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.2001 - As4673-2001-Nzs
.2001 - As4673-2001-Nzs
AS/NZS 4673
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© Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written
permission of the publisher.
Jointly published by Standards Australia International Ltd, GPO Box 5420, Sydney,
NSW 2001 and Standards New Zealand, Private Bag 2439, Wellington 6020
ISBN 0 7337 3979 2
AS/NZS 4673:2001 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Joint Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand
Committee BD-086, Stainless Steel Structures.
The objective of this Standard is to provide designers of stainless steel structures with
specifications for cold-formed stainless steel structural members used for load-carrying
purposes in buildings and other structures.
Sections 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of this Standard are based on ANSI/ASCE-8-90 Specification for
the Design of Cold-formed Stainless Steel Structural Members. Section 6 is based on
AS/NZS 4600 and AS/NZS 1664.1.
Statements expressed in mandatory terms in notes to tables are deemed to be requirements
of this Standard.
The terms ‘normative’ and ‘informative’ have been used in this Standard to define the
application of the appendix to which they apply. A ‘normative’ appendix is an integral part
of a Standard, whereas an ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and guidance.
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CONTENTS
Page
SECTION 2 ELEMENTS
2.1 SECTION PROPERTIES .......................................................................................... 25
2.2 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF STIFFENED ELEMENTS.............................................. 27
2.3 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS ........................................ 31
2.4 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF UNIFORMLY COMPRESSED ELEMENTS WITH
AN EDGE STIFFENER OR ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER .......................... 32
2.5 EFFECTIVE WIDTHS OF EDGE-STIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH ONE OR
MORE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENERS, OR STIFFENED ELEMENTS
WITH MORE THAN ONE INTERMEDIATE STIFFENER..................................... 37
2.6 STIFFENERS ............................................................................................................ 38
SECTION 3 MEMBERS
3.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 41
3.2 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO TENSION....................................................................... 41
3.3 MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING...................................................................... 41
3.4 CONCENTRICALLY LOADED COMPRESSION MEMBERS............................... 50
3.5 COMBINED AXIAL COMPRESSIVE LOAD AND BENDING.............................. 53
3.6 TUBULAR MEMBERS ............................................................................................ 54
SECTION 5 CONNECTIONS
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5.1 GENERAL................................................................................................................. 60
5.2 WELDED CONNECTIONS ...................................................................................... 60
5.3 BOLTED CONNECTIONS ....................................................................................... 64
SECTION 6 TESTING
6.1 TESTING FOR DETERMINING MATERIAL PROPERTIES ................................. 71
6.2 TESTING FOR ASSESSMENT OR VERIFICATION.............................................. 72
AS/NZS 4673:2001 4
Page
APPENDICES
A LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS ................................................................. 75
B MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................. 77
C STAINLESS STEEL PROPERTIES.......................................................................... 83
D STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS......................................................................... 101
E FLEXURAL MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE BENDING ................................................................................. 104
F FATIGUE ................................................................................................................ 105
G FIRE ........................................................................................................................ 111
H SECTION PROPERTIES ........................................................................................ 113
I UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT................................... 117
J HOLLOW SECTION LATTICE GIRDER CONNECTIONS.................................. 118
K DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY
[STRENGTH REDUCTION] FACTOR .................................................................. 130
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1.1 SCOPE
This Standard sets out minimum requirements for the design of stainless steel structural
members cold-formed to shape from annealed or temper-rolled sheet, strip, plate or flat bar
stainless steels used for load-carrying purposes in buildings. It may also be used for
structures other than buildings provided appropriate allowances are made for dynamic
effects.
For the purpose of this Standard, steels with at least 10.5% chromium and up to 1.2%
carbon are considered as stainless steels.
1.3 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions below apply. Definitions peculiar to a
particular clause or section are also given in that clause or section.
NOTE: In this Standard, terms in square brackets relate to New Zealand use.
1.3.1 Action [Effect]
The cause of stress, dimensional change, or displacement in a structure or a component of a
structure.
1.3.2 Action effect [Action] or load effect [action]
The internal force, moment, deformation, crack, or like effect caused by one or more
actions [effects].
1.3.3 Arched compression element
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A section symmetrical about a point (centroid) such as a Z-section having equal flanges.
(See Figure 1.5(b).)
1.3.27 Proof stress
The stress at a nominated plastic strain. (See Appendix B.)
1.3.28 Proof testing
The application of test loads to a structure, sub-structure, member or connection to ascertain
the structural characteristics of only that one unit under test.
1.3.29 Prototype testing
The application of test loads to one or more structures, sub-structures, members or
connections to ascertain the structural characteristics of that class of structures, sub-
structures, members or connections that are nominally identical to the units tested.
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1.4 NOTATION
The symbols used in this Standard are listed in Table 1.4.
Where non-dimensional ratios are involved, both the numerator and denominator are
expressed in identical units.
The dimensional units for length and stress in all expressions or equations are to be taken as
millimetres (mm) and megapascals (MPa) respectively, unless specifically noted otherwise.
An asterisk placed after a symbol denotes a design action effect [design action] due to the
design load for the strength [ultimate] limit state.
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TABLE 1.4
NOTATION
bf flat width of the beam flange that contacts the bearing plate 3.3.7
b1 width of the compression and tension flanges, either stiffened 2.1.3.2, 2.1.3.3, 4.1.2
or unstiffened, projecting beyond the web for I-beams and
similar sections; or
maximum half the distance between webs for box- or U-type
sections; or
sum of the flange projection beyond the web and the depth of
the lip for I-beams and similar sections; or
flat width of the narrowest unstiffened compression element
tributary to the connections
b2 flat width of element with intermediate stiffener excluding radii 2.4.1
(continued)
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members
f yc tensile yield stress of bends; or 1.5.2.4, 6.1.4
compressive yield stress
f yf yield stress of flat portions; or 1.5.2.4, 6.1.5.1
yield stress of unformed steel if tests are not made; or
yield stress of flat coupons of formed members
f ys yield stress of stiffener steel 2.6.1
f yt minimum tensile yield stress 1.5.3
f yv tensile yield stress of unformed steel; or 1.5.2.4, Appendix B
specified shear yield stress
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f1* , f 2* web stresses calculated on the basis of the effective section or 2.2.2.1
on the full section
f 3* stress in edge stiffener with stress gradient for which load 2.3.2.2
capacities are determined
Go initial shear modulus 3.3.3
Gs secant modulus for shear stress Paragraph B1
Gt tangent modulus for shear stress Paragraph B1
g distance measured along the length of the connected face of the Paragraph J2.1
chord, between the toes of the adjacent members
ho depth of the chord in the plane of the lattice girder Paragraph J3
Ia adequate second moment of area of a stiffener, so that each 2.4.1
component element behaves as a stiffened element
Ib second moment of area of the full, unreduced cross-section 3.5
about the bending axis
Is second moment of area of a full stiffener about its own 2.4.1
centroidal axis parallel to the element to be stiffened
I sf second moment of area of the full area of a multiple-stiffened 2.5
element, including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own
centroidal axis
Iw warping constant for a cross-section Paragraph H1
Ix second moment of area of the cross-section about its centroidal 4.3.3.3
axis perpendicular to the web
I xy product of second moment of area of the full section about its 4.3.3.3
centroidal axes and perpendicular to the web
I yc second moment of area of the compression portion of a section 3.3.3
about the centroidal axis of the full section parallel to the web,
using the full unreduced section
J St. Venant torsion constant of the cross-section 3.3.3
k plate buckling coefficient; or 2.2.1.2, 3.4.2
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Vw* design shear force on a butt, fillet or resistance weld; or 5.2.2.3, 5.2.3.2, 5.2.3.3,
design longitudinal or transverse shear force on a fillet weld 5.2.4.2
w 1, w 2 leg sizes of the weld 5.2.3.2
xo distance from the shear centre of the cross-section to the 3.3.3
centroid along the principal x-axis, taken as negative
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1.5 MATERIALS
1.5.1 Selection of stainless steel grade
1.5.1.1 Factors to be considered
The selection of the most appropriate grade of stainless steel shall take into account the
mechanical properties, effect of welding on mechanical properties and corrosion resistance,
the environment of the application, the surface finish and appearance, and the maintenance
of the structure. Detailed consideration needs to be given to design for corrosion resistance
when a material is selected for use in a corrosive environment.
1.5.1.2 Corrosion resistance
An appropriate grade of stainless steel shall be selected in accordance with the corrosion
resistance required for the environment in which the structural members are to be used and
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in accordance with the fabrication, strength and finish requirements for the specific
application.
NOTE: For initial guidance on grade selection for corrosion resistance, see Appendix C.
1.5.1.3 Surface finish and appearance
Consideration shall be given to restitution of the surface after fabrication, and to
maintenance during service.
NOTE: A variety of surface finishes is described in Appendix C.
1.5.1.4 Cosmetic applications
In cosmetic applications, the possible minor changes in surface appearance that might take
place as a result of dirt deposits, which in adverse circumstances can create crevices and
lead to surface micro-pitting, shall also be taken into account. A suitable corrosion-resistant
grade of stainless steel shall be used to ensure that only superficial surface attack takes
place within the design life of the component.
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1.5.1.5 Maintenance
If necessary, a suitable cleaning regime shall be specified to maintain the surface
appearance.
1.5.2 Stainless steels
1.5.2.1 Applicable stainless steel grades
Structural members or steel used in manufacturing shall comply with AS 1449,
ASTM A167, ASTM A176, ASTM A240, ASTM A276, ASTM A480, ASTM A666,
EN 10088 and JIS G4305, as applicable.
1.5.2.2 Other stainless steel grades
Clause 1.5.2.1 shall not be interpreted to exclude the use of other steels, the properties and
suitability of which shall be determined in accordance with Clause 1.5.2.6. The yield stress
(f y) and tensile strength (f u) used in design shall be determined in accordance with
Section 6. The steel shall conform to the chemical and other mechanical requirements, and
shall have been subjected by either the producer or purchaser to analyses, tests and other
controls as prescribed by one of the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 or in accordance with
Clause 1.5.2.6.
1.5.2.3 Availability of stainless steel grades and product forms
Not all grades are readily available in all product forms. Appendix C describes the
commonly available grades and tempers of stainless steel by product form.
1.5.2.4 Strength increase resulting from cold-forming (ferritic stainless steels)
The increase in yield stress due to cold-forming or temper-rolling, or both, may be partly or
completely lost by processes such as welding, annealing or other heat treatment carried out
after forming (see Clause 1.5.2.5).
The equations given in this Clause are only applicable to the ferritic stainless steels
type 409, type 430, type 439 and to type 1.4003 (EN 10088) steel. The increase in strength
due to cold forming for the austenitic stainless steels type 201, type 301, type 304 or
type 316, shall be determined by a rational method or by tests.
Strength increase resulting from cold-forming shall be permitted by substituting the average
design yield stress (f ya) of the full section for f y. Such increase shall be limited to
Clauses 3.3 (excluding Clause 3.3.3.2), 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 and 4.4. The limitations and methods
for determining f ya shall be as follows:
(a) For axially loaded compression members and flexural members whose proportions are
such that the quantity (ρ) for load capacity [strength] is unity, as determined in
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accordance with Clause 2.2 for each of the component elements of the sections, the
average design yield stress (f ya ) shall be determined on the basis of one of the
following:
(i) Full section tensile tests (see Section 6).
(ii) Stub column tests (see Section 6).
(iii) Calculated as follows:
f ya = Cf yc + (1 − C ) f yf . . . 1.5.2.4(1)
where
f ya = average design yield stress of the steel in the full section of
compression members or full flange sections of flexural members
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2
f f
= 1.486 uv − 0.210 uv − 0.128 . . . 1.5.2.4(3)
f yv f yv
f yv = tensile yield stress of unformed steel
ri = inside bend radius
m = constant
f uv
= 0.123 − 0.068
. . . 1.5.2.4(4)
f
yv
f uv = tensile strength of unformed steel
f yf = yield stress of the flat portions (see Clause 6.1.5); or
yield stress of unformed steel if tests are not made
(b) For axially loaded tension members, f ya shall be determined by either Item (a)(i) or
Item (a)(iii). The value of C shall be calculated as for compression members.
1.5.2.5 Effect of welding and heat treatment
The increase in yield stress due to cold-forming or temper-rolling, or both, may be partly or
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completely lost by processes such as welding, annealing or other heat treatment carried out
after forming.
The effect of any welding and heat treatment on the mechanical properties of a member
shall be determined on the basis of tests on specimens of the full section containing the
weld within the gauge length. Any necessary allowance for such effect shall be made in the
structural use of the member. In the absence of specified testing, the annealed properties
shall be used.
Surface finishing of the weld is normally required to restore full corrosion resistance.
Surface finishing shall be in accordance with AS/NZS 1554.6.
NOTE: For initial guidance on the effect of welding and heat treatment, see Appendix C.
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1.5.2.6 Ductility
Stainless steels not specifically conforming to the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 shall
comply with one of the following requirements:
(a) The ratio of tensile strength to yield stress in both longitudinal and transverse
directions shall be not less than 1.08.
(b) The total elongation shall be not less than 10% for a 50 mm gauge length, or 7% for a
200 mm gauge length.
(c) The elongation shall be determined in accordance with Section 6.
1.5.2.7 Acceptance of steels
Certified mill test reports, or test certificates issued by the mill, shall constitute sufficient
evidence of compliance with the Standards referred to in this Standard.
1.5.2.8 Delivered minimum thickness
The minimum thickness of the cold-formed stainless steel product in the structure shall not
at any location be less than 95% of the thickness (t) used in its design, except at bends and
corners where the thickness may be less due to cold-forming effects.
1.5.2.9 Unidentified steel
Unidentified steel may only be used when sufficient samples have been subjected by either
the producer or purchaser to analyses, tests and other controls as prescribed by one of the
Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1 or in accordance with Clause 1.5.2.6.
1.5.3 Design stresses
The minimum yield stress (f y) used in design shall be the proof stress determined at a plastic
strain of 0.2%. The minimum tensile yield stress (f yt ) or compressive yield stress (f yc ), and
tensile strength (f u) used in design shall not be greater than the higher of the following:
(a) The specified minimum values given in the Standards listed in Clause 1.5.2.1.
(b) The values given in Appendix B.
(c) The values determined by tests in accordance with Section 6.
1.5.4 Fasteners
1.5.4.1 Bolts, nuts and washers
Bolts, nuts and washers complying with ASTM A 193, ASTM A 276, ASTM F 593 or
ISO 3506 may be used. A manufacturer’s test report, test certificate or letter of
conformance, shall constitute sufficient evidence of compliance with the Standard used.
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NOTE: Appendix D describes the commonly available grades and tempers of stainless steel
fasteners.
1.5.4.2 Welding consumables
All welding consumables shall comply with AS/NZS 1554.6.
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1.6.2.1 General
The following types of limit states shall be considered for the design of structures and its
components:
(a) The ultimate and stability limit states.
(b) The serviceability limit state.
1.6.2.2 Ultimate limit state
The structure and its component members and connections shall be designed for the
ultimate limit state as follows:
(a) All members and connections shall be proportioned so that the design capacity (R d ) is
not less than the design action effect [design action] (S *), i.e.—
S* ≤ Rd
(b) The design action effects [design actions] (S *) resulting from the ultimate limit state
design loads shall be determined by an elastic structural analysis unless—
(i) member strength is established by testing in accordance with Section 6; or
(ii) it is ensured that any plastic hinges have adequate strength and ductility to
perform their intended purpose, in which case the forces and moments may be
determined by a plastic analysis.
(c) The design capacity (Rd) shall be determined by either—
(i) the nominal capacity (R u) in accordance with Sections 2 to 5, and the capacity
[strength reduction] factor (φ), i.e.—
R d = φR u; or
(ii) testing in accordance with Section 6.
1.6.2.3 Stability limit state
The structure as a whole (and any part of it) shall be designed to prevent instability due to
overturning, uplift or sliding as specified in the appropriate loading Standard.
1.6.2.4 Serviceability limit state
The structure and its components shall be designed for the serviceability limit state by
controlling or limiting deflection, vibration, bolt slip and corrosion, as appropriate.
1.6.2.5 Fatigue
NOTE: Guidance on the design of stainless steel structures for fatigue is given in Appendix F.
1.6.2.6 Fire
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NOTE: Guidance on the design of stainless steel structures for fire is given in Appendix G.
1.6.3 Earthquake
Where applicable, the following shall be considered for earthquake design:
(a) For Australia All structures shall be designed for the loads and load combinations
specified in AS 1170.4. If stainless steel members are used as the primary earthquake
resistance element then the structural response factor (R f) shall be less than or equal
to 2.0 unless specified otherwise.
(b) For New Zealand All structures shall be designed for the loads and load
combinations specified in NZS 4203 but subject to the following limitations:
(i) For the ultimate limit state, the structural ductility factor (µ) shall be less than
or equal to 1.25, unless a greater value (but not greater than 4.0) is justified by
a special study. The structural ductility factor (µ) depends upon the structural
form, the ductility of the material and structural damping characteristics.
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(ii) For the serviceability limit state, the structural ductility factor (µ) shall be equal
to 1.0.
(iii) The structural performance factor (S p ) shall be equal to 0.67, unless a lower
value (but not less than 0.4) is determined as appropriate by a special study.
The structural performance factor (S p ) depends on the material, form and period
of the earthquake resisting system, damping of the structure and the interaction
of the structure with the ground.
1.6.4 Durability
A structure shall be designed to perform its required functions during its expected life.
NOTE: For further information, see Appendix C.
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portion shall be taken at the middle of the element (see Figures 2.2.1 and 2.4.1(b)).
(b) For the design of stiffened elements under a stress gradient or where only a part of the
element is in compression, e.g. the webs, the location of the lost portion shall be as
shown in Figure 2.2.2.
(c) For unstiffened elements, under either a stress gradient or uniform compression, the
lost portion shall be taken at the unstiffened edge as shown in Figure 2.3.1. Where the
unstiffened element is subjected to both tension and compression across its width, the
lost portion may be taken as set out in Appendix I.
(d) For the design of elements with an edge stiffener, the location of the lost portion shall
be as shown in Figure 2.4.2.
2.1.2.4 Effective section for determining deflection
The effective second moment of area used to determine deflection may be obtained in
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.3.
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0.061 t f dE o 100 c f
b1 = 4 . . . 2.1.3.2
f *av d
where
tf = thickness of the flange
d = depth of the section
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2.1.3.3 Shear lag effects (usually short spans supporting concentrated loads)
Where the span of the beam (l) is less than 30b 1 and the beam carries one concentrated load,
or several loads spaced greater than 2b 1 , the effective design width of any flange, whether
in tension or compression, shall be limited to the values given in Table 2.1.3.3.
For flanges of I-beams and similar sections stiffened by lips at the outer edges, b 1 shall be
taken as the sum of the flange projection beyond the web and the depth of the lip.
TABLE 2.1.3.3
MAXIMUM RATIO OF EFFECTIVE
DESIGN WIDTH TO ACTUAL WIDTH
FOR SHORT WIDE FLANGE BEAMS
30 1.00 14 0.82
25 0.96 12 0.78
20 0.91 10 0.73
18 0.89 8 0.67
16 0.86 6 0.55
d 1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web
t w = thickness of web
Where a web consists of two or more sheets, the ratio d 1 /t w shall be calculated for each
sheet.
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1.052 b f *
λ = . . . 2.2.1.2(4)
k t E o
where
k = plate buckling coefficient
= 4 for stiffened elements supported by a web on each longitudinal edge (k values
for different types of elements are given in the applicable clauses)
t = thickness of the uniformly compressed stiffened elements
f* = design stress in the compression element calculated on the basis of the effective
design width (see Figure 2.2.1(b))
Eo = initial Young’s modulus of elasticity given in Appendix B.
Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient (k) for each flat element may be determined
from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
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For determining the nominal section or member capacity of flexural members, the design
stress ( f * ) shall be taken as follows:
(a) Where the nominal section moment capacity (M s ) is based on initiation of yielding as
specified in Clause 3.3.2.2, and the initial yielding of the element being considered is
in compression, then f * shall be equal to f yc . If the initial yielding of the section is in
tension, then f * of the element being considered shall be determined on the basis of
the effective section at M y (moment causing initial yield).
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(b) Where the nominal section moment capacity (M s ) is based on inelastic reserve
capacity as specified in Clause 3.3.2.3, then f * shall be the stress of the element
being considered at Ms. The basis of the effective section shall be used to determine
Ms.
(c) Where the nominal member moment capacity (M b ) is based on lateral buckling as
specified in Clause 3.3.3, then f * shall be equal to M c /Z f as described in Clause 3.3.3
in determining Z c.
For compression members, f * shall be taken equal to f n determined in accordance with
Clause 3.4.
2.2.1.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b ed ) shall be determined from either
one of the following Equations, as appropriate.
For λ ≤ 0.673 b ed = b . . . 2.2.1.3(1)
For λ > 0.673 b ed = ρb . . . 2.2.1.3(2)
The effective width factor (ρ) shall be determined from Equations 2.2.1.2(3) and 2.2.1.2(4),
except that f d* shall be substituted for f * , where f d* is the design compressive stress in the
element being considered based on the effective section at the load for which deflections
are determined, and the reduced modulus of elasticity (E r) shall be substituted for E o in
Equation 2.2.1.2(4).
E st + E sc
Er = . . . 2.2.1.3(3)
2
where
E st = secant modulus corresponding to stress in tension flange
E sc = secant modulus corresponding to stress in compression flange
The values of E st and E sc shall be obtained from Appendix B, as appropriate.
2.2.2 Effective widths of webs and stiffened elements with stress gradient
2.2.2.1 Effective widths for capacity calculations
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective width (b e1 ) (see Figure 2.2.2)
shall be determined from the following Equation:
be
be 1 = . . . 2.2.2.1(1)
3 −ψ
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The effective width (be2) (see Figure 2.2.2) shall be determined from Equation 2.2.2.1(2) or
Equation 2.2.2.1(3), as appropriate.
be
For ψ ≤ −0.236: b e2 = . . . 2.2.2.1(2)
2
where (b e1 + be2) shall not be greater than the compression portion of the web calculated on
the basis of effective section.
For ψ > −0.236 b e2 = b e − be1 . . . 2.2.2.1(3)
where
be = effective width determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2 with f 1*
substituted for f * and with k determined as follows:
k = 4 + 2(1 − ψ)3 + 2(1 − ψ) . . 2.2.2.1(4)
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ψ = stress ratio
f 2*
= . . . 2.2.2.1(5)
f1*
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accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2 with f * equal to f 3* as shown in Figures 2.3.2 and 2.4.2,
and k equal to 0.5. Values of the plate buckling coefficient (k) given in Appendix I may be
used in lieu of 0.5.
Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient (k) for each flat element may be determined
from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
2.3.2.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b ed ) of unstiffened compression
elements and edge stiffeners with stress gradient shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 2.2.1.3 except that f d3* shall be substituted for f * and k is equal to 0.5. Values of the
plate buckling coefficient (k) given in Appendix I may be used in lieu of 0.5.
Alternatively, the plate buckling coefficient (k) for each flat element may be determined
from a rational elastic buckling analysis of the whole section as a plate assemblage
subjected to the longitudinal stress distribution in the section prior to buckling.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 32
C2
d, d l = actual stiffener dimension (see Figure 2.4.2(a))
ds = reduced effective width of the stiffener (see Figure 2.4.2(a)). The value of d s
calculated in accordance with Clause 2.4.3, shall be used in calculating the overall
effective section properties
d se = effective width of the stiffener calculated in accordance with Clause 2.3.1 (see
Figure 2.4.2(a))
Ia = adequate second moment of area of the stiffener, so that each component element
behaves as a stiffened element
Is = second moment of area of the full stiffener about its own centroidal axis parallel
to the element to be stiffened
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d 3 t sin 2θ
= (for stiffener shown in Figure 2.4.2) . . . 2.4.1(2)
12
k = plate buckling coefficient
S = slenderness factor
Eo
= 1.28 . . . 2.4.1(3)
f*
For edge stiffeners, the round corner between the stiffener and the element to be stiffened
shall not be considered as part of the stiffener.
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compressed elements with an intermediate stiffener shall be determined for the following
cases:
b2
(a) Case I: ≤S
t
Ia = 0 (no intermediate stiffener is required)
be = b . . 2.4.2.2(1)
A s = A se . . 2.4.2.2(2)
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35 AS/NZS 4673:2001
b2
(b) Case II: S < < 3S
t
50 b 2
Ia
= t − 50 . . . 2.4.2.2(3)
t4 S
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
where
I
k = 3 s +1≤ 4 . . . 2.4.2.2(4)
Ia
As = Ase I s ≤ Ase . . . 2.4.2.2(5)
Ia
A se shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2.
b2
(c) Case III: ≥ 3S
t
b2
128
Ia t
= − 285 . . . 2.4.2.2(6)
t 4 S
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
where
1/ 3
I
k = 3 s +1 ≤ 4 . . . 2.4.2.2(7)
Ia
Is
A s = Ase ≤ Ase . . . 2.4.2.2(8)
Ia
A se shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2.
2.4.2.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
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For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b e ) shall be determined in accordance
with Clause 2.4.2.2, except that f d* shall be substituted for f *.
2.4.3 Elements with an edge stiffener
2.4.3.1 General
For uniformly compressed elements with an edge stiffener, the effective widths for section
or member capacity and deflection calculations shall be determined in accordance with
Clauses 2.4.3.2 and 2.4.3.3, respectively.
2.4.3.2 Effective width for capacity calculations
For determining the section or member capacity, the effective widths (b e ) of uniformly
compressed elements with an edge stiffener shall be determined for the following cases:
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 36
b S
(a) Case I: ≤
t 3
Ia = 0 (no edge stiffener is required)
be = b . . . 2.4.3.2(1)
d s = d se (for simple lip stiffener) . . . 2.4.3.2(2)
A s = A se (for other stiffener shapes) . . . 2.4.3.2(3)
S b
(b) Case II: < <S
3 t
Ia (b / t ) ku 3
= 399 − . . . 2.4.3.2(4)
t4 S 4
n = 0.5
Is ≤1
C2 = . . . 2.4.3.2(5)
Ia
C 1 = 2 − C2 . . . 2.4.3.2(6)
b e shall be calculated in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, where k shall be determined
as follows:
k = C 2n (k a − k u ) + k u . . . 2.4.3.2(7)
k u = 0.43
For simple lip stiffener with 140° ≥ θ ≥ 40° and d l/b ≤ 0.8, where θ is as shown in
Figure 2.4.2:
k a = 5.25 − 5 (d l b ) ≤ 4.0 . . . 2.4.3.2(8)
d s = C 2 ds . . . 2.4.3.2(9)
For stiffener shape other than simple lip:
k a = 4.00
A s = C2 Ase ≤ Ase’ . . . 2.4.3.2(10)
b
(c) Case III: ≥S
t
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Ia 115 (b t )
= +5 . . . 2.4.3.2(11)
S
4
t
C1 , C2 , be, k, ds , As shall be calculated in accordance with Case II with n equal to
0.333.
2.4.3.3 Effective width for deflection calculations
For determining the deflection, the effective widths (b e ) shall be determined in accordance
with Clause 2.4.3.2, except that f d* shall be substituted for f * .
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37 AS/NZS 4673:2001
where
Is = second moment of area of the full stiffener about its own centroidal axis
parallel to the element to be stiffened
b
= width-to-thickness ratio of the larger stiffened sub-element.
t
In addition, the following shall be considered:
(a) Where the spacing of intermediate stiffeners between two webs is such that for the
sub-element between the stiffeners, b e is less than b as determined in accordance with
Clause 2.2.1.2, only two intermediate stiffeners, those nearest each web, shall be
considered effective.
(b) Where the spacing of intermediate stiffeners between a web and an edge stiffener is
such that for the sub-element between the stiffeners, b e is less than b as determined in
accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, only one intermediate stiffener, that nearest the web,
shall be considered effective.
(c) Where intermediate stiffeners are spaced so closely that for the elements between the
stiffeners, b e is equal to b as determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2, all the
stiffeners may be considered effective. In calculating the flat-width-to-thickness ratio
of the entire multiple-stiffened element, such element shall be considered as replaced
by an equivalent element without intermediate stiffeners whose width (b 2 ) shall be the
full width between webs or from web to edge stiffener, and whose equivalent
thickness of the stiffener (t s ) shall be determined from the following Equation:
12 I sf
ts = 3 . . . 2.5(2)
b2
where Isf is the second moment of area of the full area of the multiple-stiffened
element, including the intermediate stiffeners, about its own centroidal axis. The
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second moment of area of the entire section shall be calculated assuming the
equivalent element to be located at the centroidal axis of the multiple stiffened
element, including the intermediate stiffener. The actual extreme fibre distance shall
be used in calculating the section modulus.
(d) If b/t is greater than 60, the effective width (b e ) of the sub-element or element shall be
determined from the following Equation:
bes be b
= − 0.1 − 60 . . . 2.5(3)
t t t
where
b/t = flat-width ratio of the sub-element or element
b es = effective width of the sub-element or element to be used in design
calculations
b e = effective width determined in accordance with Clause 2.2.1.2
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2.6 STIFFENERS
2.6.1 Transverse stiffeners
Transverse stiffeners attached to beam webs at points of concentrated loads or reactions
shall be designed as compression members. Concentrated loads or reactions shall be applied
directly into the stiffeners, or each stiffener shall be fitted accurately to the flat portion of
the flange to provide direct loadbearing into the end of the stiffener. Means for shear
transfer between the stiffener and the web shall be provided in accordance with Section 3.
The design concentrated loads or reactions (N*) shall satisfy the following:
(a) N* ≤ φc Ns . . . 2.6.1(1)
(b) N* ≤ φc Nc . . . 2.6.1(2)
Where
φc = capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in compression
= 0.85
Ns = nominal section capacity of a member in compression (see Clause 3.4)
= f wyAs1
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39 AS/NZS 4673:2001
A s2 = b 1t + As
(for transverse stiffeners at interior support under . . . 2.6.1(5)
concentrated load)
= b 2t + As
. . . 2.6.1(6)
(for transverse stiffeners at end support)
t = base thickness of beam web
As = cross-sectional area of transverse stiffeners
l
b1 = 25t 0.0024 s t + 0.72 ≤ 25t . . . 2.6.1(7)
t
l
b2 = 12t 0.0044 s t + 0.83 ≤ 12t . . . 2.6.1(8)
t
lst = length of transverse stiffener
The b/ts ratio for the stiffened and unstiffened elements of cold-formed steel transverse
stiffeners shall not exceed 1.28 E o / f y s and 0.37 E o / f y s , respectively, where f ys is the
yield stress and ts is the thickness of the stiffener steel.
2.6.2 Shear stiffeners
Where shear stiffeners are required, the spacing shall be such that the design shear force
shall not be greater than the design shear capacity ( φvV v) specified in Clause 3.3.4, and the
ratio a/d1 shall not be greater than [260/(d 1 /t)]2 and 3.0.
The actual second moment of area (I s,min. ) of a pair of attached shear stiffeners, or of a
single shear stiffener, with reference to an axis in the plane of the web, shall have a
minimum value as follows:
d1 a d1 4
I s , min. = 5d 1t − 0.7 ≥
3
. . . 2.6.2(1)
a d1 50
The gross area of shear stiffeners (A st) shall be not less than—
a
2
1 − k s a d1
Ac = − ψ k st d 1 t . . . 2.6.2(2)
2 d1 a a
2
+ 1 +
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d1 d1
where
ks = shear stiffener coefficient
1.53 Eo k v
= d
2
if k s ≤ 0.8 . . . 2.6.2(3)
fy 1
t
0.00248 k v E o
= d1 fy if k s > 0.8 . . . 2.6.2(4)
t
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41 AS/NZS 4673:2001
S E C T IO N 3 M E M BE R S
3.1 GENERAL
Section properties used for the determination of structural performance, moment capacity of
beams or capacity of axial members in compression, shall be those calculated in accordance
with Section 2.
Both full and effective section properties, where applicable, shall be required. Full section
properties shall be used for the determination of buckling moments or stresses. Effective
section properties shall be used for the determination of section and member capacities.
where
φ b = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending
= 0.90 for sections with stiffened compression flanges
= 0.85 or sections with unstiffened compression flanges
Ms = nominal section moment capacity calculated in accordance with Clause 3.3.2
M b = nominal member moment capacity calculated in accordance with Clause 3.3.3
3.3.2 Nominal section moment capacity
3.3.2.1 General
The nominal section moment capacity (M s ) shall be calculated either on the basis of
initiation of yielding in the effective section specified in Clause 3.3.2.2 or on the basis of
the inelastic reserve capacity specified in Clause 3.3.2.3.
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1.11
λ1 = . . . 3.3.2.3(5)
f yc / E o
1.28
λ2 = . . . 3.3.2.3(6)
f yc / E o
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43 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Where applicable, effective design widths shall be used in calculating section properties.
Ms shall be calculated considering equilibrium of stresses, assuming an ideally elastic-
plastic stress-strain curve that is the same in tension as in compression, small deformation
and that plane sections remain plane during bending. Combined bending and bearing shall
be in accordance with Clause 3.3.7.
3.3.2.4 Local distortion
Where local distortions in flexural members under nominal service loads shall be limited,
the design flexural capacity (φ d M ld) shall be determined as follows:
φd = 1.0
M ld = Z f f b . . . 3.3.2.4(1)
Where
φd = capacity [strength reduction] factor for local distortion
M ld = nominal flexural capacity of the member
Zf = elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced cross-section
fb = permissible compressive stress for local distortion, determined as follows:
(a) If small, barely perceptible amounts of local distortions are
permissible—
(i) for stiffened compression elements:
f b = 1.2fcr . . . 3.3.2.4(2)
(ii) for unstiffened compression elements:
f b = fcr . . . 3.3.2.4(3)
(b) If no local distortions are permissible—
(i) for stiffened compression elements:
f b = 0.9fcr . . . 3.3.2.4(4)
(ii) for unstiffened compression elements:
f b = 0.75f cr . . . 3.3.2.4(5)
fcr = critical buckling stress
π 2 kηE o
=
(
12 1 − ν 2 (b t ) ) 2 . . . 3.3.2.4(6)
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AS/NZS 4673:2001 44
where
Z c = elastic section modulus of the effective section calculated at a stress M c /S f in
the extreme compression fibre
Z f = elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced section for the extreme
compression fibre
Mc = critical moment
Mc shall be calculated as follows, with a maximum value of M y:
(a) For doubly symmetric I-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the
web (x-axis)—
Et dI yc
Mc = π E o C b
2
2 . . . 3.3.3(2)
Eo l
Alternatively, Mc can be calculated using Equation 3.3.3(4).
(b) For point-symmetric Z-sections bent about the centroidal axis perpendicular to the
web (x-axis)—
Et dI yc
Mc = 0.5π E o C b
2
2 . . . 3.3.3(3)
Eo l
Alternatively, Mc can be calculated as half the value using Equation 3.3.3(4).
(c) For singly symmetric sections, where the x-axis is assumed to be the axis of
symmetry—
(i) for bending about the symmetry axis, where the x-axis is the axis of symmetry
oriented such that the shear centre has a negative x- coordinate—
Mc = C b ro A σ eyσ t . . . 3.3.3(4)
Mc = C s C b Aσ ex j + C s j 2 + ro2 (σ t / σ ex ) . . . 3.3.3(5)
where
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45 AS/NZS 4673:2001
π 2 Eo E t
σex = 2
. . . 3.3.3(7)
(k x l x /rx ) E o
π 2E E
σey =
o
t
(
k y l y /ry )
2
E o
. . . 3.3.3(8)
1 π 2 Eo C w E t
σt = 2 Go J + . . . 3.3.3(9)
(k l )2 E o
Aro t t
A = area of the full, unreduced cross-section
E t/Eo = plasticity reduction factor given in Appendix B
Cb = bending coefficient
12.5M max.
= . . . 3.3.3(10)
2.5M max. + 3M 3 + 4 M 4 + 3M 5
Cb is permitted to be conservatively taken as unity for all cases.
For cantilevers or overhang where the free end is unbraced, Cb
shall be taken as unity. For members subject to combined axial
load and bending moment (see Clause 3.5), Cb shall be taken as
unity.
M max. = absolute value of the maximum moment in the
unbraced segment
M3 = absolute value of the moment at the quarter point of
the unbraced segment
M4 = absolute value of the moment at the centre-line of the
unbraced segment
M5 = absolute value of the moment at the three-quarter point
of the unbraced segment
d = depth of the section
ro = polar radius of gyration of the cross-section about the shear
centre
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j =
1
2I y
( )
∫ A x 3 dA + ∫ A xy 2 dA − x o . . . 3.3.3(12)
3.3.4 Shear
The design shear force (φ vV v) at any cross-section shall be calculated as follows:
φv = 0.85
4.84 E o t w (Gs Go )
3
Vv = . . . 3.3.4(1)
d1
In no case shall the design shear force ( φ vV v) be greater than 0.95d 1 t w f yv,
where
φv = capacity [strength reduction] factor for shear
Vv = nominal shear capacity of the beam
tw = thickness of web
Gs/Go = plasticity reduction factor given in Appendix B
d1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web
f yv = specified shear yield stress given in Appendix B
When the web consists of two or more sheets, each sheet shall be considered as a separate
element carrying its share of the shear force.
For beam webs with transverse stiffeners satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.1, the
nominal shear capacity (V v) shall be calculated as follows:
0.904k v E o t w (Gs /G o )
3
Vv = . . . 3.3.4(2)
d1
where k v is the shear buckling coefficient and shall be determined in accordance with
Clause 2.6.2.
3.3.5 Combined bending and shear
For beams with unstiffened webs, the design bending moment (M *) and the design shear
force (V *) shall satisfy—
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2 2
M* V*
+ ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.3.5(1)
φ M φ V
b s v v
For beams with transverse web stiffeners, the design bending moment (M *) shall satisfy—
M * ≤ φ bM b . . . 3.3.5(2)
The design shear force (V *) shall satisfy—
V * ≤ φ vV v . . . 3.3.5(3)
M* V*
If > 0.5 and > 0.7 ; then M * and V * shall satisfy—
φb M s φ bV v
M* V*
0.6 + ≤ 1.3 . . . 3.3.5(4)
φ V
φb M s v v
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where
φb = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending (see Clause 3.3.1)
φv = capacity [strength reduction] factor shear (see Clause 3.3.4)
Ms = nominal section moment capacity about the centroidal axes determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.2
Vv = nominal shear capacity when shear alone exists determined in accordance
with Clause 3.3.4
M b = nominal member moment capacity when bending alone exists determined in
accordance with Clause 3.3.3
3.3.6 Bearing
This Clause applies to webs of flexural members subject to concentrated loads or reactions,
or the components thereof, acting perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member and
in the plane of the web under consideration, and causing compressive stresses in the web.
To avoid failure of unstiffened flat webs of flexural members having a flat width ratio
( )
(d 1/t w) less than or equal to 200, the design concentrated loads and reactions Rb* shall
satisfy—
Rb* ≤ φ w Rb . . . 3.3.6(1)
where
φ w = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bearing
= 0.70 for single unstiffened webs and I-sections
R b = nominal capacity for concentrated load or reaction for one solid web
connecting top and bottom flanges
The values of R b for stiffened and unstiffened flanges, and for the appropriate type and
position of loads, are given in Table 3.3.6. Webs of flexural members for which d 1 /t w is
greater than 200 shall be provided with means of transmitting concentrated loads and
reactions directly into the webs.
The equations in Table 3.3.6 apply, if—
(a) l b/tw ≤ 210 and lb/d1 ≤ 3.5;
(b) r i/tw ≤ 6 for beams; and
r i/tw ≤ 7 for decking and cladding;
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(c)
where
l b = actual length of bearing. For the case of two equal and opposite concentrated
loads distributed over unequal bearing lengths, the smaller value of l b shall be
taken
t w = thickness of web
r i = inside bend radius
For two or more webs, R b shall be calculated for each individual web and the results added
to obtain the nominal concentrated load or reaction for the multiple web. Where two webs
of a beam are inclined in opposite directions, the R b equations may be applied to such webs
only if they are restrained against spreading.
For built-up I-sections, or similar sections, the distance between the web connector and
beam flange shall be kept as small as practicable.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE 3.3.6
NOMINAL VALUES OF Rb
I-sections or similar sections
Shapes with single webs
(See Note 1)
Type and position of loads
Stiffened, partially stiffened and unstiffened
Stiffened or partially stiffened flanges Unstiffened flanges
flanges
End reaction
Opposing loads (see Note 3) t 2C3C4Cθ (2.28 - 0.0042 (d1 t )) (1 + 0.01 (lb t )) t 2C3C4Cθ (1.51 - 0.002 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.01(lb t )) (
t 2 f y c b 0.01 + 0.00125 lb t )
spaced greater
( )
than 1.5d 1 Interior
(see Note 2) reaction t 2C1C2Cθ (3.71 - 0.005 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.007 (lb t )) t 2C1C2Cθ (3.71 - 0.005 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.007 (lb t )) t 2 f yC5 (0.88 + 0.12m ) 0.015 + 0.00325 lb t
(see Note 4)
Opposing loads End reaction t 2C3C4Cθ (1.68 - 0.004 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.01(lb t )) t 2C3C4Cθ (1.68 - 0.004 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.01(lb t )) (
t 2 f yC8 (0.64 + 0.31m ) 0.01 + 0.00125 lb t )
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48
1.5d 1 reaction t 2C1C2Cθ (5.32 - 0.016 (d1 t ))(1 + 0.0013 (lb t )) t 2C1C2Cθ (5.32 - 0.016 (d1 t )) (1 + 0.0013(lb t )) t 2 f yC7 (0.82 + 0.15m ) 0.015 + 0.00325 lb t
(see Note 5) (see Note 4)
NOTES:
1 I-sections made of two channels connected back-to-back, or similar sections that provide high degree of restraint against rotation of the web, such as I-sections made
by welding two angles to the channel.
2 At locations of one concentrated load or reaction acting either on top or bottom flange, if clear distance between bearing edges of this and adjacent opposite
concentrated loads or reactions is greater than 1.5d 1 .
3 For end reactions of beams or concentrated loads on end of cantilevers if distance from edge of bearing to end of beam is less than 1.5d 1 .
4 For reactions and concentrated loads if distance from edge of bearing to end of beam is greater than or equal to 1.5d 1 .
5 At locations of two opposite concentrated loads or of concentrated load and opposite reaction acting simultaneously on top and bottom flanges, if clear distance
between their adjacent bearing edges is less than or equal to 1.5d 1 .
6 If l b/t > 60, the factor (1 + 0.01 (l b/t)) may be increased to (0.71 + 0.015 (l b/t)).
7 If l b/t > 60, the factor (1 + 0.07 (l b/t)) may be increased to (0.75 + 0.011 (l b/t)).
49 AS/NZS 4673:2001
d1 t 1
C8 = 0.98 − . . . 3.3.6(10)
865 k
θ
2
Cθ = 0.7 + 0.3 . . . 3.3.6(11)
90
fy = specified yield stress in longitudinal compression
d1 = depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane of the web
k = f y/228 . . . 3.3.6(12)
m = non-dimensional thickness
= t/1.91 . . . 3.3.6(13)
lb = actual length of bearing
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For the case of two equal and opposite concentrated loads distributed over unequal bearing
lengths, the smaller value of l b shall be taken.
ri = inside bend radius
θ = angle between the plane of the web and the plane of the bearing surface. θ
shall be within the following limits:
90° ≥ θ ≥ 45°
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3.4.1 General
This Clause applies to members in which the resultant of all loads acting on the member is
an axial load passing through the centroid of the effective section calculated at the stress
(f n). The design compressive axial force ( φ c Nc ) shall be calculated as follows:
(a) φc = 0.85
(b) Nc = Ae f n . . . 3.4.1(1)
where
φ c = capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in compression
Nc = nominal member capacity of the member in compression
A e = effective area calculated at buckling stress f n
f n = the least of the flexural, torsional and flexural-torsional buckling stress
determined in accordance with Clauses 3.4.2 to 3.4.5
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Where local distortions in compression members under service loads shall be limited, the
design compressive axial force ( φ d Nld ) shall be determined as follows:
φd = 1.0
Nld = Af b . . . 3.4.1(2)
where
fb = permissible compressive stresses determined in accordance with
Clause 3.3.2.4
Angle sections shall be designed for the design axial force (N*) acting simultaneously with
a moment equal to N*l/1000 applied about the minor principal axis causing compression in
the tips of the angle legs.
NOTE: The slenderness ratio (le/r) of all compression members should not be greater than 200,
except that during construction only, le/r should not be greater than 300.
3.4.2 Sections not subject to torsional or flexural-torsional buckling
For doubly symmetric sections, closed cross-sections and any other sections that can be
shown not to subject to torsional or flexural-torsional buckling, the flexural buckling stress
(f oc) shall be determined as follows:
π 2 Et
f oc = ≤ fy . . . 3.4.2(1)
(kl r )2
where
E t = tangent modulus in compression corresponding to the buckling stress given in
Appendix B
k = effective length factor
l = unbraced length of the member
r = radius of gyration of the full, unreduced cross-section
Alternatively, the design compressive axial force can be calculated as follows:
φ c = 0.9
Nc = Aef n . . . 3.4.2(2)
where
fy
≤ fy
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fn = . . . 3.4.2(3)
φ + φ 2 − λ2
1
φ = 2 1+η + λ
2
( ) . . . 3.4.2(4)
(
η = α (λ − λ1 ) − λ o
β
) . . . 3.4.2(5)
kl fy
λ = . . . 3.4.2(6)
r π Eo
2
Values for α , β, λo and λ1 shall be as given in Table 3.4.2, and values for E o shall be as
given in Appendix B.
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TABLE 3.4.2
VALUES OF α , β , λ 0 AND λ 1
FOR TYPES 304, 304L, 316, 316L, 409, 1.4003, 430 AND S31803
Types
Property
304, 316 340L, 316L 409 1.4003 430 S31803
α 1.59 1.59 0.77 0.94 1.04 1.16
β 0.28 0.28 0.19 0.15 0.14 0.13
λo 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.56 0.59 0.65
λ1 0.20 0.20 0.19 0.27 0.33 0.42
NOTES:
1 In frames where lateral stability is provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls,
attachment to an adjacent structure having adequate lateral stability, or floor slabs
or roof decks secured horizontally by walls or bracing systems parallel to the plane
of the frame, and in trusses, the effective length factor (k) for compression
members, which do not depend upon their own bending stiffness for lateral stability
of the frame or truss, should be taken as equal to the unbraced length (l), unless
analysis shows that a smaller value may be used.
2 In a frame that depends upon its own bending stiffness for lateral stability, the
effective length (kl) of the compression members should be determined by a rational
method and should not be less than the actual unbraced length.
1
fn = σ ex + σ t − (σ ex + σ t ) 2 − 4 βσ ex σ t . . . 3.4.4(1)
2β
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N* C mx M x* C my M y*
(a) + + ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.5(1)
φc Nc φ b M bx α nx φ b M byα ny
*
N* M x* My
(b) + + ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.5(2)
φ c N s φ b M bx φ b M by
If N*/ φc Nc ≤ 0.15, the following may be used in lieu of Items (a) and (b):
*
N* M x* My
+ + ≤ 1.0 . . . 3.5(3)
φ c N c φ b M bx φ b M by
where
Nc = nominal member capacity of the member in compression determined in
accordance with Clause 3.4
C mx, C my = coefficients for unequal end moment whose value shall be taken as
follows:
(i) For compression members in frames subject to joint translation
(side-sway):
C m = 0.85
(ii) For restrained compression members in frames braced against joint
translation and not subject to transverse loading between their
supports in the plane of bending:
C m = 0.6 − 0.4 (M 1/M2) . . . 3.5(4)
M 1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to the larger moment at the
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M bx, M by = nominal member moment capacity about the x- and y-axes, respectively,
determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.3
φb = capacity [strength reduction] factor for bending
= 0.90 for beam sections with stiffened and partially stiffened compression
flanges
= 0.85 for beam sections with unstiffened compression flanges; or
= 0.85 for laterally unbraced beam
φc = capacity [strength reduction] factor for members in compression
= 0.85
Ns = nominal section capacity of the member in compression determined in
accordance with Clause 3.4, with f n equal to f y
α nx, α ny = moment amplification factors
N*
= 1 − . . . 3.5(5)
N
e
Ne = elastic buckling load
= λ2 E o I b /l eb2 . . . 3.5(6)
Ib = second moment of area of the full, unreduced cross-section about the
bending axis
leb = effective length in the plane of bending
where b is the flat width of the compression flange, and for which the
compressed portion of the web to its thickness is not greater than λ 1 , M s shall be
calculated as follows:
Ms = f yS p . . . 3.6.2(2)
where S p is the plastic section modulus.
(ii) For non-compact sections (b/t > λ1 ), the design bending moment ( φ b M s ) shall be
determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.1.
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m = distance from the shear centre of one channel to the mid-plane of its
web (see Appendix H).
The intensity of the design load (q) shall be obtained by dividing the magnitude of the
design concentrated loads or reactions by the length of bearing. For beams designed for a
uniformly distributed load, q shall be equal to three times the intensity of the uniformly
distributed design load. If the length of bearing of a concentrated load or reaction is less
than the weld spacing (s w), the design tensile force of the welds or connections closest to
the load or reaction shall be determined as follows:
mRb*
N* = . . . 4.1.1(4)
2s g
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The maximum longitudinal spacing of connections (s max. ) depends upon the intensity of the
load applied directly at the connection. Therefore, if uniform spacing of connections is used
over the whole length of the beam, it shall be determined at the point of maximum local
load intensity. In cases where this procedure may result in uneconomically close spacing,
either of the following methods may be adopted:
(i) The connection spacing may be varied along the beam in accordance with the
variation of the load intensity.
(ii) The reinforcing cover plates may be welded to the flanges at points where
concentrated loads occur. The design shear force of the connections joining these
plates to the flanges shall then be used for N* and s g shall be taken as the depth of the
beam.
4.1.2 Spacing of connections in compression elements
The spacing (s) in the line of stress of welds and bolts connecting a cover plate or sheet in
compression, to a non-integral stiffener or another element shall not be greater than—
(a) that which is required to transmit the shear between the connected parts on the basis
of the design shear force per connection specified in this Clause;
(b) 1.11t E t /f c , where t is the thickness of the cover plate or sheet, E t is the tangent
modulus in compression and f c is the stress at service load in the cover plate or sheet.
(c) three times the flat width (b 1 ) of the narrowest unstiffened compression element
tributary to the connections, but not less than 1.03t E o /f y if b/t < 0.50 E o /f y , or
1.24t E o /f y if b/t ≥ 0.50 E o /f y , unless closer spacing is required by Item (a) or
Item (b).
In the case of intermittent fillet welds parallel to the direction of stress, the spacing shall be
taken as the clear distance between welds plus 12 mm. In all other cases, the spacing shall
be taken as the centre-to-centre distance between connections.
This Clause does not apply to cover sheets that act only as sheeting material, and shall not
be considered as load-carrying elements.
4.3.1 General
Restraints shall be designed to restrain lateral bending or twisting of a loaded beam or
column, and to avoid local buckling at the points of attachment.
4.3.2 Symmetrical beams and columns
Restraints and restraint systems, including connections, shall be designed in accordance
with the strength and stiffness requirements.
4.3.3 Channel and Z-section beams
4.3.3.1 General
The requirements for bracing to restrain twisting of channels and Z-sections used as beams
and loaded in the plane of the web, apply only if—
(a) the top flange is connected to the deck or sheeting material in such a manner as
effectively to restrain lateral deflection of the connected flange; or
(b) neither flange is connected.
If both flanges are connected, further bracing is not required.
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5.1 GENERAL
Connections shall be designed to transmit the design action effects derived for the structure
at that connection, or joint, from analysis in accordance with accepted principles of
structural mechanics.
Connections and joints shall be proportioned so as to be consistent with the assumptions
made in the analysis of the structure and comply with this Section. Consideration shall be
given to load paths and eccentricity.
There are a number of suitable fastening systems to join stainless steel structural members
or component parts such as welding, bolting, screwing, riveting, clinching, pinning or
structural adhesive. These systems may be used singly or in combination
This Section applies to welded and bolted connections.
Design capacities of specific connections may be obtained by prototype testing in
accordance with Section 6.
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This Clause applies to fillet welds in lap or T joints between stainless steel structural
elements, loaded either longitudinal (parallel) or transverse to the line of the weld.
5.2.3.2 Longitudinal loading
A fillet weld subjected to a longitudinal shear force shall satisfy—
V w* ≤ φV w . . . 5.2.3.2(1)
where
Vw* = design longitudinal shear force on a fillet weld
φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a fillet weld
= 0.55
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5.2.4.1 General
This Clause applies to Types 301, 304 and 316 stainless steel sheets joined by electric
resistance single impulse spot welding or pulsation spot welding.
5.2.4.2 Shear
A resistance spot weld subjected to a shear force shall satisfy—
V w* ≤ φV w . . . 5.2.4.2
where
Vw* = design shear force on a resistance spot weld
φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a resistance spot weld for shear
= 0.60
Vw = nominal shear capacity of a resistance spot weld (see Tables 5.2.4(1)
and 5.2.4(2)), as appropriate.
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5.2.4.3 Tension
A resistance spot weld subjected to a tensile force shall satisfy—
N w* ≤ φN w . . . 5.2.4.3
where
N w* = design tensile force on a resistance spot weld
φ = capacity [strength reduction] factor of a resistance spot weld for tensile force
= 0.60
Nw = nominal tensile capacity of a resistance spot weld, taken conservatively as
25% of the nominal shear capacity given in Table 5.2.4(A) for single impulse
spot welding, or Table 5.2.4(B) for pulsation spot welding, for the appropriate
thickness of the thinnest outside sheet.
5.2.5 Tubular connections
The design capacity of welded connections in rectangular, square and circular hollow
sections shall be determined in accordance with Appendix J.
TABLE 5.2.4(A)
NOMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY (Vw) OF SINGLE IMPULSE SPOT WELDS
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TABLE 5.2.4(B)
NOMINAL SHEAR CAPACITY (Vw) OF PULSATION SPOT WELDS
NOTE: The range of thicknesses given for pulsation spot welding is not intended to
indicate that single-impulse spot welding cannot be used for welding these thicknesses.
TABLE 5.3.2
MAXIMUM SIZE OF BOLT HOLES
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where
N f* = design tensile force in the connected part
φ = 0.70
Nf = nominal tensile capacity of the connected part
= An f t . . . 5.3.5(2)
An = net area of the connected part at the line of bolts transverse to the line of the
applied force
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ft = tensile strength for connections with washers under both bolt head and nut,
determined as follows:
(a) For single shear connections:
f t = (1.0 − rf + (2.5rf d f /sf ) ) f u ≤ f u . . . 5.3.5(3)
(b) For double shear connection:
f t = (1.0 − 0.9rf + (3rf d f /s f ) ) f u ≤ f u . . . 5.3.5(4)
rf = ratio of the force transmitted by the bolt or bolts at the section considered,
divided by the tensile force in the member at that section. If r f is less than 0.2,
it may be taken as zero
sf = spacing of bolts transverse to the line of the force, or in the case of a single
bolt, the width of the connected part
fu = tensile strength of the connected part in the direction of the applied force.
In addition, N f* shall not be greater than 0.85A n f y, where f y is the specified yield stress in
tension of the connected part.
5.3.6 Bearing capacity of the connected part
For lapped joints between structural members in which bolts are loaded in shear, the design
( )
bearing force Vb* at a bolt shall be such that in a connected part—
Vb* ≤ φVb . . . 5.3.6(1)
where
φ = 0.65
V b = nominal bearing capacity per bolt of the connected part, where bolts have
washers under both bolt head and nut, determined as follows:
(a) For single shear connections:
V b = 2.0d f t f u . . . 5.3.6(2)
5.3.7.1 General
The design capacity of bolts determined in accordance with Clause 5.3.7 applies to bolts
complying with ASTM A 193/A 193 M, ASTM A 276 and ASTM F 593.
The design capacity described in this Clause is based on the provisions of ANSI/ASCE-8-
90.
The nominal shear strength (f nv) and the nominal tensile strength (f nt ) for stainless steel
bolts complying with ASTM Standards shall be obtained from Table 5.3.7, as appropriate.
5.3.7.2 Bolts in shear
( )
The design shear force Vfv* for bolts loaded in shear shall satisfy—
Vfv* ≤ φVfv . . . 5.3.7.2(1)
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where
φ = 0.65
V fv = nominal shear capacity of the stainless steel bolt
= Af f nv . . . 5.3.7.2(2)
A f = gross cross-sectional area of the stainless steel bolt
f nv = nominal shear strength of the stainless steel bolt given in Table 5.3.7.
5.3.7.3 Bolts in tension
( )
The design tensile force N ft* shall satisfy—
N ft* ≤ φN ft . . . 5.3.7.3(1)
where
φ = 75
Nft = Af f nt . . . 5.3.7.3(2)
f nt = nominal tensile strength of the stainless steel bolt given in Table 5.3.7
The pull-over (pull-through) capacity of the connected part at the bolt head, nut or washer
shall be considered where bolt tension is concerned.
The increase in pull-out force resulting from bending moments or prying forces transmitted
into the bolt from various adjacent structural components shall be taken into account.
5.3.7.4 Bolts in combined shear and tension
For a bolt subjected simultaneously to a design shear force (Vfv* ) and a design tensile force
(N ), the design tensile force (N ) shall satisfy—
*
ft
*
ft
Vfv*
= ≤ f nv . . . 5.3.7.4(5)
Af
f nv = nominal shear strength given in Table 5.3.7
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TABLE 5.3.7
NOMINAL SHEAR AND TENSILE STRENGTHS FOR STAINLESS STEEL BOLTS
COMPLYING WITH ASTM STANDARDS
No threads in Threads in
mm MPa
shear plane shear plane
201
All 311 232 386
(see Note 2)
304, 316
All 311 232 386
(see Note 3)
304, 316
≤ 12.7 372 279 465
(see Notes 5)
304, 316
≤ 19.1 517 388 646
(see Note 7)
304, 316
6.4 ≤ d f ≤ 38.1 290 217 362
(see Note 4)
304, 316
6.4 ≤ d f ≤ 15.9 393 295 491
(see Note 6)
304, 316
19.1 ≤ d f ≤ 38.1 331 248 414
(see Note 6)
430
All 248 186 310
(see Note 2)
430
6.4 ≤ d f ≤ 38.1 290 217 362
(see Note 4)
NOTES:
1 Reduction of the nominal strength given in this Table is required for d f < 12.7 mm. For d f <
12.7 mm, the value shall be reduced to 0.9f nv for nominal shear strength and to 0.9f nt for nominal
tensile strength.
2 Condition A in ASTM A 276, hot-finished or cold-finished.
3 Condition A in ASTM A 276, hot-finished and Class 1(solution-treated) in ASTM A 193/A 193M,
hot-finished.
4 Condition A in ASTM F 593, machined from annealed or solution-annealed stock or hot-formed
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and solution-annealed. The minimum tensile strength is based on tests on the machined specimen.
5 Condition A in ASTM A 276, cold-finished.
6 Condition CW in ASTM F 593, headed and rolled from annealed stock thus acquiring a degree of
cold work. Sizes 19.05 mm diameter and larger may be hot-worked. The minimum tensile strength
is based on tests on the machined specimen.
7 Condition B (cold-worked) in ASTM A 276 cold-finished and Class 2 (solution-treated and strain-
hardened) in ASTM A 193/A 193M.
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The design capacity described in this Clause is based on the provisions of ENV 1993-1-1
and ENV 1993-1-4.
For items resisting shear or tension through the threaded portion with cut threads, such as
anchor bolts or tie rods fabricated from round stainless steel bars where the threads are cut
by the steelwork fabricator and not by a specialist bolt manufacturer, the relevant values
given in Table 5.3.8 shall be reduced by multiplying them by a factor of 0.85.
The nominal yield stress (f ny) and the nominal tensile strength (f nt ) for stainless steel bolts
complying with ISO 3506 shall be obtained from Table 5.3.8, as appropriate.
The specified properties shall be verified by a recognized quality control system, with
samples from each batch of fasteners.
TABLE 5.3.8
BOLTS COMPLYING WITH ISO 3506
NOTES:
1 In addition to the various steel types specified in ISO 3506 under property classes 50, 70 and 80, other
steel types to EN 10088-3 may also be used.
2 For bolts of property classes 70 and 80 with lengths greater than 8 diameters or with sizes larger than M20,
the values of the mechanical properties shall be obtained from the bolt manufacturer.
Vfv* ≤ φVfv
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Where
φ = 0.44
V fv = Ab f nt if the shear plane passes through the unthreaded portion of the bolt; or
= Abs f nt if the shear plane passes through the threaded portion of the bolt
A b = gross cross-sectional area of the bolt
A bs = tensile stress area of the bolt
f nt = nominal tensile strength of the stainless steel bolt given in Table 5.3.8
The shear strength of a bolt in a lapped joint shall be the lesser of the shear capacity of the
bolt (φV fv) or the bearing capacity per bolt ( φ V b ), specified in Clause 5.3.6.
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where
d m = mean of the across points and across flats dimensions of the bolt head or the
nut, whichever is smaller
tp = thickness of the plate under the bolt head or the nut
5.3.8.4 Bolts in combined shear and tension
A bolt subjected simultaneously to a design shear force ( Vfv* ) and a design tensile force
( N ft* ) shall satisfy—
Vfv* N ft*
+ ≤ 1.0
0.44Vfv 0.94 N ft
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S E C T IO N 6 T E S T IN G
NOTE: For further information regarding compression testing using coupons or stub columns,
reference may be made to ASTM E9, and to Technical Memoranda Nos 2 and 3 of the
Column Research Council, ‘Notes on Compression Testing of Materials’, and ‘Stub-Column
Test Procedure’, reprinted in the Column Research Council Guide to Stability Design Criteria
for Metal Structures, Fifth Edition, 1998. Where tangent or secant moduli are to be derived
from compression tests, reference is made to ASTM E111.
6.1.4 Testing of full sections
This Clause applies only to the determination of the mechanical properties of a fully
formed section for the purposes specified in Clause 1.5.2.4. It shall not be interpreted as
forbidding the use of test procedures instead of the usual design calculations.
The procedure shall be as follows:
(a) Determine the tensile yield stress (f yt ) in accordance with AS 1391 or the compressive
yield stress (f yc) by coupon testing in accordance with ASTM E9.
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TABLE 6.2.2
FACTORS (k t) TO ALLOW FOR VARIABILITY OF STRUCTURAL UNITS
k sc = k f2 + k m2 . . . 6.2.2.3
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APPENDIX A
LIST OF REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
(Normative)
The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
AS
1170 Minimum design loads on structures
1170.1 Part 1: Dead and live loads and load combinations
1170.2 Part 2: Wind loads
1170.3 Part 3: Snow loads
1170.4 Part 4: Earthquake loads
1210 Pressure vessels
1391 Methods for tensile testing of metals
1449 Wrought alloy-steels—Stainless and heat-resisting steel plate, sheet and
strip
4100 Steel structures
4100 Supp 1 Steel structures — Commentary (Supplement to AS 4100 — 1998)
AS/NZS
1554 Structural steel welding
1554.1 Part 1: Welding of steel structures
1554.5 Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of fatigue
loading
1554.6 Part 6: Welding stainless steels for structural purposes
NZS
3404 Steel structures Standard
3404.2 Part 2: Commentary to the steel structures Standard
4203 Code of practice for general structural design and design loadings for
buildings (Volume 1 Code of practice; Volume 2 Commentary)
ASTM
A167 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-resisting Chromium-
Nickel Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
A176 Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium-
Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip
A193 Standard Specification for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting
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ANSI
ANSI/AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code—Sheet Steel
ANSI/ASCE-8-90 Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural
Members
ANSI/AWS
C1.1 Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding
EN
10088 Stainless Steels
10088-1 Part 1: List of Stainless Steels
10088-2 Part 2: Technical Delivery Conditions for Sheet/Plate and Strip for
General Purposes
10088-3 Part 3: Technical Delivery Conditions for Semi-Finished Products,
Bars, Rods and Sections for General Purposes
ENV
1993-1-1 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
1993-1-4 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
Part:1-4: General rules—Supplementary rules for stainless steels
ISO
3506 Mechanical properties of corrosion-resistant stainless-steel fasteners
3506-1 Part 1: Bolts, screws and studs
3506-2 Part 2: Nuts
3506-3 Part 3: Set screws and similar fasteners not under tensile stress
7089 Plain washers—Normal series—Product grade A
7090 Plain washers, chamford—Normal series—Product grade A
JIS
G4305 Cold-rolled stainless steel plates, sheets and strip
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APPENDIX B
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(Normative)
The stress-strain relationship for stainless steels can be expressed analytically by the
Ramberg-Osgood equation as follows:
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n
f f
ε= + 0.002 . . . B1(1)
Eo fy
where
ε = normal strain
f = normal engineering stress
E o = initial elastic modulus
n = constant
(
log ε y ε p )
log ( f )
= . . . B1(2)
yc f pc
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= Go
f n -1
1 + 0.003Go v n
f yv
Mechanical properties of cold-formed stainless steels for design calculation are given in
Tables B1(A) to B1(E).
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TABLE B1(A)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR LONGITUDINAL TENSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 185 195 185 200
Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 205 280 275 430
Ramberg–Osgood parameter n — 7.5 7.5 11 9 8.5 5.5
Proportional limit fp MPa 140 140 155 180 195 245
Ultimate strength fu MPa 520 485 380 435 450 590
TABLE B1(B)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR LONGITUDINAL COMPRESSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 185 210 185 195
Yield stress fy MPa 195 195 205 260 275 435
Ramberg–Osgood parameter n — 4 4 9.5 7.5 6.5 5
Proportional limit fp MPa 90 90 150 170 170 245
TABLE B1(C)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR TRANSVERSE TENSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 200 220 200 205
Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 240 320 310 450
Ramberg–Osgood parameter n — 5.5 5.5 16 11.5 14 5
Proportional limit fp MPa 118 118 200 215 250 245
Ultimate strength fu MPa 520 485 380 460 450 620
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TABLE B1(D)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR TRANSVERSE COMPRESSION
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus Eo GPa 195 195 200 230 200 205
Yield stress fy MPa 205 205 240 285 310 445
Ramberg–Osgood parameter n — 7 7 16 11.5 15 5.5
Proportional limit fp MPa 135 135 200 220 255 265
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TABLE B1(E)
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR SHEAR
304, 304L,
409 1.4003 430 S31803
316 316L
Initial elastic modulus G GPa 75 75 75 75 75 75
Yield stress f yv MPa 115 115 130 130 165 255
Ramberg–Osgood parameter n — 6 6 13 10 11 5.5
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TABLE B2
TENSILE PROPERTIES OF DEPOSITED WELD METAL
FOR ALL-WELD-METAL SPECIMENS COVERED ELECTRODES
FOR MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW)
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TABLE B2 (continued)
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APPENDIX C
STAINLESS STEEL PROPERTIES
(Informative)
C1 INTRODUCTION
This Appendix gives general guidance only on the use of stainless steels in structures.
Specialist advice should always be obtained in relation to specific applications to ensure
that all relevant factors have been properly accounted for.
Figure C1 shows schematically the processes that are used to produce cold-formed
structural members. The steel thickness in these members is generally limited by the
capacity of cold-forming equipment to about 6 mm.
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NOTE: BA (2R) finish designations are in accordance with ASTM A480/AS1449, with EN 10088 designation
shown in parentheses.
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The low carbon ‘L’ variants of grades 304 and 316 contain a maximum of 0.03%
carbon. This greatly reduces their susceptibility to sensitization by the heat of
welding (see Paragraph C6.3.5). The use of ‘L’ grades generally gives no significant
advantage for section thicknesses less than about 6 mm.
(b) Ferritic stainless steels The ferritic stainless steels contain relatively little nickel
and have a ferritic microstructure, as do plain carbon and carbon manganese steels.
They are readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Strength in the annealed
condition is similar to austenitic grades, but ductility, formability and weldability are
not as good as in the austenitic steels. Although generally not as corrosion resistant as
the austenitic grades, their resistance to stress corrosion cracking is superior. As with
austenitic grades, they can be hardened by cold working, not by heat treatment, but
the strength achieved is much less than for the austenitic grades. It is generally
difficult to produce reliable structural welds in ferritic stainless steels. An exception
are a group of corrosion resistant steels containing ~12% chromium, conforming to
1.4003 (EN 10088), which are widely used in mildly corrosive environments for non-
decorative applications in machinery and rail wagons for minerals; however,
specialist assessment of suitability for specific application and fabrication processes
is still required.
(c) Martensitic stainless steels These steels can be hardened by heat treatment. They are
readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Great strengths can be achieved.
Toughness may not be adequate for structural application and should be considered in
design. They are not normally used structurally in welded fabrication. They are used
for bolts, connecting nodes and as wear components.
(d) Duplex (austenitic-ferritic) stainless steels These steels have a mixed microstructure
of austenite and ferrite, and combine some of the best properties of the austenitic and
ferritic groups. They are readily available in flat rolled and cast forms. Compared to
the austenitic group, they have higher mechanical strengths, slightly inferior
weldability, lower formability and similar or higher corrosion resistance especially
with respect to stress corrosion cracking. They can be hardened by cold-working.
Several of the grades in this group have higher alloy content and hence better
corrosion resistance than the most common austenitic grades, 304 and 316. The most
common duplex grade in structures is UNS S31803 (1.4462 in EN 10088), which
contains 22% chromium, 5% nickel and 3% molybdenum.
(e) Precipitation hardening stainless steels These offer the highest strengths, obtained
by suitable heat treatments, which precipitate second phase particles which increase
strength. They are readily available in cast rolls and vast forms. Very high strength
levels, with yield stress greater than 1000 MPa, may be obtained in some grades.
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Precipitation hardening stainless steels may have an austenitic or ferritic matrix. They
are not normally used in welded fabrications, as they require heat treatment and
surface finishing after welding. The most common grade of precipitation hardening
stainless steel is UNS S17400, also known as grade 630.
Further information on the various groups and types of stainless steels may be found in
standard texts (e.g. Ref. 1 given in Paragraph C9). Table C1 gives the availability of
stainless steel products by grade.
C2.3 Effect of product form
This Appendix applies mainly to the wrought forms of the selected alloys. Cast forms
generally have corrosion resistance equivalent to the wrought forms, but several differences
exist. One of the more important is that the microstructure of cast austenitic stainless steels
generally contains more ferrite than the wrought form. This facilitates the casting process
and weld repair, and also increases the resistance to stress corrosion cracking
(see Paragraph C7.3.7). Cast steels also differ in mechanical properties, physical properties
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and chemical composition. Because of the formation of larger grain sizes and other
differences in microstructure, mechanical properties of cast steels exhibit a wider range and
may be inferior to wrought steels. Cast stainless steels are often manufactured for a specific
application, and properties may vary to suit the application. Note that Standards are
available for cast stainless steels and should be referred to.
TABLE C1
AVAILABILITY OF STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCTS BY GRADE
304L ✔ — — ✔ — — —
310 ✔ ✔ ✔ — — — ✔
316 ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
316L ✔ — — — — — —
409 — ✔ — ✔ — — —
1.4003 ✔ ✔ — — — — —
430 — ✔ — — — — —
S31803 ✔ ✔ ✔ — — — —
stabilize the ferritic crystal structure. Nickel promotes the formation of the more ductile and
weldable austenitic crystal microstructure, and about 8% of nickel is required to ensure a
fully austenitic microstructure in the most common stainless steels, which contain about
18% chromium. Higher levels of nickel may be added to promote resistance to stress
corrosion cracking.
Molybdenum is added in small amounts (up to about 7%) to stainless steels principally to
improve the resistance to corrosion. It is particularly effective in improving resistance to
pitting and crevice corrosion. Molybdenum also increases the high temperature strength of
austenitic grades, and increases room temperature strength and tempering resistance of
martensitic grades.
Carbon is always present in stainless steels. The carbon content is controlled for an
optimum balance of strength to which it contributes, and corrosion resistance and
weldability, which it may impair if present at excessive levels. Some grades intended for
service at high temperatures or for high strength or wear resistance may have a minimum
level of carbon.
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Nitrogen behaves in a similar way to carbon in stainless steels, although the same content of
nitrogen is less damaging than carbon to corrosion resistance and weldability.
Elements such as titanium, niobium and tantalum may be added, particularly to the
austenitic and ferritic grades, to reduce susceptibility to sensitization and hence
intergranular corrosion particularly in the welded condition. This approach to the
improvement of corrosion properties has largely been superseded in the austenitic grades by
limitation of the carbon content to a maximum of 0.03%. This can be readily achieved by
modern steelmaking equipment, and is sufficiently low to avoid sensitization even in
welded heavy sections of the austenitic grades.
Elements such as sulphur, selenium and calcium may be added to improve machinability,
although this may be at the expense of corrosion and oxidation resistance. The deleterious
effect of calcium is less than that of sulphur.
C4 SURFACE FINISH
In many applications, surface finish and appearance are important. Manufacturers offer a
range of standard finishes, from mill finish through dull finishes to bright polish. They may
also offer proprietary textured finishes. Mill finishes result from the operations used to
produce the product form, while decorative finishes are applied afterwards. Mill finishes are
often difficult to repair after damage or fabrication, while decorative finishes can generally
be matched satisfactorily.
The most common mill and decorative finishes on cold-formed structural sections are 2B
and No. 4 respectively. 2B finish results from the sequence of operations used to produce
the section (see Figure C1). No. 4 is produced by a further surface finishing operation,
using abrasive grit with a particle size of about 120 to 150 grade. It may be applied either to
the flat product used to manufacture cold-formed sections, or to the cold-formed sections.
It should be noted that although the various finishes are standardized, variability in
processing introduces differences in appearance between manufacturers and even within a
single producer. Bright finishes are frequently used in architectural applications and it
should be noted that bright finishes will exaggerate any out-of-flatness of the material,
particularly on panel surfaces. Rigidized, embossed, textured, patterned, or profiled sheets
with a rigid supporting frame will alleviate this tendency.
Stainless steel may also be given colour, either chemically, or by painting.
Consult stainless steel suppliers for the full range of finishes available.
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substantially lower than the tensile yield stress, particularly in the temper-rolled condition.
C5.1.3 Anisotropy
Stainless steel often has different stress-strain behaviour for test coupons aligned parallel
and transversely to the rolling direction; i.e. it may be anisotropic. For the austenitic grades
transverse tensile tests tend to be weaker than longitudinal tests. This is recognized by
product codes, where transverse coupons are normally specified for proving tests; however,
for duplex grades the transverse tensile strength is greater than the longitudinal strength (by
about 5%).
Thus, when non-linearity, non-symmetry and anisotropy are considered, material behaviour
is characterized by four stress-strain curves. This leads to relatively complex design. This
subject is covered in detail in Appendix B.
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At high levels of cyclic stressing, stainless steel may exhibit ratcheting, with the
strain incrementing, though at a decreasing rate, on each cycle. This phenomenon will
only rarely be a consideration for structural applications and to a large extent it is
accounted for in the partial factors of safety.
(c) Effects of temperature The austenitic grades are used for cryogenic applications,
where they remain tough and ductile. They also retain higher strengths than carbon
steel at elevated temperatures; however, the design of structures subject to long-term
exposure at cryogenic or elevated temperatures is outside the scope of this Standard.
Nevertheless, the short-term properties may be of importance, for instance when
considering fire resistance. For further information on the design of fire, see
Appendix G.
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C6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Typical room temperature physical properties of some grades in the annealed condition are
given in Table C2. Physical properties may vary slightly with product form and size but
such variations are usually not of critical importance to the application.
In structures, an important physical property is the coefficient of linear expansion (CLE).
The CLE of austenitic grades is considerably higher than that for carbon steel
(12 × 10 −6/ 0 C). The effects of differential thermal expansion should be considered in design
and fabrication.
The austenitic grades are usually considered non-magnetic, but may show low levels of
ferromagnetism (magnetic susceptibility greater than or equal to 1.003) due to the presence
of delta ferrite or martensite. The former is usually present in castings and weld metals, the
latter may be induced by cold work, such as levelling or forming strains, or at sheared
edges. Where non-magnetic properties are important, care should be exercised in selecting
appropriate grades and welding consumables, or a post-weld heat treatment applied. It is
recommended to obtain further advice for non-magnetic applications.
TABLE C2
TYPICAL ROOM TEMPERATURE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME
STAINLESS STEELS IN THE ANNEALED CONDITION
303 S30300 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
304 S30400 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
304L S30403 8000 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720
310 S31000 8000 15.9 16.2 17.0 14.2 18.7 500 780
316 S31600 8000 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
316L S31603 8000 15.9 16.2 17.5 16.2 21.5 500 740
321 S32100 8000 16.6 17.2 18.6 16.1 22.2 500 720
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1.4003 S41003 7800 10.8 11.3 12.0 31.0 32.0 480 570
410 S41000 7800 9.9 11.4 11.6 24.9 28.7 460 570
430 S43000 7800 10.4 11.0 11.4 26.1 26.3 460 600
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C7 DURABILITY — CORROSION
C7.1 Introduction
In most stainless steel structural applications, corrosion resistance is of primary importance,
for appearance, minimal maintenance or long-term durability. Hence, corrosion resistance is
often the main consideration in choosing a grade. Because stainless steels are usually used
in corrosion conditions that are challenging, appropriate design of the structure may be
required, to minimize or eradicate corrosion. If careful consideration is given to this aspect
of design, in addition to the mechanical considerations required for other materials, long
and economic lives can be achieved, often in service conditions that would give limited life
or more expensive maintenance, replacement or repair requirements for other materials.
Stainless steels are generally very corrosion resistant and will perform satisfactorily in most
environments. The limit of corrosion resistance of a given stainless steel depends on a
number of factors but in general the higher the alloy content, particularly chromium and
molybdenum, the higher the resistance, and cost.
Careful selection of the appropriate grade for a given application is, therefore, of economic
importance. The maintenance and repair schedules should also be resolved at the design
stage.
As with all metals, stainless steel can be subject to corrosion under specific conditions and
details of the major individual types of corrosion are given in the following section. It
should be emphasized that the presence of moisture, including that due to condensation, is
necessary for corrosion to occur. For atmospheric corrosion, the time of wetness is a critical
variable for the extent of corrosion experienced. There is a critical relative humidity of the
atmosphere, below which condensation will not form on the metal surface, and hence
corrosion cannot take place. The actual critical relative humidity will change, depending on
the surface condition of the metal. The presence of dust particles and other contamination
on the surface will reduce the critical relative humidity, usually to about 50 to 70%.
In some cases, the corrosion mechanism itself may not be as significant as consequences
arising from it. For example, corrosion pitting would directly limit the life of pipework, but
may not be a problem in a structure unless the pits also affect fatigue life. Where stainless
steels are used for their appearance, minor corrosion can produce stains, which constitute
failure in a structure of unimpaired integrity.
The existence of corrosion mechanisms does not imply that the stainless steels are unduly
restricted in use, or that they are ‘delicate’ materials, but simply that these sophisticated
materials demand intelligent use in order to avoid certain well-known conditions, and to get
the most out of their very considerable advantages. In nearly all cases, grade selection and
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the design of the structure are the keys to good performance, and appropriate selection and
features will eradicate or minimize corrosion. With intelligent use, stainless steels can give
long and economic lives, often in service conditions that would give limited life or more
expensive maintenance and repair requirements for other materials.
C7.2 Mechanism of corrosion resistance
The corrosion resistance of stainless steels results from a passive surface film, which, with
adequate access to oxygen or oxidizing agents, is self-healing when damaged. This film is
rich in chromium, and the corrosion resistance is strongly related to the chromium content
of the steel. The addition of nickel and other alloying elements can substantially enhance
the protection offered by the film. In particular, a few percent of molybdenum improves the
pitting resistance (see Paragraph C7.3.3) of the steel.
Corrosion initiates when the passive film is damaged, by electro-chemical attack or by
mechanical damage. Corrosion resistance is promoted by conditions that facilitate repair of
the passive film,
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sensitization.
Prolonged holding times at elevated temperatures can eventually lead to sensitization in ‘L’
grades. Thus, these grades should not be used continuously at temperatures greater than
about 425°C if full corrosion resistance is to be retained.
Intergranular corrosion (sensitizaton) is a complex subject, and a specialist’s advice
should be sought regarding stabilization and sensitization issues, as they affect both
austenitic and non-austenitic stainless steels.
C7.3.6 Galvanic corrosion
When two dissimilar metals are in contact and are connected by an electrolyte, i.e. an
electrically conducting liquid such as water, rain or condensation, a current flows from the
anodic metal to the cathodic or nobler metal through the electrolyte. As a result, the less
noble metal corrodes.
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This form of corrosion may occur when stainless steel is joined to carbon or low alloy
steels. It may also occur, though to a much smaller degree, between different types of
stainless steel. For welded joints, it is important to select welding consumables to give weld
metal that is at least as noble as the parent material. In corrosive environments such as
heavy industrial atmospheres, marine atmospheres, and where immersion in brackish or sea
water may occur, martensitic and ferritic bolts should be avoided for joining austenitic
stainless steels unless suitably insulated.
Galvanic corrosion need not be a problem with stainless steels, though sometimes its
prevention can require precautions which at first sight might seem surprising. Galvanic
corrosion can be avoided by preventing current flow by —
(a) insulating dissimilar metals, i.e. breaking the metallic path; or
(b) preventing electrolyte bridging, i.e. breaking the electrolytic path by paint or other
coating.
The risk of corrosion attack is greatest if the area of the more noble metal, e.g. stainless
steel, is large compared with the area of the less noble metal, e.g. carbon steel. Special
attention should be paid to the use of paints or other coatings on the carbon steel. If there
are any small pores or pinholes in the coating, the small area of bare carbon steel will
provide a very large cathode/anode area ratio, and severe pitting of the carbon steel may
occur. This will be most severe under immersed conditions. For this reason, it is preferable
to paint the stainless steel; any pores will lead to small area ratios. In practice, it is normal
to paint the carbon steel for protection from general corrosion, and to continue the paint
over the weld metal and a strip of stainless steel to prevent galvanic corrosion.
In some industries, e.g. petrochemical industries, all parts of the structure may need to be
earthed to inhibit spark formation. Necessarily, there can be no electrical isolation at the
earthing connection. If galvanic corrosion is a potential problem, i.e. if long periods of
wetness or immersion are envisaged, consideration may be given to special thickening of
the carbon steel to allow for galvanic corrosion in the vicinity of the earthing connection.
Solutions containing dissolved copper salts, such as copper corrosion products, should not
be allowed to contact stainless steel, as they will tend to auto-plate copper onto the surface,
occluding the self-repair of the passive film.
C7.3.7 Stress corrosion cracking
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) results from the joint action of tensile stresses in the steel
and a specific corrosive environment, in conditions where neither singly would cause
cracking. The stresses may be applied or they may be internal or residual, and they need not
be high in relation to the proof stress. Internal stresses may result from cold working,
welding or thermal gradients in service. They may also arise from the wedging action of
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Shot peening, which imparts residual compressive stresses in the surface layer of the steel,
is beneficial in reducing or preventing SCC. Clearly, any subsequent process that relieves
these residual compressive surface stresses will remove the benefit. Note that shot-
containing iron or steel should be avoided, to prevent surface contamination and subsequent
corrosion of the stainless steel.
Resistance to SCC is of particular interest in the selection of high-strength stainless steels
for fasteners. SCC should be considered when quench-hardened martensitic stainless steels
or precipitation-hardening stainless steels are used in marine or industrial locations in
which chlorides are present. The martensitic steels are liable to stress corrosion failure in a
wide variety of corrosive media if heat treated to strengths greater than about 1050 MPa.
Below this strength level, they are very resistant to cracking.
Ferritic stainless steels have good resistance to stress corrosion cracking but are not
immune.
C7.3.8 Effect of welding on corrosion resistance
Welding and other fabrication processes can have adverse effects on the corrosion
resistance of stainless steels, through mechanisms such as pitting, sensitization, galvanic
action, stress corrosion cracking and the like. Specialist advice should be sought regarding
the effects of fabrication processes on corrosion resistance for specific applications.
C7.4 Corrosion in selected environments
C7.4.1 Air
The effects of atmospheres on stainless steels vary. Rural atmospheres, uncontaminated by
industrial fumes or coastal salt, are very mildly corrosive to stainless steels, even in areas of
high humidity. Industrial and marine atmospheres are considerably more severe. Ambient
temperatures also have a very strong effect. Table C3 gives the most common structural
grades of stainless steel, 304(L), 316(L) and S31803, used in atmospheric service
environments.
The most common causes of atmospheric corrosion are particles of metallic iron or steel
contamination, arising from fabrication and transport operations, and chlorides originating
from the sea, from industrial processes or from calcium chloride in cement. Deposited
particles, although inert, may absorb weak acid solutions of sulfur dioxide from the
atmosphere, which may locally break down the passive film, or may occlude the surface,
preventing self-repair of the passive layer.
The general appearance of exposed stainless steel is affected by surface finish, the smoother
the better, and whether or not regular washing down is carried out, either intentionally or by
rain.
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It is commonly assumed that stainless steels will not corrode in atmospheric conditions, and
the occurrence of corrosion is taken to indicate imminent failure; however, the general
atmospheric corrosion rates of the 18% chromium grades are at least one thousand times
slower than for carbon steels, so the useful properties of the stainless are maintained for an
extended period, albeit with an impaired appearance. Even in aggressive marine and
industrial conditions, where pitting corrosion of stainless steels but not of carbon steels
takes place, the life of membranes (roofs, gutters) of stainless steel is several times that of
carbon steel of the same thickness.
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TABLE C3
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SELECTING GRADES OF STAINLESS STEEL
NOTES:
1 I: Indoors.
2 L: Least corrosive conditions within each location (low temperature, low humidity).
3 M: Medium, typical of each location.
4 H: Highly corrosive conditions within each location (high temperature, high humidity, air pollution).
5 O: Suitable.
6 ∆: Unsuitable; however, usable if a smooth surface finish material is used and washed frequently.
7 X: Unsuitable.
316(L) may also be more suitable where there are minor amounts of chloride present, to
avoid possible pitting and crevice corrosion problems. River water needs special
consideration; biological and microbiological activity can cause pitting in austenitic
stainless steels within a comparatively short time, particularly where anaerobic bacteria
metabolize sulfur species to produce the reducing sulfuric and sulfurous acids.
The possibility of erosion-corrosion should be considered for waters containing abrasive
particles.
C7.4.4 Chemical environments
The range of application of stainless steel in chemical environments is wide and it is not
appropriate to grade selection in this Standard. The advice of a specialist corrosion engineer
should be sought.
Charts published by manufacturers showing results of corrosion tests in various chemicals
should be used with caution. Although giving a guide to the resistance of a particular grade,
service conditions such as temperatures, pressures, concentrations, and the like, vary and
will generally differ from the test conditions. Impurities, temperature fluctuations and the
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degree of aeration can have a marked effect on results. It is also essential to consider all
parts of the operational cycle, including cleaning practices and downtimes in selecting
grades for severe corrosion service.
C7.5 Design for corrosion control
Careful attention to detailing is also important for realizing the full serviceability of
stainless steels. Anti-corrosion requirements should be considered in planning and in
design.
The following check list should be considered:
(a) Avoid dirt entrapment by (see Figure C4) —
(i) orienting angle and channel profiles to minimize dirt retention;
(ii) providing drainage holes, sufficiently large to prevent blockages;
(iii) avoiding horizontal surfaces;
(iv) specifying a small slope on nominally horizontal gusset stiffeners;
(v) using tubular and bar sections;
(vi) sealing tubes with dry gas or air where harmful condensates may form; and
(vii) specifying smooth finishes.
(b) Avoid crevices by (see Figure C4) —
(i) using welded rather than bolted connections;
(ii) using full penetration welds;
(iii) using closing welds or mastic fillers;
(iv) dressing/profiling welds to a smooth finish; and
(v) preventing biofouling.
(c) Reduce the likelihood of stress corrosion cracking in those specific environments
(where it could occur) by —
(i) minimizing fabrication stresses by careful choice of welding sequence; and
(ii) inducing compressive surface stresses by shot or bead peening (avoiding the
use of iron/steel shot).
(d) Reduce likelihood of pitting by —
(i) removing weld spatter and associated surface oxide;
(ii) pickling welds to remove high temperature oxides by using a pickling bath or
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Not all items on the check list will give the best detail from a structural strength point of
view, and neither are the items intended to be applied to all environments. In particular, in
environments of low corrosivity or where regular maintenance is carried out, many will not
be required.
NOTE: The insulating material chosen for the washer, bush and gasket should be structurally adequate to carry
the design loads and should be non-porous.
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C8 GRADE SELECTION
C8.1 Introduction
The selection of the correct grade of stainless steel should take into account the
environment of the application, the fabrication route, surface finish and the maintenance of
the structure. The maintenance is usually minimal, and no more onerous than for other
metals in decorative applications; merely washing down the stainless steel, even naturally
by rain, will markedly assist in extending the service life.
The first step is to characterize the service environment, including reasonably anticipated
deviations from the main design conditions. In categorizing atmospheric environments,
special attention should be given to highly localized conditions such as proximity to
chimneys venting corrosive fumes. Possible future developments or change of use should
also be considered. The surface condition of the steel and the temperature, and the
anticipated stress, could also be important parameters. Candidate grades can then be chosen
to give satisfactory corrosion resistance in the environment.
The selection process should consider which possible forms of corrosion might be
significant in the operating environment in accordance with Paragraph C6, which outlines
the broad principles underlying the corrosion of stainless steels, and indicates conditions
where the use of stainless steels should be free of undue risk and complication. It is also
intended to illustrate general points of good practice, as well as the circumstances where
stainless steels may have to be used with caution. In these latter conditions, specialist
advice should be sought. In many cases, the steels can still be successfully used.
The suitability of grades is best evaluated from experience of stainless steels in similar
applications and environments, and scrutiny of structures on neighbouring sites is
warranted.
Caution should be exercised when considering the use of ‘free-machining’ stainless steels
for fasteners. The addition of sulfur in the composition of these steels, commonly
designated 303 in the austenitic class, reduces their corrosion resistance, especially in
industrial and marine environments. This applies particularly to fasteners specified in
ISO 3506, grade A1 materials (see Appendix D).
C8.2 Grade selection
There are many grades of stainless steel. Paragraphs C8.2.1 to C8.2.8 refer to some of the
more common grades, which are readily available in some product forms, particularly the
flat products from which cold-formed products are usually made. Further information on
other grades is available from the references listed in Paragraph C9, or from steel suppliers.
Because of the range of factors that can affect grade selection, specialist advice should
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stress environments where there is a risk of SCC with the austenitic grades, and where there
is a risk of pitting and crevice corrosion. The grade is widely available, although mainly in
flat products.
C9 REFERENCES
1 Properties and selection, Irons, steels and high-performance alloys, Metals Handbook,
10th Edition, Volume 1, American Society for Metals, Ohio, 1990.
2 Australian stainless reference manual, 3rd Edition, Australian Stainless Steel
Development Association, Brisbane, 1998.
3 WTIA Technical Note 13—Stainless steels for corrosive environments, WTIA,
Sydney, 1983.
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APPENDIX D
STAINLESS STEEL FASTENERS
(Informative)
D1 INTRODUCTION
Fasteners are available in a wide range of forms, meeting several Australian and overseas
Standards.
The most widely available fasteners meet ISO 3506, designated A2 and A4, which
corresponds to grades 304 and 316 respectively. Care should be exercised in the use of
grade A1(303) as it has markedly inferior corrosion resistance compared to grade A2(304).
Other grades available include the following:
(a) SS2343 Known as ‘Moly plus’ in Europe. This grade has high strength, greater
than 800 MPa tensile strength, with greater than 2.5% molybdenum and
less than 0.03% carbon.
(b) 310 Used particularly in high-temperature applications, such as furnaces.
(c) 321 Some sizes of imperial continuously threaded rod are available, as well as
some imperial sizes of bolts.
(d) 301,431,420 Commonly used for smaller items where spring strength is required,
e.g. circlips, crinkle washers, rolled spring pins and spiral pins.
Fasteners have also been made to order in other grades, but are generally not stocked.
identification and the AISI steel grade, e.g. 304 or 316. A recent common practice is to use
the UNS number instead of the AISI, e.g. S31600 or S30400.
Markings generally occur only on hexagon bolts, set screws, socket cap screws and
hexagonal nuts of M5 diameter and greater.
Fasteners without markings should not immediately be dismissed as unsuitable. Standards
may not require such stringent controls or the supplier may be able to furnish a
manufacturer’s certificate with the goods to indicate their grade and authenticity.
In most cases, it is sufficient only to specify the grade of stainless steels; however, for
critical applications, a compliance certificate or letter of conformance is recommended. Full
chemical and mechanical certificates are available from reputable suppliers; however, there
may be an extra charge associated with these more detailed reports. Certificates should be
requested at the point of inquiry and stated on the purchase order. It is normal practice to
provide goods without certificates or letters of conformance.
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TABLE D1
EQUIVALENT ALLOYS
The flow chart shows stainless steel grades suitable for use in accordance with ISO 3506.
The manufacturer, however, has the option to use other stainless steels provided they meet
the requirements of ISO 3506.
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APPENDIX E
FLEXURAL MEMBERS SUBJECTED TO POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
BENDING
(Informative)
E1 GENERAL
If the geometrical properties of flexural members are based on the effective design width
accounting for flange curling and such a member is subjected to positive and negative
bending moments, e.g. in the case of a continuous beam or a rigid frame, Paragraphs E2
and E3 may apply, subject to the limitations specified in Paragraph E4.
E3 DEFLECTIONS
Deflections may be determined assuming constant section beams or frames, and are based
on a mean second moment of area, provided that the ratio of second moments of area for
positive and negative bending moment does not exceed the value specified in Paragraph E4.
E4 LIMITATIONS
For the purpose of Paragraphs E2 and E3, the ratios of geometrical properties of a member
for positive and negative bending moments, determined in accordance with this Standard,
should not exceed the following:
(a) Section moduli:
(i) Continuous beams.....................................................................................1.35.
(ii) Rigid frames .............................................................................................1.25.
(b) Second moment of area:
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APPENDIX F
FATIGUE
(Informative)
F1 GENERAL
The information in this Appendix pertains to the high cycle fatigue properties of structural
stainless steel used at or near room temperature, and not in a corrosive environment. It only
applies to grades of stainless steel listed in Clause 1.5.2.1.
Euro Inox Design Manual (Ref. 1) and Eurocode 3 (Ref. 2) are two Standards which make
recommendations for the fatigue of stainless steel. Euro Inox Design Manual and
Eurocode 3 utilize well established fatigue rules for carbon steels and apply them, with
some restrictions, to stainless steels. The fatigue provisions of Euro Inox Design Manual,
and in particular Eurocode 3 are similar to AS 4100 (Ref. 3) or NZS 3404 (Ref. 14). It is,
therefore, recommended that AS 4100 be used for the fatigue design of stainless steel
structures, within the limits of applicability specified in Paragraphs F2, F3, F4 and F5.
F2 WELD FATIGUE
Fatigue is the process by which cracks are initiated and propagate through a structure under
cyclical loading until failure. Failure may occur through the component becoming
unserviceable because of the size of the resulting fatigue cracks, or alternatively because
the component catastrophically fails, i.e. fractures. Fatigue failures may occur without
warning and may seriously compromise the capacity of a structure to carry its design load.
A further consideration is that fatigue failure will initiate from seemingly minor details in
the component. Consequently design and construction to withstand fatigue loadings requires
control of all aspects of the design, fabrication and use of a structure throughout its service
life.
Generally, fatigue failure of structural steelwork does not occur since the loadings are
largely static. Usually the dead load of a structure is large relative to its live load and so the
normal strength design is governed by this dead load. In this case the cycling live load
stresses would be small and fatigue failure probably would not occur. It is important for the
designer to identify when significant cyclical loading are applied to the structure and design
for fatigue accordingly. Significant cyclical loadings may be applied to members supporting
lifting appliances, rolling loads or vibrating machinery, or for wind-induced oscillations
(Ref. 1).
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Fatigue is normally broken into two regimes depending on the magnitude of the applied
stresses. Structural steelwork is normally fatigue loaded in the high cycle regime, whereby
the applied stresses are low, and the life of the structure is greater than about 104 stress
cycles. This is the regime covered by Euro Inox Design Manual and Eurocode 3, as well as
AS 4100. In the high cycle regime, the bulk of the structure behaves elastically, and the
fatigue design is carried out with references to a stress-life diagram (S-N diagram). At
higher stresses there is significant plasticity adjacent to the crack or stress concentration
and the strain-life diagram (ε-N diagram) provides a more discriminating measure of the
fatigue history of a structure. Low cycle fatigue is not normally relevant to structural steel
work and is not considered in Euro Inox Design Manual, Eurocode 3 and AS 4100.
For high cycle fatigue in an unwelded component, cracks are usually initiated at stress
concentrations. The magnitude of the stress concentrations in an unwelded component are
usually such that this crack initiation phase occupies a large fraction of the component’s
life. The fatigue life of an unwelded component depends on the applied maximum principal
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stress range, the magnitude and orientation of the stress concentrating feature, thickness,
material, material strength, and the presence and sign (tension or compression) of any mean
stress. The compressive part of any applied stress state (mean plus applied range) is not
damaging in unwelded components and is ignored in a fatigue assessment.
Fatigue of welded components differs fundamentally from fatigue of unwelded components
(Ref. 4). The differences can be attributed to the following:
(a) The presence of a high tensile residual stress state (high mean stress), typically of
yield magnitude in the welded component.
(b) The high stress concentration factor adjacent to the weld.
(c) The presence of weld defects.
(d) The insensitivity of crack propagation rate on mean stress for structural steels.
Unless special precautions are taken to reduce the high stress concentration around the weld
in a welded component, the initiation phase of crack growth is typically short. There also
may be pre-existing crack like weld defects in the structure. Normally the bulk of the
fatigue life of a welded component is spent on propagating a crack to failure.
The presence of the high tensile residual stresses of yield magnitude means that when a load
is superimposed, the stress range seen by the component effectively cycles from the yield
stress downwards by an amount equal to the applied stress range. This means that any mean
component of an applied stress range may be ignored, and that even fully compressive
stress ranges are as damaging as the equivalent fully tensile stress ranges. A further factor
is that the crack propagation rate is largely insensitive to the applied mean stress.
Another consideration is that in high cycle fatigue of welded structures, the strength of the
material is largely irrelevant. Ref. 4 indicates that the S-N curves of welded components up
to around 800 MPa UTS are similar. This is in direct contrast to the situation in an
unwelded component, where the fatigue life improves with increasing strength. Most
structural fatigue Standards contain provisions for fatigue of components with specified
yield strengths up to about 700 MPa.
The relevant carbon steel high cycle fatigue Standards such as Euro Inox Design Manual,
Eurocode 3 and AS 4100 take the above into account when formulating their
recommendations. Design for fatigue using these Standards requires identification of the
relevant fatigue detail classification. Various types of welded joints are classified into
groups according to their capability of resisting fatigue loads. Each of these groups are
assigned a unique S-N curve, and this then becomes the fatigue detail classification for the
detail or group of details. These detail classifications have been selected based on a large
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number of fatigue tests on typical welded details. Since this is the case, the fatigue detail
classifications typically include the following effects:
(i) Local stress concentration.
(ii) Typical defects present.
(iii) Metallurgical effects such as weld metal composition and parent plate composition.
(iv) Direction of applied loadings.
(v) Failure location.
(vi) Residual stress effects.
(vii) Joint preparation and some joint fabrication quality issues.
Typically the relevant fatigue Standards also provide guidance on the following:
(A) Reduction in fatigue strength due to plate thickness effects.
(B) Treatment of variable amplitude cycles (Miner’s rule).
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TABLE F1
PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR FATIGUE STRENGTH
IN ACCORDANCE WITH EUROCODE 3
joint detail
Periodic inspection and
maintenance. Poor 1.15 1.35
accessibility
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109 AS/NZS 4673:2001
The capacity factor is reduced if any of Items (e)(i) to (iii) do not apply. A capacity
factor of 0.7 or lower is nominated if the detail is located on a non-redundant load
path. Further guidance on the selection of capacity factors lower than 0.7, given the
above criteria, may be made with reference to the partial safety factors of Eurocode 3
and the relevant NAD’s (e.g. Ref. 12).
(f) Thickness correction for plates thicker than 25 mm ECCS (Ref. 5) recommends
caution when applying the fatigue rules to plates thicker than 25 mm, since at the
time of publication of ECCS, only a limited range of fatigue tests had taken place on
plates thicker than 25 mm. These tests were limited to transversely welded details in
joints between equal thickness plates. ECCS gives guidance on the applicability of
fracture mechanics for resolving such situations.
It may be that there are some situations where the use of the standard S-N curve approach to
fatigue is not adequate, and a fracture mechanics approach may be more applicable. In this
situation the requirements from ECCS (Ref. 5) may be followed.
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Situations that may require consideration of fracture mechanics include the following
(Ref. 5):
(i) When the remaining fatigue life of a cracked structure is assessed.
(ii) When fitness for purpose is assessed.
(iii) When plate thicknesses is greater than 25 mm and there is doubt as to the
applicability of the fatigue curves.
(iv) When the effect of varying one or more geometry or stress parameters is being
considered for a given detail.
(v) When in-service inspection intervals are being fixed.
(vi) When an unusual stress direction, not comparable with any detail category, is being
assessed.
F6 REFERENCES
1 Euro Inox Design Manual for Structural Stainless Steel, Nickel Development
Institute, 1994.
2 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-4: General rules—Supplementary rules
for stainless steels, CEN, 1996.
3 AS 4100—1998, Steel Structures, Standards Australia, 1998.
4 Gurney T. R., Fatigue of Welded Structures, Cambridge University Press, 1978.
5 Recommendations for the Fatigue Design of Steel Structures, ECCS — Technical
Committee 6 — Fatigue, European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, 1985.
6 BS 5400, Part 10:, ‘Steel, concrete and composite bridges, Part 10: Code of practice
for fatigue’, British Standards Institution, 1980.
7 Offshore Installations: Guidance on design, construction and certification, Health and
Safety Executive, 4 th Edition, 1990.
8 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings, CEN, 1992.
9 AS/NZS 1554.1: Structural steel welding, Part 1: Welding of steel structures,
Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 2000.
10 AS/NZS 1554.5: Structural Steel Welding, Part 5: Welding of steel structures subject
to high levels of fatigue loading, Australian Standards/Standards New Zealand, 1995.
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11 AS/NZS 1554.6: Structural steel welding, Part 6: Welding stainless steels for
structural purposes, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, 1994.
12 AS 4100: Steel structures, Standards Australia, 1998.
13 AS 4100 Supplement 1 — 1999, Steel Structures—Commentary, Standards Australia,
1999.
14 NZS 3404.1: Steel structures Standard, Part 1: Steel structures Standard, Standards
New Zealand, 1997.
15 NZS 3404.2: Steel structures Standard, Part 2: Commentary to the Steel Structures
Standard, Standards New Zealand, 1997.
16 Draft National Application Document for prestandard Eurocode 3: Design of steel
structures, Part 1-4: General rules — Supplementary rules of stainless steels, National
Building Code of Finland, 1998.
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APPENDIX G
FIRE
(Informative)
G1 GENERAL
At this stage, Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand is not in a position to provide
design rules for determination of the period of structural adequacy (PSA) for stainless steel
structures.
This Appendix outlines the approach to the design of steel building elements required to
have a fire resistance level (FRL), currently adopted by some overseas Standards.
G3 OTHER STANDARDS
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This Standard has been mainly based on ANSI/ASCE-8-90, Specification for the Design of
Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members, which contains no guidance on the fire
design of stainless steel members.
ENV 1993-1-4: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures, Part 1-4: General rules—
Supplementary rules for stainless steel states that for structural fire design, reference should
be made to ENV 1993-1-2, which is Eurocode 3—Design of steel structures,
Part 1-2: General rules, Structural fire design. However, this Part of Eurocode 3 applies to
the fire design of carbon steel. Reference is also made in ENV 1993-1-4 to EN 10088
Stainless steels, which is the stainless steel materials Standard, for information on the
properties of stainless steels at elevated temperatures.
The current draft of the National Application Document for Finland, for use in conjunction
with Eurocode 3, contains specific data for the reduction factors for stainless steels at
elevated temperatures, for a range of austenitic stainless steels. This data, in conjunction
with ENV 199-1-2, enables the relevant calculations for the fire design of stainless steel
members to be carried out.
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Pending the release of EN 1993-1-4, the Draft National Application Document for
prestandard SFS-ENV 1993-1-4, forming part of the National Building Code of Finland,
used in conjunction with ENV 199-1-2, appears at this stage to contain the most specific
guidance on the fire design of stainless steel members manufactured from certain specific
grades of austenitic stainless steel.
G4 POST-FIRE PERFORMANCE
Where temperatures in the range of 350 to 850°C are experienced, various precipitates may
form, which may adversely affect corrosion resistance, i.e. sensitization or toughness, due
to embrittlement.
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APPENDIX H
SECTION PROPERTIES
(Normative)
β
x
=
l
Ix
(∫ A x 2 yd A + ∫ A )
y 3 d A − 2 yo . . . H2(1)
βy =
l
Iy
(∫ A xy 2 d A + ∫ A )
x 3 d A − 2 xo . . . H2(2)
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115 AS/NZS 4673:2001
wf t 3
2 For members cold-formed from a single steel sheet of uniform thickness: J = where wf is the feed width of
3
the flat sheet.
3 For the box and rectangle sections, Iw is negligibly small in comparison to J.
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TABLE H1
CERTAIN MONOSYMMETRIC SECTIONS—CENTROID AND SHEAR-CENTRE DISTANCES AND MONOSYMMETRY
SECTION CONSTANTS
Section x– xo βw βf βL
2 3b2 2 1
t b + x − x +
l
12
( ) ()
4 4
b b t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a
+
( ) ()
0
l 2
a t b + x − x
a + 2b a + 2b 6b + a 12 2 2
4
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116
bt (b + 2c ) bt
l
()
t (b + x )4 − x +
4 ( )3 + 23 t (x + b)
2 ct x + b
b ( b + 2c) + 1 2
A 12 I x t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a a a
( ) ()
3 3
a + 2b + 2c
(6 ca 2
+ 3 ba − 8 c
2 3
) 12 l 2
4
2
a t b+ x − x
2
2
+ c −
2
l
( ) ()
t b + x − x +
4 4 ( )3 + 23 t (x + b)
2 ct x + b
b (b + 2c) bt (b + 2c ) bt 1 12
+ t x a 3 + t ( x )3 a a 3 a
( ) ()
3
a + 2b + 2c A 12 I x 12 l 2 2 2
a t b+ x − x − − c
(6 ca 2
+ 3 ba 2 − 8 c 3 ) 4 2 2
AS/NZS 4673:2001
LEGEND:
s.c. = shear centre
c.g. = centre of gravity
117 AS/NZS 4673:2001
APPENDIX I
UNSTIFFENED ELEMENTS WITH STRESS GRADIENT
(Normative)
TABLE I1
PLATE BUCKLING COEFFICIENTS (k) AND EFFECTIVE WIDTHS (b e )
Stress distribution
Effective width (b e )
(compressive positive)
For 1 > ψ ≥ 0:
be = ρ b
For ψ < 0:
ρb
be = ρ bc =
1 −ψ
ψ = f 2* / f1* +1 0 −1 +1 ≥ ψ ≥ −1
Plate buckling coefficient (k) 0.43 0.57 0.85 0.57 – 0.21 ψ + 0.07 ψ2
For 1 > ψ ≥0:
be = ρ b
For ψ < 0:
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ρb
be = ρ bc =
1−ψ
NOTE: f1* and f 2* are web stresses calculated on the basis of the full section.
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APPENDIX J
HOLLOW SECTION LATTICE GIRDER CONNECTIONS
(Normative)
J1 GENERAL
This Appendix provides rules to determine the static design capacity of uniplanar joints in
lattice structures composed of rectangular, square or circular hollow sections, or
combinations of these hollow sections with open sections.
The static design capacities of the joints are expressed in terms of maximum design axial
resistances for the brace members.
This Appendix applies to both, hot-rolled and cold-formed hollow sections.
The welds shall be designed to have sufficient capacity and ductility to allow redistribution
of non-uniform stress distributions and to allow redistribution of secondary bending
moments.
The nominal wall thickness of hollow sections shall be greater than or equal to 2.5 mm but
less than or equal to 25 mm, unless special measures have been taken to ensure that the
through thickness properties of the material will be adequate.
The joint capacity [strength reduction] factor ( φ ) shall be taken as 0.9.
J2 DEFINITIONS
The definitions below apply to this Appendix.
J2.1 Gap (g)
The distance measured along the length of the connecting face of the chord, between the
toes of the adjacent members (see Figure J1).
J2.2 Uniplanar joint
A connection between members that are situated in a single plane and which transmit
primarily axial forces.
λ ov)
J2.3 Overlap (λ
q
λov = × 100% (see Figure J1)
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p
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J3 FIELD OF APPLICATION
This Appendix may be used only where all of the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) Members shall have compact cross-sections as specified in Clauses 3.6.2 and 3.6.3 for
rectangular and circular hollow sections respectively.
(b) The angles between the chords and the brace members, and between adjacent brace
members shall not be less than 30°.
(c) Moments resulting from eccentricities may be neglected in calculating the resistance
of the joint, provided that the eccentricities are within the following limits:
(i) − 0.55do ≤ e ≤ 0.25d o
(ii) − 0.55ho ≤ e ≤ 0.25h o
where
e = eccentricity as shown in Figure J2
d o = diameter of the chord
h o = depth of the chord, in the plane of the lattice girder
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(d) Members at a joint shall have their ends prepared in such a way that their
cross-sectional shape is not modified.
(e) In gap-type joints, the gap between the brace members shall not be less than (t 1 + t 2 ),
to ensure that the clearance is adequate to form satisfactory welds.
(f) In overlap joints, the overlap shall be sufficient to ensure that the interconnection of
the brace members is adequate for satisfactory shear transfer from one brace to the
other.
(g) Where overlapping brace members have different thicknesses, the thinner member
shall overlap the thicker member.
(h) Where overlapping brace members are of different strength grades, the member with
the lower yield stress shall overlap the member with the higher yield stress.
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J4 ANALYSIS
The axial force distribution in a lattice girder may be determined on the assumption that the
members are connected by pinned joints.
Secondary moments in the joints caused by the actual bending stiffness of the joints may be
neglected, provided that —
(a) the joint geometry is within the range of validity given in Tables J6.1, J7.1 or
Table J8.1, as appropriate; and
(b) the ratio of the length of the system to the depth of the members in the plane of the
girder is not less than —
(i) 12 for chord members; and
(ii) 24 for chord members.
Eccentricities that are within the limits specified in Paragraph J3 may be neglected.
The joints are predominantly statically loaded.
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J5 WELDS
In welded connections, the connection shall be established around the entire perimeter of
the hollow section by means of butt or fillet welding, or combinations of both. In partially
overlapping joints, the hidden part of the connection need not be welded.
The design resistance of the weld per unit length of the perimeter shall not be less than the
design tensile resistance of the cross-section of the member per unit length of the perimeter.
For Class B fillet weld, this requirement can be met provided the throat thickness (t t )
satisfies the following:
tt fy
≥ 1.875
. . . J5(1)
t1 f uw
The requirement of this Paragraph may be waived where smaller weld sizes can be justified
with regard to the resistance and to the deformation capacity or rotation capacity, or both.
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TABLE J6.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS
BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
0.2 ≤ d i/d o ≤ 1.0
5 ≤ d i/2tI ≤ 25
5 ≤ d o /2to ≤ 25
5 ≤ d o /2to ≤ 20
(for X-joints)
λov ≥ 25%
g ≥ t 1 + t2
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TABLE J6.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS
BETWEEN CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTIONS
Design resistance
Type of joint
(i = 1 or 2)
Chord plastification
ϕN l n =
f yoto2
sinθ1
( 2.8 + 14.2β )γ2 0.2 ϕ
kp
0.9
Chord plastification
f yoto2 5.2 ϕ
ϕN l n = kp
sinθ1 (1 − 0.81β ) 0.9
Chord plastification
f yoto2 ϕ
ϕN l n = 1.8 + 10.2 d1 kp kg
sinθ1 d
o 0.9
sinθ1
ϕN 2 n = N1n
sinθ 2
f yo 1 + sinθ i ϕ
When di ≤ d o − 2to ϕN l n = toπd i
2sin 2θ 0.9
3 i
where
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(
kp = 1 − 0.3 np 1 + np ) for n p ≤ 0 (compression)
For kp ≤ 1.0
0.024 γ 1.2
k g = γ 0.2 1 + (see Figure J3)
exp (0.5g / t o ) − 1.33) + 1
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123 AS/NZS 4673:2001
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J7.1, see Paragraph J7.3.
J7.3 Rectangular sections
The design capacities of joints between rectangular hollow sections, and of joints between
square hollow sections outside the range of validity given in Table J7.1, shall be based on
the following criteria, as applicable:
(a) Plastic failure of the chord face or the chord cross-section.
(b) Crack initiation leading to rupture of the bracings from the chord (punching shear).
(c) Cracking in the welds or in the bracings (effective widths).
(d) Chord wall bearing of local buckling under the compression bracing.
(e) Local buckling in the compressive areas of the members.
(f) Shear failure of the chord.
The modes of failure relevant to Items (a) to (f) are given in Figure J4.
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TABLE J7.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN SQUARE OR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS
AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
bi d b1 + b2
or i or
Type of joint ti ti 2b1
bi or d i bo
bi t Gap or overlap
bo bo to and i
bj tj
Compression Tension
bi bo
T, Y or X joint 0.25 ≤ ≤ 0.85 10 ≤ ≤ 35 — —
bo to
bi Eo
≤ 1.25
b ti Fχi
≥ 0.5 (1 − β )
bi g
K gap joint ≥ 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.01 o a
bo
124
to
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bo and
bo b1 + b2
and bi 15 ≤ ≤ 35 0 .6 ≤ ≤ 1.3 g
≥ 1.5 (1 − β )
≤ 35 bi to 2b1 but
ti ≤ 35 bo
N gap joint bi
≥ 0.35 ti and g ≥ t1 + t2
bo
ti
≤ 1.0
K overlap joint bi bi Eo bo tj
≥ 0.25 ≤ 1.1 ≤ 40 25% ≤ λ ov ≤ 100%
N overlap joint bo ti Fχi to bi
≥ 0.75
bj
Circular brace di di Eo di
0 .4 ≤ ≤ 0.8 ≤ 1 .5 ≤ 50 As above but replace b 1 with d 1
member bo ti Fχi ti
NOTE: Outside these parameter ranges, the resistance of the joint may be determined as for a joint with a rectangular chord section (see Paragraph F7.3).
124
125 AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J7.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN SQUARE
OR CIRCULAR HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS
AND SQUARE HOLLOW SECTION CHORDS
Design resistance
Type of joint
(i = 1 or 2, j = overlapped brace)
Chord face yielding β ≤ 0.85
f yo t o2 2β ϕ
ϕN ln = + 4 (1 − β ) 0.5 k n
(1 − β )sinθ i sinθ1 0.9
8.9 f yo t o2 b1 − b2 0.5 ϕ
ϕN ln = γ kn
sinθ i 2bo 0.9
λ ϕ
ϕN ln = f yi ti ov (2hi − 4ti ) + beff + be.ov
50 0.9
Effective width 50% ≤ λ ov < 80%
ϕ
ϕN ln = f yi ti [2hi − 4ti + beff + be.ov ]
0.9
Effective width λ ov ≥ 80%
ϕ
ϕN ln = f yi ti [2hi − 4ti + bi + be.ov ]
0.9
Circular braces — Multiple the above design resistances by π/4.
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Functions
0.4n
For n ≤ 0 (tension): k n = 1.0 For n ≥ 0 (compression): kn = 1.3 - but kn ≤ 1.0
β
10 f yo to 10 f yi t j
beff = b but b ≤ b
f yiti i eff i beff = b but b
e.ov ≤ bi
bo to bj t j f yiti i
NOTE: Only the overlapping brace needs to be checked. The brace member efficiency, i.e. the design resistance of
the joint divided by the design plastic resistance of the brace, for the overlapped brace should be taken as less than
or equal to the overlapping brace.
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I-SECTION CHORDS
The design internal axial forces in the brace members and in the chords shall not be greater
than the design capacity of the members determined in accordance with Section 3.
In addition, the design internal axial forces in the brace members shall also not be greater
than the design capacities of the joints.
In gap-type joints, the tensile design capacities (φt Nto ) of the chords allowing for shear force
transferred between the brace members by the chords and neglecting the relevant secondary
moments shall be determined as follows:
Vo*
(a) For ≤ 0.5 : . . . J8(1)
ϕ vVvo
N to = f yo Aoφ t . . . J8(2)
ϕ t = 0.85
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127 AS/NZS 4673:2001
Vo*
(b) For 0.5 < ≤ 1.0 : . . . J8(3)
ϕ u Vno
2V *
2
N to = f yo Ao − Avo − 1
. . . J8(4)
φ V
v v
ϕ t = 0.85
where φv and V v shall be determined in accordance with Clause 3.3.4 and A vo is the
web area of the chord transferring the shear force.
Provided that the geometry of the joints is within the range of the validity given in
Table J8.1, the design capacities of the joints shall be determined using the equations given
in Table J8.2.
For joints outside the range of validity given in Table J8.1, a detailed analysis shall be
made. This analysis shall take account of the secondary moments in the joints caused by the
bending stiffness of the joints.
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AS/NZS 4673:2001
TABLE J8.1
RANGE OF VALIDITY FOR WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION BRACE MEMBERS AND I-SECTION CHORDS
dw Eo
≤ 1.2
hi tw f yo
X joint 0.5 ≤ ≤ 2.0 —
bi and hi E
≤ 1.1 o hi
d w ≤ 400 mm ti f y1 ≤ 35
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ti
T joint bo Eo bi E bi
≤ 0.75 ≤ 1.1 o ≤ 35
Y joint hi to f yo ti f y1 ti
= 1.0 — dw
≤ 1.5
Eo
128
bi di
K gap joint tw f yo di Eo ≤ 50
≤ 1.6 ti
N gap joint and ti f y1
TABLE J8.2
DESIGN RESISTANCES OF WELDED JOINTS BETWEEN HOLLOW SECTION
BRACE MEMBERS AND I-SECTION CHORDS
Type of joint Design resistance (i = 1 or 2 and j = overlapped brace)
Chord web yielding
f yo t w bw ϕ
ϕN1n =
sin θ 1 0.9
Effective width
ϕ
ϕN1n = 2 f y1 t1beff
0.9
λ ϕ
ϕN1n = f yi t i ov (2hi − 4t i ) + beff + be.ov
50 0.9
Effective width 50% ≤ λ ov < 80%
ϕ
ϕN1n = f yi t i [2hi − 4t i + bi + be.ov ]
0.9
Effective width λ ov ≥ 80%
ϕ
ϕN1n = f yi t i [2hi − 4t i + bi + be.ov ]
0.9
Functions
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For RHS:
+ 5 (tf + r )
di
(a) bw =
sin θ1 For CHS brace: a=0
(b) bw ≤ 2ti + 10 (tf + r )
f yo 10 f yj t j
beff = tw + 2r + 7 t but b ≤ b be.ov = b but b
e.ov ≤ bi
f yi f eff i bj t j f yi ti i
NOTE: Only the overlapping brace needs to be checked. The brace member efficiency, i.e. the design resistance of the joint
divided by the design plastic resistance of the brace, for the overlapped brace should not be greater than the overlapping
brace.
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APPENDIX K
DETERMINATION OF THE CAPACITY [STRENGTH REDUCTION] FACTOR
(Normative)
This Appendix applies to situations where statistical data is available for the mean (M m) and
coefficient of variation (V M ) of the ratio of measured yield stress to nominal yield stress. It
provides the reduction in capacity [strength reduction] factor ( φ ), which shall be applied
when the design is based on the measured yield stress.
Where the design shall be based on the mean value of measured yield stress, M m shall be
taken as unity.
Where applied to the production of cold-formed members, where the yield stress is
enhanced by the forming process and the nominal yield stress of the finished product shall
be used for design, M m and V M are the mean and coefficient of variation of the ratio of
measured yield stress to nominal yield stress of the finished product respectively.
When VM is less than or equal to 0.15, the reduced capacity [strength reduction] factor shall
be determined by substituting the statistical values of M m and V M into —
φ =
Mm
M mo
(
1 + cVMo
2
)( )
1 − cVM2 φ o ≤ φ o . . . K1(1)
where φ o is the capacity [strength reduction] factor given in this Standard, and—
M mo = 1.1
V Mo = 0.1
c = 5.0 for members
c = 6.5 for fasteners
The capacity [strength reduction] factor (φ ) shall not be greater than the reference value
(φ o).
When V m is greater than 0.15, the reduced capacity [strength reduction] factor shall be
determined by substituting the statistical values of M m and V M into —
exp β VMo φ ≤ φ
Mm
φ = 2
+ VFo2 + VPo2 + VQo
2
− V M2 + VFo2 + VPo2 + VQo
2
. . . K1(2)
M mo
o o
Accessed by UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY on 13 Nov 2001
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