaces causes swelling in one or more parts of the body.

➢ Food preservation. Meat and fish may be preserved by salting and fruits by adding sugar. Through
osmosis, the bacteria on salted meat and candied fruits lose water, then shrink and die.

➢ Intravenous infusion must be isotonic with the intracellular fluids of the cell.