1

THOMSON’S MODEL
J.J. Thomson gave the idea regarding structure of atom. According to this model,
(i) An atom is a solid sphere in which entire positive charge and its mass is uniformly distributed,
where as negative charges (i.e. electrons) are embedded like seeds in watermelon.
Positively charged
– sphere
– –
–
– Electron
–

The model explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission
and ionization.
The model fails to explain the scattering of an  particles and it cannot explain the origin of
spectral lines observed in the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.

ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT AND RUTHRFORD’S NUCLEAR

MODEL OF AN ATOM:
In 1906 Rutherford studied scattering of an alpha particles from a thin gold foil in order to
investigate the structure of atom.
This experiment led to the discovery of atomic nucleus.

The experimental set up used by Rutherford and his collaborators Geiger and Marsden.

Radioactive material was kept inside a lead cavity which can be used as a source of alpha
particles. The alpha particles emitted from the source were allowed to pass through a collimator which
produces a fine beam of alpha particles. These fine beams from collimator were allowed to collide with
thin gold foil. Due to collision with gold foil, the alpha particles were scattered in different direction
which were detected by rotatable detector fitted with a microscope.

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The angle of deviation of alpha particle from its initial direction is called scattering angle    .

The whole apparatus was placed in an evacuated glass chamber.

OBSERVATION
A graph of total number of alpha particles versus scattered angle is shown.

1
Number of scattered particles, N
θ
sin 4 ( )
2

1. Most of alpha particles passed straight through the gold foil that means they do not suffer any
collision with gold atoms.
2. Some of alpha particles were deflected at small angle i.e., only 0.14% of alpha particles are
scattered by more than 1 .
3. Very few (one in 8000 ) alpha particles retraced their path after passing through gold foil.

CONCLUSION
Based on the above observations, Rutherford made the following assumptions
1. Since most of alpha particles passed through gold foil undeflected, the majority of the space in
atoms is empty.
2. Rutherford concluded that the positively charged alpha particles were being repelled by a massive
positive charge concentrated in very small region of space. Atom
3. According to Rutherford, the entire positive charge and mass of an Nucleus
+
atom is concentrated in very small space known as nucleus.
4. Size of the nucleus  10 15 m  is very small compared to size of an
10–15 m

10–10 m
atom  10 10 m  . Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10–15 m
Size of the atom 1 Å = 10–10 m
5. Atomic nucleus is surrounded by certain number of electrons. As
atom is electrically neutral, total negative charge on electrons surrounding the nucleus is equal to
the total positive charge on nucleus. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbit.
6. The centripetal force required for revolution of electron around the nucleus is provided by
electrostatic force of attraction between electron and nucleus.

  PARTICLE TRAJECTORY

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The trajectory of an   particle depends on the impact parameter b of collision of   particle

with gold nucleus.


r0 b

Nucleus

-particle
(energy E )

Impact parameter ( b ):
The perpendicular distance between initial velocity vector of an  particle from the centre of
the nucleus when  particle is far away from nucleus of an atom is known as it’s impart parameter.
 
Ze 2 cot  
1 2
b
4 0 KE i
Closest distance of approach ( r0 ):

The minimum distance up to which an energetic  particle travelling directly towards a nucleus can
move before coming to rest and then retraces its path is known as closest distance of approach.
1 Ze (2e)
r0 
4 0 KE i
ELECTRON ORBIT
According to Rutherford atomic model, electron revolves around positively charged nucleus in
circular orbits. The necessary centripetal force required for electron to revolve around nucleus in
circular orbit is provided by electrostatic force of attraction between negatively charged electron and
positively charged nucleus. v

+e e
r

Centripetal force = electrostatic force between nucleus and electron

mv 2 1 e e

r 4  r2

1 e2
mv 2 
4  r

1 e2
r
4    mv 2

1 e2
r
4    1 mv 2  2
2

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1 e2
r
4    2 KE

1 e2
KE 
4  2 r

Potential energy:
1   e   e 
U
4  r

1  e2
U
4  r

Total energy:
T.E = P.E + K.E
1 e2 1 e2
E 
4  r 4  2 r

1 e2  1 
E  1
4    r  2 
1 e2  1 
E  
4  r  2 

1 e2
E
8  r

Negative sign indicates that, the electron is bound to the nucleus.

Note: If total energy is positive, an electron will not follow a closed orbit around the nucleus.

SPECTRUM
An ordered sequence of wavelength of radiation is called spectrum.
The visible spectrum is only a small part of electromagnetic spectrum. In general spectra can be
classified as:
1. Emission spectra and absorption spectra: depending on whether the given sample is emitter
or absorber of radiation.
2. Continuous spectra, line spectra, band spectra: depending on the appearance of spectrum.
3. Gamma-rays, X-ray, UV rays, visible ray, IR ray, Microwaves, Radiowaves: depending on
the wavelengths.
1. EMISSION SPECTRUM
Spectrum obtained when light coming from a luminous source is directly examined through a
spectroscope is called emission spectrum.

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CONTINUOUS EMISSION SPECTRUM

The spectrum, which contains all possible wavelengths and appears as an unbroken luminous band
is called continuous emission spectrum.
Characteristics 
 The spectrum consists of a wide range of continuous wavelength lines, which are not separable, i.e.,
all colors from red to violet appear without any gap.
 A continuous emission spectrum is given out by incandescent solids (hot bodies) and by vapors
under high pressure. Hence this spectrum is also called as ‘hot body spectrum’.
LINE EMISSION SPECTRUM
Spectrum which contains a series of bright lines against a dark background is called line emission
spectrum.
Characteristics:
 The lines are regularly arranged and differ in intensities.
 Spectrum is in the form of intense colored lines.
 Line spectrum is due to the excited condition of the atoms. Hence it is also called as atomic
spectrum.

BAND EMISSION SPECTRUM

The spectrum, which contains a series of broad luminous bands against dark background, is called
band emission spectrum.
 Band spectrum is characteristic of the molecules of an element or compound and depends upon
the method of vibration. Hence it is also called as ‘molecular spectrum’.

2. ABSORPTION SPECTRA
The spectrum obtained, when the light from a source that gives a continuous spectrum is passed
through an absorbing material is called ‘absorption spectrum’.

CONTINUOUS ABSORPTION SPECTRA

The spectrum of the emergent light is found to consist of a continuous spectrum with dark portions
(i.e., certain colors cut off).
For example, when white light is passed through a piece of green glass all colors except green are
absorbed. Hence in the spectrum we see only the green region.

LINE ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

The spectrum of the emergent light consists of a continuous bright background crossed with one or
more dark lines.
Solar spectrum is a familiar example of line absorption spectrum.
BAND ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
The spectrum consists of a continuous emission spectrum with certain portions missing.
For example, KMnO4 dissolved in water gives 5 absorption bands in the green region.

LINE SPECTRUM OF HYDROGEN

Of all atomic spectra, the hydrogen spectrum is the simplest spectrum. Hydrogen spectrum
consists of groups of lines classified into various series. Only one such series is visible to naked eye and
is termed as visible region of hydrogen spectrum. As it was discovered by Balmer, it is called Balmer
series.

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Balmer found a simple empirical formula for observed wavelength.

1  1 1 
i.e.,  R 2  2 
 2 n 

where,  is wavelength, R is Rydberg constant = 1.097  10 7 m 1

n may have integral values 3, 4, 5, --------
Other series of spectra for hydrogen were subsequently discovered. These are named after their
discoveries as Lyman, Paschen, Brackett, Pfund series and are represented by,
1  1 1 
Lyman series,  R 2  2  n  2, 3, 4, 5,      
 1 n 
1  1 1 
Paschen series,  R 2  2  n  4, 5, 6,7,      
 3 n 
1  1 1 
Brackett series,  R 2  2  n  5, 6,7,      
 4 n 
1  1 1 
Pfund series,  R 2  2  n  6,7, 8,      
 5 n 
LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL
(i) Stability of atom: It could not explain stability of an atom because
e–
according to classical electrodynamic theory an accelerated charged particle
should continuously radiate energy. Thus an electron moving in a circular
path around the nucleus should also radiate energy and thus move into
smaller and smaller orbits of gradually decreasing radius and it should
Instability of atom
ultimately fall into nucleus.
(ii) According to this model the spectrum of atom must be continuous where as practically it is a line
spectrum. (i.e., it cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of atoms of different elements)
(iii) It could not explain the distribution of electrons outside the nucleus.

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

Bohr’s postulates:
1. The electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus in a certain permitted circular orbits. As long
as electrons revolve in these orbits, they do not radiate energy and hence these orbits are called
stationary orbits or non-radiation orbit. Each orbit is associated with definite amount of energy.
2. An electron revolve only in those orbits for which its orbital angular momentum is an integral
h
multiple of where, h is Planck’s constant.
2
According to this postulate angular momentum of electron in any orbit of radius rn is given
nh
by, m vn rn  where, n is an integer known as principal quantum number
2
m is mass of electron

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vn is orbital velocity of electron

rn is radius of the permitted orbit.
i.e., angular momentum is said to be quantized. This condition is called Bohr’s quantum condition.
3. Atom radiates energy only when electron jumps from a stationary orbit of higher energy to
stationary orbit of lower energy.
E2  E1
The frequency of radiation emitted is  
h
Where, E2 is an orbit of higher energy
E1 is an orbit of lower energy
This is known as Bohr’s frequency condition.

EXPRESSION FOR RADIUS OF STATIONARY ORBIT

Consider an atom of atomic number Z . The charge on its nucleus is  Ze . Let an electron of
mass m and charge  e revolve around the nucleus in circular path of radius rn in nth stationary orbit.
vn

+ Ze e

For equilibrium, rn

Centripetal force = Electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus and electron

mvn2 1 Ze  e

rn 4    rn2

2 1 Ze 2
mv n
4    rn
1
mvn2 rn  Ze 2 ---------- (1)
4 
From Bohr’s quantum condition,
nh
mvnrn 
2
n2 h 2
m 2 vn2 rn2  ---------- (2)
4 2
Consider, eqn(2)  eqn (1)
n2 h 2
m 2 vn2 rn2 4 2

2
mvn rn 1
Ze 2
4 

n2 h 2 4 
mrn  
4 2 Ze2

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n2 h 2 
mrn 
 Ze 2

n2 h 2 
rn 
m Ze 2

h 2  n2
rn 
 me 2 Z

n2
rn  a
Z
h 2  0
Where a  2
 0.53A is a constant known as Bohr radius (i.e., radius of first orbit hydrogen atom)
 me

NOTE: For a given atom  Z  , rn  n 2

 r1 : r2 : r3 : : 1 : 4 : 9
 Stationary orbits of an atom are unequally spaced.
EXPRESSION FOR ORBITAL VELOCITY OF ELECTRON
Consider an atom of atomic number Z . The charge on its nucleus is ' Ze ' . Let an electron of mass
' m ' and charge ' e ' revolve around the nucleus in a circular path of radius ' rn ' in the nth stationary
orbit. Let ' vn ' be its linear velocity in this orbit.
vn

+ Ze e

For equilibrium, rn

Centripetal force = Electrostatic force between nucleus and electron

mvn2 1  Ze  e

rn 4  rn2
1
mvn2 rn  Ze 2 ---------- (1)
4 
From Bohr’s quantum condition,
nh
mvnrn  ---------- (2)
2
Consider, eqn(1)  eqn (2)
Ze 2
mvn2 rn 4   

mvnrn nh
2
Ze 2 2 
vn 
4    nh

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Ze 2
vn 
2n h 

e2 z
vn 
2 h  n

c z
vn  Where c is speed of light in vacuum
137 n
1
NOTE: For a given atom  z  vn  .
n
Velocity of the electron in the outer orbit is lesser than that in the inner orbits.

EXPRESSION FOR TOTAL ENERGY OF ELECTRON

The electrons revolving around the nucleus in a stationary orbit will posses potential energy due
to its position in the field of nucleus and kinetic energy due to its motion. Let En be the total energy
possessed by an electron in the nth stationary orbit. vn

For equilibrium,
+ Ze e
Centripetal force = Electrostatic force between nucleus and electron
rn
mv 2
1  Ze  e

n

rn 4  rn2

1 2 1 1 Ze 2
mvn  
2 2 4    rn

1 1 Ze 2
Kn 
2 4   rn
Potential energy,
1   Ze    e 
Un 
4  rn
Total energy = K.E + P.E
En  K n  Un

1 1 Ze 2 1  Ze 2
En  
2 4   rn 4   rn

1 Ze 2  1 
En    1
4    rn  2 

1 Ze 2  1 
En   
4    rn  2 

 Ze 2
En 
8   rn

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 Ze 2
En 
 n2 h 2  
8    2 
  mZe 
 Ze 2 m Ze 2
En  
8   n 2 h 2  

 m Z2e4
En 
8n 2 h 2 2

For hydrogen atom, Z  1

 me 4
En 
8n 2 h 2 2

 13.6 eV
En 
n2
1
NOTE: En    as n increases, E also increases
n2
i.e., energy of an electron increases with increase in principle quantum number.
The negative sign shows that electron does not possess this much of energy but it needs this much of
energy to get liberated from the influence of field of nucleus.
i.e., in other words the electron is in a bound state.

EXPRESSION FOR WAVE NUMBER

Whenever an electron in its ground state absorbs energy it jumps to higher energy level. After a
short interval of time  10 8 s  it returns to its original state by emitting a radiation of certain frequency
given by Bohr’s frequency condition.
Let En1 and En2 be energies of electron in orbits n1 and n2 respectively. Let  be the
frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted during the transition of electron.

Photon of wavelength 

From Bohr’s frequency condition,

h  En2  En1

mZ 2 e 4  mZ 2 e 4 
h     
8n22 h 2 2  8n12 h 2 2 

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mZ 2 e 4  1 1
h   2  2 
8h 2  2  n 2 n1 

c mZ 2 e 4 1 1
h   2  2
 8h 2 2  n1 n 2 

1 mZ 2 e 4 1 1
  2  2
 8ch 3 2  n1 n 2 

mZ 2 e 4  1 1
 3 2  2
 2
8ch    n1 n2 

For hydrogen atom, Z  1

1 me 4  1 1
 3 2  2
 2
 8ch    n1 n2 

1 1 1
 RH  2  2 
  n1 n2 
me 4
Where RH  is a constant known Rydberg constant for hydrogen atom
8ch 3  2

1 1 1
  R 2  2 
  n1 n2 
This equation is known as Rydberg formula for spectrum of hydrogen atom.

SPECTRAL SERIES IN HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

The set of lines obtained by the transition of an excited electron to certain stationary state are
called spectral series in hydrogen spectrum.
In hydrogen spectrum there are five different series, the different lines in a series are called
members of that series.
The first line (1st member) of any series will be a radiation of longest wavelength and last
member of any series will be a radiation of shortest wavelength and is called series limit.

 LYMAN SERIES
It consists of all those wavelengths when an electron jumps from different higher (energy) orbits to
the first orbit.
For Lyman series n1  1 and n2  2, 3, 4,       .
The spectral line corresponding to Lyman series belong to ultraviolet region.
 BALMER SERIES
It consists of all those wavelengths when an electron jumps from different higher orbit to second
orbit.
For Balmer series n1  2 and n2  3, 4, 5,       .
The spectral line corresponding to Balmer series belongs to visible region.

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 PASCHEN SERIES
It consists of all those wavelengths when an electron jumps from different higher orbit to third orbit.
For Paschen series, n1  3 and n2  4, 5, 6,       .
The spectral line corresponding to Paschen series belongs to Infrared region.
 BRACKET SERIES
It consists of all those wavelengths when an electron jumps from different higher orbit to fourth
orbit.
For Bracket series, n1  4 and n2  5, 6,7,       .
The spectral line corresponding to Bracket series belongs to far infrared region.
 PFUND SERIES
It consists of all those wavelengths when an electron jumps from different higher orbit to fifth orbit.
For Pfund series, n1  5 and n2  6,7, 8,       .
The spectral line corresponding to pfund series belongs to extreme infrared region.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS

The diagram representing the energies of an electron in different stationary states and their
transitions producing different spectral lines is called energy level diagram.
In this diagram, the horizontal lines represent energy states and vertical lines with arrow mark
represent the electron transition between the states.
 13.6
We know that, En  eV
n2
 13.6  13.6  13.6  13.6
E1  2
  13.6 eV E2  2
  3.4 eV E3  2
  1.51 eV E4    0.85 eV .....
1 , 2 , 3 , 42

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The energy associated with the first orbit of hydrogen atom is known as ground state energy of
hydrogen atom.
EXCITATION
The process of transferring electron from lower energy state to higher energy state is called
excitation.
EXCITATION ENERGY
The minimum energy (in electron volt) required to raise an electron from its ground state into
an excited state is called excitation energy.
EXCITATION POTENTIAL
The minimum potential required to accelerate the electron to cause excitation from ground state
to any higher state is called excitation potential.
Excitation energy (in eV ) = Excitation potential (in V )

IONISATION
The process of removal of electron completely from influence of nucleus is called ionization.
IONISATION ENERGY
The minimum energy (in eV ) required to accelerate an electron to cause ionization is called
ionization energy.
IONISATION POTENTIAL
The minimum potential required to an accelerate electron to cause ionization is called ionization
potential.

SUCCESS OF BOHR’S THEORY

1. The theory provided a suitable model that could account for discrete spectral lines emitted by the
atoms.
2. This theory for the first time predicted size of an atomic orbits and hence size of an atom.
3. Rydberg constant ' R ' was given in terms of important physical constants like m , e , h and   . The
value of Rydberg constant calculated from the theory is in good agreement with experimental result.
4. The ionisation energy of hydrogen atom in its ground state as calculated from Bohr’s theory is in
good agreement with experimental value.

LIMITATIONS OF BOHR’S THEORY

1. It does not give any information regarding the distribution and arrangement of electrons in an atom.
2. Relativistic variation of mass of an electron is not taken into account.
3. The fine structure of spectral lines cannot be accounted by this theory.
4. The theory does not explain the experimentally observed variation in the intensity of spectral line of
an element.
DE BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS

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The second postulate of Bohr’s atomic model states that the angular momentum of electron
nh
orbiting around the nucleus is quantized. i.e., mvnrn  Where n  1, 2, 3,     
2

Louis de Broglie explained this puzzle.

According to de-Broglie, the electron in its circular orbit must be seen as particle wave(matter
wave). For a string fixed at two ends, a large number of waves are excited when it is plucked. But only
those waves which have nodes at two ends form standing waves and survive. It means that the
standing waves form when total distance travelled by the wave in a string is an integral multiple of
wavelength.
Hence according to de–Broglie, a stationary orbit is that which contains an integrals number of
de-Broglie wave lengths associated with revolving electron.
For an electron in nth circular orbit of radius rn , total distance covered is equal to circumference
of orbit i.e., 2 rn .

For permissible orbit, 2 rn  n

2  rn
 ----------- (1)
n
According to de-Broglie
h
 ----------- (2)
mvn

Where vn is speed of electron in nth orbit

From (1) and (2),
2 rn h

n mv n

nh
 mvnrn 
2

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