OFFICIAL SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES

UNIT 12

EXPLICATIVE TEXTS:

STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Definition of Text

2. TEXT AND CONTEXT

3. PRINCIPLES OF AN EXPLICATIVE TEXT

3.1. Regulative Principles

3.2. Constitutive Principles

4. COHESION AND COHERENCE

4.1. Register
4.2. Cohesive Devices

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLICATIVE TEXTS

5.1. Grammatical Items

5.2. Structure of Explicative Texts

6. VARIOUS STYLES OF EXPLANATION

6.1. Definition
6.2. Analysis
6.3. Cause and Effect
6.4. Comparison and Contrast
6.5. Illustration

7. CONCLUSION
1. INTRODUCTION

In this unit we are going to look at explicative texts. Within this we are going to include
an examination of the constituents of texts in general so that we can see the principles
that will be included in any kind of explanation. This will include an examination of the
meaning of the word text and the cohesive devices that go into providing a text with
coherence. The information will be taken from Halliday and Hasan, Ramon Seldon,
and the Penguin Guide to Literature.

We will begin by looking at the meaning of the word text in general so that we can see
the foundation of explicative texts.

1.1. Definition of Text

Basically text can be taken to mean a stretch of language that can form the process of
communication. This can be made through either a linear pattern of sound waves,
otherwise known as speech, or a linear sequence of marks on paper, writing. This
communication must make coherent sense in the context of its use. The linguistic form
is important, but it is not itself sufficient to give a stretch of language the status of a
text. For example, a road sign reading No Overtaking is an adequate text, although
comprising only a short noun phrase. It is understood as a statement, paraphraseable as
something like: it is dangerous to overtake here. By contrast, placing this same sign in a
situation that is out of context, such as in a supermarket, is not an adequate text because
although we can recognise the structure and understand the words, the phrase can
communicate nothing to us as we pass by, and is therefore meaningless. This is the key
to understanding the text. In order for the communication to work, it has to be placed in
context. This is as true for explicative texts as it is for any other type. An explicative
text does as the title suggests, it explains things. This can be done in a variety of ways,
from a short and simple do it like this to a more complex explanation, such as can be
found in a lecture. However, like all texts, explicatives are controlled by the norms of
text and context. We will now look at this area in greater detail.

2. TEXT AND CONTEXT

Text is all about meanings. However, for those meanings to have any value they need to
be received by someone who understands them. In the case of an explicative text this
would be the person who is having the explanation related to him. Look at the following
diagram:

ADDRESSER ADDRESSEE

sender receiver

MESSAGE MESSAGE

encode TEXT decode

(CONTEXT)
From this diagram we can see that in order for the communication to be successful, the
message that is received by the addressee has to be identical to that which is sent by the
addresser. However, this in itself is no guarantee for success. The sender should also
take care over how he sends the message. It should, in the words of Grice, be:

TRUE, BRIEF RELEVANT, CLEAR.

Not only that, but the text has to be received within its context if it is to be understood
properly. The communication is only conceptually successful if it is conceptually
relevant. In an explicative text, the sender has to be aware of the amount of knowledge
that the receiver has - if he hasn’t got this knowledge, the explanation may result in
being too complex.

The Context of the text also takes into account the intention of meaning and how that
intention is to be interpreted by someone. This is affected by the environment in which
the message is delivered, as well as the previous or the assumed knowledge of the
receiver. This sharing of knowledge by the participants is known as the implicit
context.

In an explicative text, the implicit knowledge will help the sender to assess the level of
explanation that is required.

The explicit context refers solely to the message itself, and not any external elements.

Now that we have seen how the text can be made clear through the context, we will
move onto looking at the principles that are also needed to complete a communicative
text.

3. PRINCIPLES OF AN EXPLICATIVE TEXT

An explicative text can be divided into two different categories of principles, regulative
and constitutive. We will begin with the regulative.

3.1. Regulative Principles.

The regulative takes into account three areas:

The efficiency of a text.

The effectiveness of a text.
The appropriateness of a text.

The efficiency determines whether or not a satisfactory result can be achieved by the
participants with the least effort. This means that the communicants should be able to
reach a mutual understanding without having to make huge efforts in order to negotiate
meaning. If this happens, then the text can be said to be effective, in other words, the
intended result has been produced. However, there has to be some kind of suitability or
correspondence between the text and the context. If this is so, then the appropriateness
of the text is adequate.
3.2. The Constitutive Principles

These can be divided into the following sections:

Situationality:

The text has to be relevant to a speech event. In other words, that which is said has to
have meaning within the context, as can be seen in the example of the road sign. In an
explicative text, all the utterances should be relevant.

Informativity:

The information has to be either expected or needed to some extent. If the information
that is provided is pointless or unneeded, then the explanation is unlikely to succeed.

Intertextuality:

One text can be dependent on the receiver’s knowledge of other texts. For example, if
someone is wishing to explain how something works, it may be that the listener would
need to have some previous knowledge about the components.

Intentionality:

This is related to the speaker’s conscious effort towards the purpose of the
communication. The speaker tries all that he can to ensure that the explanation received
is the one that he intended to send.

Acceptability:

For the text to be acceptable it has to be both cohesive and coherent. We will look at
this point in greater detail.

4. COHESION AND COHERENCE

In order to achieve coherence, or clarity, we have to pay particular attention to the

devices that are used to hold the text together as a whole. According to Halliday and
Hasan, cohesion is the combination of register, or how we speak, and various devices
that go to make a text coherent. We will begin by looking at register.

4.1. Register.

The way that we speak can say a lot about us as people. Our accent and our choice of
words can have a profound effect upon those with whom we come into contact with.
Generally speaking, an accent from the upper classes will be considered educated and so
will be treated with some level of respect.

Register can be divided into two classes: open and closed.

Open Register is where we have the freedom to use the words that we wish to use. This
can be seen in day-today conversation. Even here, truly open register is hard to find, as
there are rules and conventions that dictate what we have to say in certain situations. In
explicative texts, the speaker is following the rules that are laid down as to how
explanations should progress.
The nature of an explicative text reduces the openness of the register, and mostly they
will be closed.

Closed Register is, as the name suggests, more restricted. For an example of a closed
explicative text, think of someone providing someone with directions as to how to reach
a destination. The language can only refer to the turns that the receiver has to take.

4.2. Cohesive Devices.

Otherwise known as ties, there are five major devices: lexis, reference, substitution,
ellipsis and conjunction.

Lexis:

This refers to the way that words are used throughout the text to provide cohesion. This
can be done through the repetition of words:

You turn left at the bottom of the street, so that’s left at the bottom then you go straight
on.

Another device is that of synonymy:

The room can be accessed through the door on the left, this means of entry is closed on
Tuesdays.

Reference:

Here, we can find the use of anaphora and cataphora to refer to words.

Anaphora refers back to something that has been mentioned before:

You take the road on the right. If you take this you will get there quicker.

Cataphora is a cohesive device that points ahead to something that has not yet been
mentioned:

There is one other thing you should know, don’t touch the button marked “fire”.

Substitution:

This is a method of referring to a class of items, rather than something more specific,
such as is the case with reference:
Can you explain what these buttons do?
Only the ones on the left.

Here we can see that the ones refers not to the buttons alone, but to a class of buttons
that are on the left.
Ellipsis:

This area refers to omissions. The omission is clarified by the context or by the previous
information:

Do you understand me?

No, I don’t.

Here, the short answer showing disagreement is made clear through the context.

Conjunctions:

These are used as a means of helping the listener or the reader to be able to interpret the
relationship between clauses. This basically means that the clauses are tied together.

He explained to me how the machine works, and what to do if I have problems.

These are some of the devices that go to give an explicative text meaning. Now we
should look at some of the characteristics that the explicative text has, in order to see
how these devices can function in this area.

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLICATIVE TEXTS

Explicative texts will often make use of certain grammatical items in order to ensure
that the explanation is as short, and therefore as clear as possible.

5.1. Grammatical Items.

If we think about the nature of explanation we will see that we would often have to use
the imperative, for example if we are giving someone directions:

Go straight on, then turn left at the end.

For an objective style of explanation, such as the type that can be found in scientific
texts, we might use the passive:

The volunteer was given a dose of the medicine and then was observed for one month.

Often there has to be some kind of structure to the order that the tasks that are being
explained have to be performed. This means that the person who is presenting the
explanation will have to use ordinal numbers:

Firstly you place the water in the kettle…

as well as other words that can show a sequence:

..then you bring it to the boil. Afterwards you pour it in the cup and finally you drink it.

Connected with the characteristics of the text is the structure, which will form the next
section in this unit:
5.2. Structure of Explicative Texts.

In the first part of this unit we mentioned the maxim of Grice: Be True, Brief,
Relevant and Clear. Although this is true for all types of texts, it is particularly so for
explanations, as if the sender does not present the explanation in the clearest possible
manner, then the message will be valueless. The sender must remember that his main
intention is to put across his message, not to show how many clever terms he knows.
The overall structure that the sender chooses to use depends on the kind of message that
he wishes to send. An explanation about how to make a cake, for example, would have
a very different structure to one about how to use a computer.

Baugh and Cable note that a good explanation would make use of some or all of the
following structural elements:

Introduction:

This is clearly important. The introduction should present the scope and the
characteristics of the topic so that the receiver is prepared for that which is going to
follow, as well as an indication of how the topic is going to be studied. An example of
this can be seen in this unit, where the first part was a general explanation as to how
texts operate.

Revision:

It is not always easy for the receiver to remember all of the information that he is being
told. Therefore the sender should ensure that he takes the time to go back over some of
the points in order to ensure that the message has been understood. This can be seen
when you think of what happens when you are stopped in the street and asked for
directions. Both you who are directing and the person who asked will regularly confirm
the information:

So, you turn left at the end..

Left at the end?
Yes, left, …

Visual Aids:

It is common that the sender will want to provide the receiver with some form of visual
aid in order to back up that which he is saying. Sometimes this can simply take the form
of pointing. However, at other times, where permitting, the sender may make use of
drawings, diagrams, overhead projectors, graphs or photos.

In a written text he may also like to make use of devices such as highlighting,
underlining italics or bold writing in order to make an item stand out in a text.

Conclusion:

The conclusion is obviously a very important part. It is when the sender should bring
together all of the information that he has presented throughout the text in order to
ensure that the receiver has fully understood the message. This can either be done
through the means of a summation, or by a logical deduction if the sender has been
arguing a point:

So we can therefore see that by following my instructions the job will be done sooner..

Now that we have seen some of the characteristics and the structures that can be found
in explicative texts, we will attempt to bring those elements together in a more specific
way by looking at some of the methods that can be used in order to explain something
to someone.

6. VARIOUS STYLES OF EXPLANATION

Let us begin this section by looking at one of the most common ways of explaining
something, simply by giving a definition.

6.1. Definition

When we think of what is meant by definition we automatically think of a dictionary,

and this is probably one of the basic starting points when we want to talk about how to
explain something through the use of definitions. In a dictionary we can have the
meaning of a word explained, or the meaning of the concept that lies behind that word.
For example, if we think of the word want a dictionary may explain its meaning as:
desire, need. If on the other hand we were to think of the word fox the dictionary may
describe it as being of the dog family. We may not still know exactly what a fox is, but
we are closer.

When we are asked to define something to someone we have to assume that there is
some term that can be used to describe it. In this way, our explanation can either be
informing about the term, the object, or both. There are two parts that exist within the
boundary of a definition: the thing to be defined and the definer. These can also be
known by their Latin names, which are: definiendum and definiens respectively. Look at
the following example:

Definiendum: = Definiens:

Cat = Fur-covered four-legged feline animal.

The definiens places the object in its place within a scheme of classification. Here we
can see that a genre has been added, that of feline animal. At this point we know that it
isn’t an inanimate object. However, if we look at the definition closely we can see that
there is something missing. The definition is incomplete, due to the fact that the cat
family can include such diverse elements as lions, tigers, cheetahs, etc. What is needed
is something that can differentiate the type of feline that we are referring to from the
other possibilities. This is known as a differentive. In the above example a differentive
could be domesticated if the type of cat that we are referring to is the normal sort that
we find in our homes. To show this clearly, look at the following:

definiendum differentive genre

 A cat is a domesticated feline animal.

Here we can see that the cat has be classed as an animal of the feline group, but is
domesticated, thus probably ruling out animals such as lions, tigers, etc. However, the
theory of intertextuality is shown here. The receiver of the definition would have to
have some knowledge of the other members of the cat family in order for the
information to be interpreted correctly.

In addition to this we need to make some kind of a definition that is general, one that
can be applied to all types within that class. For example, if we take the word seat we
can define it as object for sitting on. This will cover all types of seats, whether they have
four or three legs, arms, are made of wood or whatever.

Sometimes though, simply defining something isn’t sufficient. When this occurs we
need to analyse the object or concept that we wish to explain.

6.2. Analysis:

When we analyse something we classify it according to the constituent parts that it

contains, and not in relation to any surrounding factors. This means that we analyse
something according to its components. A tree, for example, would be analysed as
having branches, leaves, twigs, a trunk, etc.

The method of analysis depends upon the person who is doing the analysing and his
particular field of study. For example, a non-technical person would analyse a car in
terms of having wheels, seats, engine, etc. A technically minded person however would
analyse the car in terms of its cubic capacity, fuel consumption, etc. This would also be
conditioned by the knowledge of the receiver of the analysis.

So far we have looked at analysis as a means of explaining what an object is. In addition
to this we can also analyse the cause and effect of something.

6.3. Cause and Effect:

Cause is the kind of connection between events that conforms to the following rules:

B happens because of A

Wherever there is A there will be B

This can be applied, for example, to the operation of a light.

The light cannot happen without it being switched on, and whenever it is switched on,
there will be light.

In addition to analysis we can explain something by contrasting it with another object,

either a complete opposite, or something similar.
6.4. Comparison and Contrast.

This is a natural reaction that we have when we are asked to explain something. We
automatically use another object in order to compare and contrast. Imagine that
someone from Spain asked you what the weather in England was like. You might say
that it was similar to the weather in Galicia, but not as hot in the summer, nor as cold in
the winter.

Similar to this is illustration.

6.5. Illustration:

This is when we use phrases such as for example or for instance in order to express an
idea about something. If we are making a point we may wish to exemplify it with some
kind of an example, in order to fully explain what it is that we are saying, and to offer
some kind of evidence. Imagine that we want to talk about people with long hair. We
may say something like:

He wore his hair in a long style, around his shoulders, for example as they did during
the 1960’s.

7. CONCLUSION

In this unit we have seen how important the structure of a text can be if it is to be fully
comprehended in a way that the receiver can understand exactly what the intention of
the sender is. In explicative texts, all of the elements of textual cohesion have to be
present so that the explanation flows naturally and effectively. The students must be
aware of these elements so that they can fully exploit any form of explicative text that
they may come into contact with throughout the teaching programme, also giving them
the opportunity to produce their own work effectively and accurately.
UNIT 12 EXPLICATIVE TEXTS

THEMES NOTES

Text: Stretch of language that forms process of communication. The

linguistic form is important, but the message must be placed in context if it
is to be understood. For example, no overtaking would have little meaning
if it were placed away from a road.
Text and Context: For messages to have any value, they must be received
by someone who understands them. To follow Grice, the message must
be: True, Brief, Relevant and Clear. The context of an explicative text
takes into account the explainer’s intention. The Implicit Context is the
sharing of knowledge. The Explicit Context uses no external elements: it
refers solely to the message itself.
Principles of Texts: A text can be divided into two different categories of
principles: Regulative and Constitutive. The regulative refers to the:
efficiency, effectiveness, appropriacy. Constitutive: This refers to
situationality, informativity, intertextuality, intentionality and
acceptability.
Cohesion and Coherence: In order to achieve cohesion or clarity, we
have to pay attention to the cohesive devices that are used. With register
the accent and choice of words affect the people to whom we are speaking.
Open Register gives us freedom of choice as to the amount of creativity
that we use. Closed Register is very restricted, such as can be found in air
travel. Cohesive Devices include: lexis, which refers to the way words are
used in a text to provide cohesion, reference refers backwards or forwards
to something and includes anaphora and cataphora, substitution is when
one word is used to substitute another, the idea being that repetitions are
avoided, ellipsis is when part of the sentence is cut, the meaning being
made clear through the context. In conjunction, clauses are tied together
with words such as and.
Definition and Types of Explicative Texts: Often uses imperatives,
passives, ordinals, sequencing. Structure: Introduction: This is used to
set the scene. Revision : Here, the speaker will go over the points that he
has made. Visual Aids: These are used to illustrate the points that are
being made. Conclusion: In this section, all the parts of the explanation
are drawn together
Styles of Explanation: Definition: This has two parts, definiendum and
definiens. These refer to the thing to be defined and the definer. Need to
differentiate between items within definition. There are times when we
may need to make some more general definition, for example a seat can be
defined as something to sit on. Analysis: This can be the classification of
components of an object. Method depends on knowledge of sender and
receiver. Cause and Effect: B happens because of A Wherever there is
A there will be B. Comparison and Contrast: This is the natural reaction
we have to compare something to a similar object. Similar to illustration
 Now test your knowledge of unit 12 by answering the following questions:

1. Name some of the grammatical items in an explicative text.

2. What is a typical structure found in explicative texts?

3. Explain the structure: definiendum/diferentive/genre.

4. Explain cause and effect.

5. What phrases can be used to show illustration?