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Objectives:
i) describe the structure and function of the hypodermis, dermis, and

Chapter 4 epidermis.
ii) define epidermal strata and relate them to the process of keratinization.

INTEGUMENTARY iii) explain how melanin, carotene, blood, and collagen affect skin color.
iv) describe the structure of a hair and discuss the phases of hair growth.

SYSTEM v) name the glands of the skin and describe the secretions they produce.
vi) describe the parts of a nail and explain how nails grow.
vii) discuss the functions of skin, hair, glands, and nails.
viii) list the changes the integumentary system undergoes with age.
ix)explain how the integumentary system can be used as a diagnostic aid.

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A. The Skin A. The Skin

• covers the entire body Skin Functions
• has a surface area of 1.2 to 2.2 square meters  Protects deeper tissues from:
• weighs 4–5 kg  Mechanical damage  Aids in heat regulation

 Chemical damage  Aids in excretion of urea

• about 7% of total body weight in the average adult and uric acid
 Bacterial damage
• thickness - 1.5 to 4.0 millimeters  Synthesizes vitamin D
 Thermal damage
 Ultraviolet radiation
 Desiccation

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A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
1. Keratinocytes
2. Melanocytes
3. Dendritic cells
4. Tactile cells

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A. The Skin A. The Skin

Cells of the Epidermis Cells of the Epidermis
Keratinocytes
Keratinocytes
• produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps
• Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off every day, giving us a
give the epidermis its protective properties totally new epidermis every 25 to 45 days
• most epidermal cells are keratinocytes • cell production and keratin
formation is accelerated in body
• arise from the stratum basale
areas regularly subjected to friction,
• undergo almost continuous mitosis in response to prompting by such as the hands and feet
epidermal growth factor, a peptide produced by various cells
• Persistent friction (from a poorly
throughout the body
fitting shoe, for example) causes a
• are pushed upward by the production of new cells beneath them thickening of the epidermis called a
callus.
• make the keratin that eventually dominates their cell contents
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A. The Skin
Cells of the Epidermis
Melanocytes
• the spider-shaped epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment
melanin
• accumulates in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes
• Melanin are transferred to nearby keratinocytes
• the melanin granules accumulate on the superficial, or “sunny,” side
of the keratinocyte nucleus, forming a pigment shield that protects
the nucleus from the damaging effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in
sunlight

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A. The Skin A. The Skin

Cells of the Epidermis Cells of the Epidermis
Dendritic cells Tactile (Merkel) cells
• star-shaped dendritic cells arise from • present at the epidermal-
bone marrow and migrate to the dermal junction
epidermis • shaped like a spiky
hemisphere
• also called Langerhans cells
• each tactile cell is intimately
• ingest foreign substances and are key associated with a disclike
activators of our immune system sensory nerve ending
• The combination, called a
tactile or Merkel disc,
functions as a sensory
receptor for touch.

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A. The Skin A. The Skin

Two distinct layers: Layers of the Epidermis

1.Epidermis- made up of 1. Stratum basale
stratified squamous
epithelium, hardened by 2. Stratum spinosum
keratin
3. Stratum granulosum
2. Dermis- making up the 4. Stratum lucidum
bulk of the skin, is a tough,
leathery layer composed 5. Stratum corneum
mostly of fibrous connective
tissue, vascularized
* The subcutaneous tissue just deep to the
skin is known as the hypodermis

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A. The Skin A. The Skin

Layers of the Epidermis Layers of the Epidermis

1. Stratum basale 2. Stratum spinosum

• deepest epidermal layer
• consists of a single row of stem cells—a
continually renewing cell population
• Each time one of these basal cells
divides, one daughter cell is pushed into
the cell layer just above to begin its
specialization into a mature keratinocyte
• 10-25% are melanocytes
• contain a web-like system of
intermediate filaments, mainly
tension-resisting bundles of
pre-keratin filaments, which
span their cytosol to attach to
desmosomes
Scattered among the
• the keratinocytes in this layer
appear to have spines keratinocytes are melanin
granules and dendritic cells

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A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis
3. Stratum granulosum
• consists of four to six cell
layers in which keratinocyte
appearance changes
drastically
• process of keratinization
begins
• Nutrient-poor layer
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A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis
4. Stratum lucidum
• visible only in thick skin
• consists of two or three
rows of clear, flat, dead
keratinocytes with indistinct
boundaries
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A. The Skin
Layers of the Epidermis
3. Stratum granulosum
• Cells flatten, their nuclei and organelles
begin to disintegrate, and they
accumulate two types of granules:
1. keratohyaline granules- help to form
keratin in the upper layers (darkly stained)
2. lamellar granules-contain a water-
resistant glycolipid that prevents water loss
across the epidermis
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A. The Skin
Dermis
• strong, flexible connective
tissue
• Cells types: fibroblasts,
macrophages, and
occasional mast cells and
white blood cells
• has a rich supply of nerve
fibers, blood vessels, and
lymphatic vessels
• two layers, the papillary and
reticular
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A. The Skin
Dermis
1. Papillary layer
Dermal papillae
• Dermal papillae- peglike lie atop larger
projections mounds called
dermal ridges,
• contain capillary loops which in turn cause
• house free nerve endings the overlying
(pain receptors) and touch epidermis to form
receptors called tactile or epidermal ridges.
Meissner’s corpuscles

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A. The Skin A. The Skin

Dermis
2. Reticular layer
• about 80% of the thickness
Scanning electron micrograph of the dermis
of friction ridges (epidermal
ridges topping the deeper • coarse, irregularly
dermal papillary ridges). Notice arranged, dense fibrous
the sweat duct openings along connective tissue
the crests of the ridges, which
are responsible for fingerprints.

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Flexure line- dermal folds

A. The Skin that occur at or near joints, A. The Skin
where the dermis is tightly
secured to deeper
Dermis structures. Skin Color
2. Reticular layer Three pigments contribute to skin color:
Cleavage (tension) lines- 1. Melanin- Yellow, brown or black pigments;
orientation of collagen fibers
in the dermis, and are produced by melanocytes
generally parallel to the • Melanin production depends upon genetic and exposure to
orientation of the underlying sunlight
muscle fibers
2. Carotene- Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
Cleavage lines are important to surgeons
because when an incision is made parallel to 3. Hemoglobin- Red coloring from blood cells in dermis capillaries
these lines, the skin gapes less and heals • Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring
more readily.
• Cyanosis - Low oxygen content creates a bluish appearance

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A. The Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

Skin Color
Many alterations in skin color signal certain disease states or even emotional states:
Skin appendages include:
Redness, or embarrassment (blushing), fever, hypertension, inflammation,
erythema or allergy 1. Hair and hair follicles
fear, anger, and certain other
Pallor, or blanching
types of emotional stress; may also signify anemia or low blood pressure. 2. Nails
Jaundice or yellow usually signifies a liver disorder, in which yellow bile
cast pigments accumulate in the blood and are deposited in body tissues 3. Sweat glands
a sign of Addison’s disease; or a pituitary gland tumors that inappropriately
Bronzing
secrete melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) 4. Sebaceous (oil) glands
Black-and-blue
hematomas
marks, or bruises

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

1. Hair and hair follicles 1. Hair and hair follicles

Functions: Structure of a Hair

• sense insects on the skin before they bite or sting us Produced by hair bulb
• hair on the scalp guards head against physical Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
trauma, heat loss, and sunlight. Vs soft keratin (epidermis)
• eyelashes shield the eyes, and nose hairs filter large
tougher and more durable
particles like lint and insects from the air we inhale
individual cells do not flake off
Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

1. Hair and hair follicles 1. Hair and hair follicles
Structure of a Hair Structure of a Hair Follicle
 Central medulla  hair bulb- the deep end of the follicle
 consists of large cells and air spaces  hair follicle receptor, or root hair plexus-
knot of sensory nerve endings wrapping
 the only part of the hair that contains soft keratin each hair bulb
(absent in fine hairs)
 hair papilla- contains a knot of capillaries
 Cortex surrounds medulla that supplies nutrients to the growing hair
 several layers of flattened cells and signals it to grow
 Cuticle on outside of cortex  hair bulge- actively dividing area of the hair
bulb that produces the hair
 single layer of cells
 arrector pili muscle- pulls the hair follicle upright and dimples the skin surface to
 overlapping one another like shingles on a roof produce goose bumps in response to cold temperatures or fear

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

1. Hair and hair follicles
Types and Growth of Hair

 vellus hair- pale, fine body hair of children and adult

females
 terminal hair, coarser, longer hair of the eyebrows and
scalp, also darker
 terminal hairs grow in response to the stimulating effects of
androgens (of which testosterone is the most important)

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B. Appendages of the Skin

1. Hair and hair follicles
Thinning and Baldness
 Alopecia- faster shedding of hair leading to hair thinning and some
degree of baldness
 By age 35, noticeable hair loss occurs in 40% of men, and by age 60
that number jumps to 85%.
 Male pattern baldness, is a genetically determined, sex-influenced condition
 minoxidil (Rogaine), a drug used to reduce high blood pressure, has the
interesting side effect in some bald men (and balding women) of stimulating
Hair Cycle hair regrowth

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

1. Hair and hair follicles
Thinning and Baldness
 Factors: acutely high fever, surgery, severe emotional trauma, and
certain drugs (excessive vitamin A, some antidepressants and blood
thinners, anabolic steroids, and most chemotherapy drugs)
 Protein-deficient diets and lactation lead to hair thinning
 alopecia areata, the immune system attacks the follicles and the hair
falls out in patches
2. Nails
• scalelike modification of the epidermis
• clear protective covering on the dorsal surface of the
distal part of a finger or toe
• useful as “tools” to help pick up small objects or
scratch an itch
• nails (like hairs) contain hard keratin

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

2. Nails 2. Nails
Structure Structure
Free edge Lunule- the region that lies over the
thick nail matrix appears as a white
Body
crescent
Root of nail
nail folds- skin folds overlapping
Nail matrix-responsible for nail growth proximal and lateral borders of the nail
Eponychium – proximal nail fold that cuticle or eponychium-proximal nail fold
projects onto the nail body projecting onto the nail body
Hyponychium- free edge of the nail
where dirt and debris tend to accumulate

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

2. Nails 3. Sweat glands

nail appearance can help diagnose certain conditions
 Widely distributed in skin
yellow-tinged nails may indicate a respiratory or thyroid gland disorder
 Two types
thickened yellow
may signal a fungus infection
nails
 Eccrine
outward concavity
may signal an iron deficiency
of the nail
 Apocrine
horizontal lines
may hint of malnutrition.
(Beau’s lines)

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

3. Sweat glands The Sweat

Eccrine  a hypotonic filtrate of the blood that passes
 also called merocrine through the secretory cells of the sweat
glands
sweat glands
 released by exocytosis
 abundant on the palms,
soles of the feet, and  99% water
forehead  with some salts (mostly sodium chloride),
vitamin C, antibodies, a microbe-killing
 simple, coiled, tubular peptide dubbed dermcidin
Regulation: sympathetic
gland division of the autonomic
 traces of metabolic wastes (urea, uric acid, nervous system regulates
 duct extends to open in a and ammonia) sweating
funnelshaped pore at the
skin surface  pH between 4 and 6.

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

3. Sweat glands 3. Sweat glands

Apocrine
Modified Apocrine Glands
 largely confined to the axillary and anogenital areas
 Ceruminous glands -found in the lining of the
 Produce sweat, plus fatty substances and proteins external ear canal
 Most with ducts that empty into hair follicles
 secretion mixes with sebum produced by nearby
 Glands are activated at puberty sebaceous glands to form a sticky, bitter substance
 activated by sympathetic nerve fibers during pain called cerumen, or earwax
and stress  Mammary glands- secrete milk

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B. Appendages of the Skin B. Appendages of the Skin

4. Sebaceous (oil) glands

4. Sebaceous (oil) glands
 simple branched alveolar glands
 found all over the body except in the thick skin of
the palms and soles
 secrete an oily substance called sebum
 Arrector pili contractions force sebum out of the
hair follicles to the skin surface
Homeostatic imbalance
 Whitehead- accumulated sebum blocks a
sebaceous gland duct
 Blackhead- oxidized and dried whitehead (darkens)
 Acne- active inflammation of the sebaceous glands
accompanied by “pimples” (pustules or cysts)
 caused by bacterial infection, particularly by
staphylococcus
 Seborrhea- overactive sebaceous glands can
cause, sloughed off oily scales

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C. Functions of the Integumentary System C. Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protection
• Chemical Barrier- (acid mantle, dermcidin in sweat, 1. Protection- Chemical Barrier
bactericidal substances in sebum, natural antibiotics
called defensins- punch hole in bacteria) • acid mantle
• Physical Barriers • dermcidin in sweat
• Biological Barriers • bactericidal substances in sebum
2. Body Temperature Regulation
• natural antibiotics called defensins- punch hole in
3. Metabolic Functions bacteria
4. Blood Reservoir
5. Excretion

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C. Functions of the Integumentary System C. Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Protection-Physical Barriers 1. Protection- Biological Barriers
Substances that do penetrate the skin in limited amounts include
• Lipid-soluble substances, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, • Dendritic cells of the epidermis-act as
fatsoluble
antigen “presenters.”
• vitamins (A, D, E, and K), and steroids (estrogens)
• Oleoresins of certain plants, such as poison ivy and poison oak • Dermal macrophages
• Organic solvents, such as acetone, dry-cleaning fluid, and paint
thinner, which dissolve the cell lipids • DNA-absorb UV radiation and transfer it
• Salts of heavy metals, such as lead and mercury to the atomic nuclei
• Selected drugs (nitroglycerine, nicotine, seasickness
medications)

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C. Functions of the Integumentary System C. Functions of the Integumentary System

2. Body Temperature Regulation 3. Cutaneous Sensation
cutaneous receptors are classified as exteroceptors
Tactile (Meissner’s) allow us to become aware of a caress or the feel of our clothing
corpuscles & tactile discs against our skin
Lamellar (Pacinian) alert us to bumps or contacts
corpuscles involving deep pressure
report on wind blowing through our hair and a playful tug
Hair follicle receptors
on a pigtail
Free nerve sense painful stimuli
endings (irritating chemicals, extreme heat or cold, and others)

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C. Functions of the Integumentary System C. Functions of the Integumentary System

4. Metabolic Functions
5. Blood reservoir- dermal vascular supply can hold about
Keratinocyte enzymes can
• modified cholesterol molecules are
■ “Disarm” many cancer-
5% of the body’s entire blood volume
converted to a vitamin D precursor
causing chemicals that 6. Excretion
penetrate the epidermis
■ Convert some harmless Nitrogenous waste products
chemicals into carcinogens
■ Activate some steroid (ammonia, urea, and uric acid) in sweat
hormones—for instance, they
can transform cortisone NaCl excretion
applied to irritated skin

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D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Skin Cancer Skin Cancer

 Cancer – abnormal cell mass  Basal cell carcinoma

 Two types  Least malignant

 Most common type
 Benign
 Arises from stratum basale
 Does not spread (encapsulated)  Squamous cell carcinoma
 Malignant  Arises from stratum spinosum
 Metastasized (moves) to other parts of the body  Metastasizes to lymph nodes
 Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer  Early removal allows a good chance of cure

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D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Skin Cancer Skin Cancer

 Malignant melanoma  Detection uses ABCD rule for recognizing melanoma
 Most deadly of skin
A = Asymmetry, two sides of pigmented mole do not match
cancers
B = Border irregularity, borders of mole are not smooth
 Cancer of melanocytes
C = Color, different colors in pigmented area
 Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood vessels
D = Diameter, spot is larger then 6 mm in diameter
 Detection uses ABCD rule

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D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Burns Evaluating Burns

 tissue damage inflicted by intense heat, electricity,  Body is divided into 11 areas
radiation, or certain chemicals for quick estimation
 denature cell proteins and kill cells in the affected  Each area represents about
areas 9%
 leads to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, and
then renal failure (kidney shutdown) and circulatory
shock (inadequate blood circulation due to reduced
blood volume)

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D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin D. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

Evaluating Burns
Evaluating Burns
 In general, burns are considered critical if any of
the following conditions exists: only the epidermis is
damaged. Symptoms
 Over 25% of the body has second-degree burns include localized Appears gray-
 Over 10% of the body has third-degree burns redness, swelling, and
pain.
white, cherry
red, or
 There are third-degree burns of the face, hands, or blackened,
feet and initially
injure the epidermis and the
there is
upper region of the dermis.
Symptoms mimic those of little or no
first-degree burns, but blisters edema; not
also appear. painful.

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