Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Carotene Hydroxylase Activity Determines The Levels of Both
Carotene Hydroxylase Activity Determines The Levels of Both
Carotene Hydroxylase Activity Determines The Levels of Both
Jacobo Arango,a,1 Matthieu Jourdan,b Emmanuel Geoffriau,b Peter Beyer,a and Ralf Welscha,2
a University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology II, Freiburg, Germany
b Agrocampus Ouest, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1345 Institut de Recherche en Horticulture et Semences, Angers, France
ORCID IDs: 0000-0003-3039-818X (M.J.); 0000-0003-4384-3107 (E.G.); 0000-0002-2865-2743 (R.W.)
RESULTS
QAL 431.4 6 2 206.6 6 0 (47.9) ND 2.6 6 0 (0.6) 84.0 6 1 (19.5) 138.2 6 1 (32.0) 3.6 6 0.1
KUT 458.1 6 36 213.4 6 3 (46.8) ND 3.4 6 1 (0.7) 81.5 6 17 (17.6) 159.8 6 15 (34.8) 3.4 6 0.4
CRC 438.0 6 8 213.4 6 3 (48.7) 1.4 6 0.3 (0.3) 26.1 6 1 (6.0) 64.9 6 4 (14.8) 132.3 6 0 (30.2) 3.6 6 0.1
NAN 458.3 6 2 222.8 6 5 (48.6) 6.9 6 1.1 (1.5) 45.7 6 5 (10.0) 59.6 6 8 (13.0) 123.2 6 5 (26.9) 3.4 6 0.1
At-Wt 521.7 6 94 233.6 6 30 (45.0) ND 3.9 6 1 (0.7) 114.8 6 19 (22.0) 169.5 6 44 (32.3) 3.1 6 0.5
At12 486.2 6 31 227.0 6 14 (46.7) ND 3.1 6 1 (0.6) 105.8 6 10 (21.7) 150.3 6 9 (30.9) 3.2 6 0.1
At22 534.0 6 2 248.6 6 8 (46.6) ND 2.4 6 2 (0.4) 107.6 6 15 (20.2) 175.4 6 24 (32.9) 2.9 6 0.1
lut5-1 503.8 6 18 248.1 6 6 (49.3) 8.9 6 0.9 (1.8) 78.9 6 4 (15.7) 45.5 6 7 (9.0) 122.4 6 8 (24.3) 3.1 6 0.1
P450 (CYP97C1 and CYP97A3) and non-heme hydroxylases Growth of transgenic lines was indistinguishable from non-
(BCH1 and BCH2) involved, only the CYP97A3 mutant showed transformed CRC and roots developed similar to the wild type
a high proportion of a-carotene (between 15 and 20%), exhibiting (Supplemental Table 2). At-CYP97A3 mRNA was strongly expressed
the lut5 phenotype (Kim and DellaPenna, 2006). The increase of throughout all selected stages (Figure 3A). Furthermore, immunoblot
a-carotene in lut5 is compensated for by an almost equivalent re- analysis performed with roots from two transgenic DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3
duction in b-carotene, resulting in wild-type total carotenoid levels lines, Arabidopsis wild-type and lut5 leaves, confirmed the presence
(Table 1; HPLC chromatograms are provided in Supplemental of the mature At-CYP97A3 protein and mirrored overall transgene
Figure 1). This was also found in leaves of orange-rooted carrot expression differences between these lines (Figure 3C).
cultivars (;14% b-carotene in CRC and NAN compared with As with the leaves, a-carotene was found strongly reduced in
;18% in QAL and KUT; Table 1). Furthermore, the (e-ring) mono- these roots throughout all stages, comprising only ;2% of total
hydroxylated intermediate a-cryptoxanthin, which accumulates carotenoids compared with 20% in untransformed CRC control
due to the CYP97A3 deficiency in Arabidopsis lut5, was also de- plants (Figure 3B; Supplemental Figure 3). Accordingly, the
tected in CRC and NAN, while being absent in QAL and KUT. a-/b-carotene ratio decreased from 0.5 in nontransformed CRC
to 0.1 and 0.04 in average in lines Dc#1 and Dc#25, respectively;
Expression of Arabidopsis CYP97A3 in Orange Carrots this decrease was ;3-fold during root growth (Figure 3E). Young
Rescues the Leaf Phenotype roots of transgenic lines also accumulated CYP97A3-catalyzed
monohydroxylated intermediates, such as zeinoxanthin and
The similarity in the leaf carotenoid patterns between Arabidopsis b-cryptoxanthin, which were absent in the controls (Supplemental
lut5 and orange-rooted carrots suggests the presence of reduced Table 2). These intermediates disappeared in older transgenic
CYP97A3 activity in orange cultivars. Aiming at rescuing the low roots (12 and 16 weeks), suggesting a limited activity of other
a-carotene “chemotype,” we transformed the orange carrot cultivar carotene hydroxylases, e.g., the e-ring specific CYP97C1, during
CRC with a construct harboring the CYP97A3 cDNA from Arabi- early root development. Surprisingly, the decrease in a-carotene
dopsis (At-CYP97A3; Kim and DellaPenna, 2006) under control of from ;300 µg in untransformed CRC to 10 µg in line Dc#25 did not
the DJ3S promoter from yams. This promoter is highly active in entail an equivalent increase in CYP97A3-derived xanthophylls.
carrot roots and ;100-fold less active in leaves (Arango et al., 2010). These remained at only small total amounts in both young roots
In leaves of all three transgenic DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 events ge- (100 µg in Dc#25 versus 71 µg in CRC) as well as older roots
nerated, a-carotene was found to be strongly reduced, resulting (150 µg in Dc#25 versus 100 µg in CRC).
in an accordingly decreased a-/b-carotene ratio (Figure 2; see Moreover, the conceivable decrease in a-carotene was accom-
Supplemental Table 1 for detailed carotenoid data). The changes panied by an unexpected 30 to 50% reduction in total carotenoid
in different DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 lines largely corresponded with levels in transgenic DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 relative to untransformed
transgene expression levels (Supplemental Figure 2). Thus, leaf control roots of the same age (Figures 3B and 3D). This decrease
carotenoid patterns in the transgenic CRC gradually approached affected not only b-carotene, but all other carotenoids, including
those from white-rooted carrot leaves upon only the small increases desaturation intermediates such as phytoene, phytofluene, and
in At-CYP97A3 expression allowed by the promoter characteristics. z-carotene. For instance, b-carotene was reduced by 77%, while
noncolored carotenes were reduced by 32% in 8-week-old roots
Root-Specific Overexpression of Arabidopsis CYP97A3 in from line Dc#25 compared with the control. Expression of the
Orange Carrots Strongly Reduces a-Carotene Amounts putative carrot homolog of the ABA-responsive gene 9-cis-
and Causes a Reduction in Total Carotenoid Levels epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase 3 (NCED3) was largely unchanged
in the transgenic lines (Supplemental Figure 4; Auldridge et al.,
DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 CRC lines and wild-type CRC carrots were 2006; Just et al., 2007). This suggests that the altered carotenoid
grown in soil and their roots harvested after 8, 12, and 16 weeks. levels did not entail changes in ABA synthesis.
2226 The Plant Cell
Orange-rooted carrots (CRC) were transformed with At-CYP97A3 under control of the yam DJ3S promoter (DJ3Spro). Both leaf a-carotene levels (A) as
well as a-/b-carotene ratios (B) are strongly reduced in DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 lines (Dc#1, Dc#25, and Dc#7) and approached levels determined in leaves
of white-rooted carrots (QAL). a-Carotene content is given in mmol mol21 chlorophyll. Data are mean of four (controls) and three (transgenic lines)
biological replicates + SD, respectively.
Since PSY has frequently been reported as the rate-limiting from the high sequence identity to several cytochrome P450
step in non-green plant tissues (Fraser et al., 2002; Paine et al., enzymes, which were functionally confirmed as b-ring-specific
2005; Rodríguez-Villalón et al., 2009; Welsch et al., 2010), reduced a-carotene hydroxylases, e.g., from tomato (Sl-CYP97A29, 76%
phytoene and total carotenoid levels may suggest an attenuated identity; Stigliani et al., 2011), rice (Os-CYP97A4, 69% identity;
phytoene synthesis capacity as a consequence of At-CYP97A3 Quinlan et al., 2012), and Arabidopsis CYP97A3 (71% identity;
overexpression. However, transcript levels of both carrot PSY alignment in Supplemental Figure 6). In contrast, the sequence
genes were quite similar in all lines throughout all stages com- exhibited only 41% identity to e-ring-specific carotene hydrox-
pared with nontransformed CRC carrots (Figure 4A). We therefore ylases, including carrot CYP97C1, and branched-off separately
investigated PSY protein levels in roots from DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 in phylogenetic analysis, excluding that the sequence obtained
lines and nontransformed CRC carrots. Protein gel blot analysis represented an additional CYP97C1 copy (Figure 5A). DNA gel
revealed that, in fact, PSY protein amounts were very strongly blot analysis with genomic DNA from QAL and CRC revealed the
reduced, e.g., by ;50% in line Dc#25 (Figures 4B and 4C). Levels presence of carrot CYP97A3 as single-copy gene in both culti-
of a putative PSY degradation product did not increase, which vars. Quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) conducted on root RNA
suggests that PSY translation rather than its turnover rate is from QAL and CRC revealed no large differences in expression
affected. Furthermore, Arabidopsis wild-type and lut5 roots ac- levels (Supplemental Figure 7), so that the possibility of muta-
cumulate barely detectable PSY protein levels, which appear tions was considered.
somewhat higher in the mutant (Supplemental Figure 5). This
might indicate that the observed dependence of PSY protein An Insertion Present in a CYP97A3 Allele in Orange Carrots
levels on hydroxylation capacity is not only a distinct feature of
carrots. In conclusion, the altered carotene hydroxylation upon Total leaf RNA was isolated from CRC and NAN plants and used to
At-CYP97A3 overexpression in orange carrots negatively affected amplify CYP97A3 with the same primer combination used to amplify
PSY protein levels, explaining the reduced total carotenoid ac- CYP97A3 from QAL. Remarkably, CYP97A3 cDNAs from both or-
cumulation observed. ange-rooted varieties were 8 nucleotides longer than from QAL,
which was caused by a single insertion at position #1074 (Figure 5B;
Cloning of CYP97A3 from White Carrots the electrophoretic mobility shift is shown in Supplemental Figure 7).
The insertion results in a premature translational stop, encoding
High a-carotene levels in CRC wild type and their strong re- a truncated protein with only 382 instead of 616 amino acids
duction upon Arabidopsis CYP97A3 overexpression suggest a de- (CYP97A3Ins, Figure 5C). The truncated protein lacks a C-terminal
ficient CYP97A3 activity in CRC. Since sequence information for cysteine residue that is essential for the assembly of the heme
carrot cytochrome P450 hydroxylases is available for the e-ring- cofactor; it is therefore nonfunctional.
specific CYP97A1 (Just et al., 2007), but not for CYP97A3, we first In order to confirm the involvement of the CYP97A3 gene in
cloned CYP97A3 from QAL, assuming its intactness in white-rooted a-carotene accumulation in carrot roots, the identified insertion/
carrots. Based on sequence conservation of CYP97A3 homologs, deletion was genotyped in a broad unstructured population of
we amplified a 1.3-kb fragment and completed the contiguous 380 individuals, and an association mapping strategy was con-
coding region by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (39end) and ducted on carotenoid content. Three associations were found to be
genome walking (59end). A phylogenetic analysis with the de- significant with the insertion/deletion tested. The a-carotene
duced amino acid sequence (616 amino acids) confirmed its content was significantly associated with this polymorphism,
identity as carrot CYP97A3 (Figure 5A). This was concluded as expressed in dry (P value = 3.53 3 10 25 ) or fresh weight
a-Carotene in Orange Carrots 2227
(A) At-CYP97A3 expression in roots from 8-, 12-, and 16-week-old DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 carrots (cultivar CRC). Transcript levels determined by qRT-
PCR, normalized to 18S rRNA levels, and expressed relative to one selected sample from line Dc#1 (8 weeks).
(B) Carotenoids in roots from DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 lines and nontransformed CRC.
(C) Immunoblot analysis using 60 µg leaf protein from Arabidopsis wild type and lut5-1 (right) and 40 µg carrot root protein from wild-type CRC and
DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3 lines (left). Antiserum directed against At-CYP97A3 was used; actin signals are shown as loading control.
(D) Transverse section of 8-week-old roots from DJS3pro:AtCYP97A3 CRC line Dc#25 (right) and nontransformed CRC as control (left).
(E) Ratio of a-carotene to b-carotene.
Data represent the mean 6 SD of three biological replicates, except Dc#1/16 weeks (one sample; two technical replicates were used in [A]). For detailed
carotenoid data, see Supplemental Table 2.
(P value = 5 3 1025) and explained 12 and 14% of the observed Leaf a-carotene content varies between different plant species
variation, respectively (Figure 5D; Supplemental Figure 8). Finally, this and is also increased in response toward low light intensities
insertion was significantly associated with the a-/b-carotene ratio (Matsubara et al., 2009). However, the constitutively high a-carotene
(P value = 3.72 3 1024), but explained a small proportion of the levels in orange carrots point to a genetic alteration like in
observed variation (r2 = 0.04). Associations with any other carotenoid the Arabidopsis lut5 mutant, carrying a disruption within the
were not significant. These results confirm the involvement of cytochrome P450 carotene hydroxylase CYP97A3 (Kim and
CYP97A3 in a-carotene accumulation and explained a relatively high DellaPenna, 2006). In fact, the expression of the Arabidopsis
proportion of the variability of a-carotene content in carrot roots. CYP97A3 gene in CRC largely rescued leaf carotenoid patterns,
approaching those of white-rooted carrots, regarding their low
DISCUSSION a-carotene content, low a-/b-carotene ratio, and the complete
absence of a-cryptoxanthin. Similarly, roots of CYP97A3-
Cytochrome P450 Carotene Hydroxylase Deficiency overexpressing CRC lines revealed carotenoid patterns matching
in Orange Carrots overexpressing a bacterial phytoene synthase (Maass et al.,
2009) as well as of PSY-overexpressing tissues from other
a-Carotene is the second most abundant carotene present in crops, such as potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum) or cas-
orange carrot cultivars. This is not limited to roots; a-carotene sava roots (Ducreux et al., 2005; Welsch et al., 2010). These
accumulates to unusually high amounts in leaves and is increased observations corroborate that a-carotene abundance in or-
up to 10-fold compared with leaves of white-rooted cultivars. In ange carrots is not a concomitant of increased pathway flux
this work, we addressed this widespread feature of orange-rooted by high PSY levels, but rather represents a particular prop-
carrots that is absent from white-rooted cultivars. erty of orange carrots.
2228 The Plant Cell
These findings are in agreement with our identification of a carrots are therefore thought to reveal a phenomenon that cannot
CYP97A3 allele in various orange carrot cultivars that carries an 8- be discovered in a biparental cross.
nucleotide insertion and encodes a truncated protein that is most However, the principle discovered is that downstream carotenoids
likely dysfunctional. An association study conducted on a large can regulate the total pathway flux, which might contribute to
unstructured carrot population revealed that this polymorphism is the explanation of several observations. For instance, a recent
associated with both a-carotene content and a-/b-carotene ratio in quantitative trait loci study identified two major interacting loci that
roots. More specifically, 88% of the individuals homozygous for determine much of the variability of carotenoid amounts in carrots
CYP97A3Ins contained high a-carotene levels (above 2 mg g21 (Just et al., 2009). Markers for the e-ring specific a-carotene
fresh weight), while this applied for only 47% of those individuals hydroxylase CYP97C1 were found in close proximity to one of
carrying the wild-type allele. Therefore, the CYP97A3 polymorphism the two loci (Just et al., 2007). While it was difficult to explain
identified explains a large proportion of the variation observed, reductions in total carotene content by a deficiency of an enzyme
even though there are other currently unknown factors affecting acting downstream of b-carotene synthesis, our findings open the
a-carotene levels in orange carrots. This is in agreement with way for possible explanations.
a quantitative trait loci study, which estimated four genes as the
minimum number of genes involved in a-carotene inheritance Feedback Regulation of Carotenoid Biosynthesis
(Santos and Simon, 2006). Apparently, the CYP97A3Ins allele rep-
resents one of these genes, and it remains to be determined whether Similar to other nuclear-encoded plastid-localized pathways, the
other candidate genes cause similar CYP97A3 deficiencies through regulation of carotenogenic enzymes requires retrograde sig-
alternative mechanisms, e.g., by altered CYP97A3 expression. naling to coordinate (at the level of gene expression) metabolic
Considering the remarkably high a-carotene levels coinciding flux with product requirements. Molecules from various path-
with high b-carotene levels in various carrot cultivars, we ways are currently considered as likely candidates for plastid to
questioned whether CYP97A3 activity also modulates the level nucleus communication, e.g., the chlorophyll intermediate Mg
of total carotenoids in roots. On one side, this is supported by protoporphyrin IX for photosynthesis-related or methylerythritol
our experimental data: The defective enzyme present in the cyclodiphosphate (MEP pathway) for stress-responsive gene
orange-rooted varieties investigated correlated with high total expression (Chi et al., 2013). It is currently unknown how these
carotenoids, while the overexpression of the intact version brings molecules shuttle between compartments traversing the plastid
them down again, apparently by downregulation of PSY protein. envelope membranes. Carotenoids, especially, appear very unsuit-
However, this notion is not corroborated in the association analysis, able to function as immediate signaling metabolites in the regulation
as the deficient CYP97A3 allele was associated with a-carotene of carotenogenic gene expression because of their lipophilicity.
content, while an association with total carotenoid levels was not Nevertheless, there are several published examples documenting
found. It must be concluded that this is because the association an impact of altered xanthophyll patterns on total carotenoid
panel does not provide the situation observed with the over- amounts. For instance, silencing of zeaxanthin epoxidase and
expression of a functional CYP97A3. One can expect one half or BCH in potatoes resulted in 6- and 4-fold higher total carotenoid
one dosage of functional CYP97A3 but not more. The transgenic amounts, respectively (Römer et al., 2002; Diretto et al., 2007).
a-Carotene in Orange Carrots 2229
(A) Phylogenetic tree of cytochrome P450 subfamily 97A and C proteins. At, A. thaliana, Dc, D. carota, Os, O. sativa, Rc, R. communis, Sl, S. lycopersicum,
Mt, M. truncatula. Arabidopsis CYP86A1 was included as the outgroup sequence. The identified carrot CYP97A3 sequence (framed) groups with other b-ring
carotene hydroxylases. Bootstrap values are reported next to the branches (only bootstraps above 50% are shown).
(B) Sections of sequencing chromatograms of RT-PCR fragments from Dc-CYP97A3 (top) and Dc-CYP97A3Ins (bottom); the 8-nucleotide insertion is marked with a box.
(C) Schematic map of proteins encoded by Dc-CYP97A3 and Dc-CYP97A3Ins. The insertion results in a premature translational termination prior to the
sequence encoding the heme binding cysteine residue (P450 cys). Primers used for RT-PCR in (B) are indicated by arrows.
(D) Allelic effect of the insertion/deletion polymorphism in CYP97A3 on a-carotene content (in mg 100 g21 FW). The box plots show the quartile division
with the median indicated by lines within the boxes. The two whiskers correspond to the first and third quartile.
Likewise, both LCYb-deficient maize mutants as well as LCYe- in our study, while PSY protein levels were reduced. We there-
silenced potato tubers accumulated higher total carotenoid fore present an example of the modulation of PSY protein levels
levels (Diretto et al., 2006; Bai et al., 2009). Furthermore, enhanced by carotenoid metabolites through mechanisms acting beyond
lycopene accumulation in the tomato ogc mutant is considered to transcription. Whether the feedback regulation at this level af-
be due to increased activity of earlier enzymes of the pathway in fects additional enzymes of the pathway cannot be conclusively
addition to reduced lycopene cyclization caused by a deficient answered as yet due to the lack of suitable antibodies. However,
fruit-specific lycopene cyclase (Ronen et al., 2000; Bramley, there are several examples in non-green tissues in which varying
2002). The induced changes in metabolite abundance entailed the rate of phytoene synthesis affects the total carotenoid con-
altered expression of carotenogenic enzymes, which in most tent strongly while the carotenoid pattern is hardly affected (Paine
cases included elevated PSY transcript levels. Furthermore, recent et al., 2005; Maass et al., 2009). It is therefore conceivable that
findings suggest the involvement of cis-carotene intermediates in the feedback-inhibited phytoene synthesis is sufficient to explain the
regulation of tomato fruit-specific PSY1 expression (Kachanovsky reduced carotene amounts in At-CYP97A3–overexpressing carrots.
et al., 2012).
PSY levels/activity are key to carotenoid accumulation in non-
Metabolite-Induced Feedback Regulation of PSY
green plant tissues (Ye et al., 2000; Lindgren et al., 2003; Ducreux
Protein Abundance
et al., 2005; Welsch et al., 2010), including carrot roots (Santos
et al., 2005; Maass et al., 2009). The context described here be- In contrast to carotenoids, apocarotenoids are known to function as
tween CYP97A3 overexpression leading to reduced PSY protein signaling molecules. In fact, it is reasonable to assume that strongly
levels suggests the presence of a negative feedback regulation, reduced a-carotene levels in At-CYP97A3 overexpressing CRC
stemming from carotenoids downstream of a-carotene or metabo- roots are caused by enhanced metabolization. However, this is
lites thereof, acting on PSY levels. The difference with respect to the contrasted by the lack of accordingly elevated b-ring hydroxylated
examples given above is that the expression of carrot PSY a-carotene derivatives, i.e., zeinoxanthin or lutein, especially
genes remained unchanged upon At-CYP97A3 overexpression in older roots. The levels of these xanthophylls increased only
2230 The Plant Cell
slightly, and total xanthophyll levels remained at as low levels as in and stored at 270°C for further analysis. Arabidopsis roots were harvested
nontransformed CRC control plants. This suggests increased from seedlings grown according to Hétu et al. (2005). Seeds from carrots
xanthophyll turnover through their enhanced cleavage by caro- (Daucus carota) were obtained as follows: Queen Anne’s Lace, Richters Herbs;
tenoid cleavage oxygenases (Simkin et al., 2004; Rodrigo et al., Küttiger, Dreschflegel Saatgut; Nantaise, Freya; Chantenay Red Cored, B&T
World Seeds. Carrot plants were grown in soil under long-day conditions.
2013). In fact, several carotenoid-derived cleavage products are
Roots of 8-, 12-, and 16-week-old carrot plants were removed from the soil,
important signaling molecules involved in developmental pro-
ground in liquid nitrogen, and stored at 270°C for further analysis.
cesses (strigolactones) and mediate responses toward abiotic
stress (ABA; Walter and Strack, 2011; Alder et al., 2012). However,
the expression of the ABA-responsive carrot NCED3 was un- Carrot Transformation
changed upon carotenoid changes in the transgenics. It therefore The At-CYP97A3 coding region was amplified by PCR with primers 59-
Total RNA was isolated using the plant RNA purification reagent (Invi- The following materials are available in the online version of this article.
trogen Life Technologies). RNA purification, DNaseI digestion, and real- Supplemental Figure 1. HPLC Chromatograms from Carrot and
time RT-PCR assays were performed as described (Welsch et al., 2008). Arabidopsis Leaves.
Carrot PSY1, PSY2, CYP97A3, and nos 39UTR (present in the At-CYP973
transgene mRNA) expression was detected with 6FAM-labeled probes, Supplemental Figure 2. At-CYP97A3 Expression in Transgenic CRC.
while SYBR green was used for NCED3 expression analysis. For primers Supplemental Figure 3. Carotenoid Patterns of DJ3Spro:AtCYP97A3
and probes, see Supplemental Table 3. For 18S rRNA quantification, the CRC Lines.
eukaryotic 18S rRNA endogenous control kit (Life Technologies) was
Supplemental Figure 4. Dc-NCED3 Expression in Roots of DJ3Spro:
used. The relative quantity of the transcripts was calculated using the
AtCYP97A3 Lines.
comparative threshold cycle method (Livak and Schmittgen, 2001). Data
Accession Numbers
Sequence data from this article can be found in the GenBank/EMBL data REFERENCES
libraries under the following accession numbers: JQ655297 (Dc-CYP97A3
mRNA), JQ655298 (Dc-CYP97A3 gene, partial), DQ192196 (Dc-CYP97C1), Abramoff, M.D., Magelhaes, P.J., and Ram, S.J. (2004). Image
EEC67393.1 (Os-CYP97C2), EEC74248.1 (Os-CYP97A4), NP_190881 Processing with ImageJ. Biophotonics International 11: 36–42.
(At-CYP97C1), At1g31800 (At-CYP97A3), ABC59096 (Mt-CYP97C10), Alder, A., Jamil, M., Marzorati, M., Bruno, M., Vermathen, M., Bigler, P.,
ABD28565.1 (Mt-CYP97A10), ACJ25968 (Sl-CYP97C11), ACJ25969 Ghisla, S., Bouwmeester, H., Beyer, P., and Al-Babili, S. (2012). The
(Sl-CYP97A29), At5g58860 (At-CYP86A1), XP_002512609.1 (Rc-CYP97A), path from b-carotene to carlactone, a strigolactone-like plant hormone.
XP_002519427.1 (Rc-CYP97C), and DQ192202 (Dc-NCED3). Science 335: 1348–1351.
2232 The Plant Cell
Arango, J., Salazar, B., Welsch, R., Sarmiento, F., Beyer, P., and Just, B.J., Santos, C.A., Yandell, B.S., and Simon, P.W. (2009). Major QTL
Al-Babili, S. (2010). Putative storage root specific promoters from for carrot color are positionally associated with carotenoid biosynthetic
cassava and yam: cloning and evaluation in transgenic carrots as genes and interact epistatically in a domesticated x wild carrot cross.
a model system. Plant Cell Rep. 29: 651–659. Theor. Appl. Genet. 119: 1155–1169.
Arscott, S.A., and Tanumihardjo, S.A. (2010). Carrots of many colors Just, B.J., Santos, C.A.F., Fonseca, M.E.N., Boiteux, L.S., Oloizia,
provide basic nutrition and bioavailable phytochemicals acting as B.B., and Simon, P.W. (2007). Carotenoid biosynthesis structural
a functional food. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 9: 223–239. genes in carrot (Daucus carota): isolation, sequence-characterization,
Auldridge, M.E., Block, A., Vogel, J.T., Dabney-Smith, C., Mila, I., single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and genome mapping.
Bouzayen, M., Magallanes-Lundback, M., DellaPenna, D., McCarty, Theor. Appl. Genet. 114: 693–704.
D.R., and Klee, H.J. (2006). Characterization of three members of the Kachanovsky, D.E., Filler, S., Isaacson, T., and Hirschberg, J.
Arabidopsis carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase family demonstrates the (2012). Epistasis in tomato color mutations involves regulation of
insight into carotenoid biosynthesis, prolamellar body formation, and nutritional improvement of carrots. In Color Quality of Fresh and
and photomorphogenesis. Plant Cell 14: 321–332. Processed Foods, C.A. Culver and R.E. Wrolstad, eds (Washington,
Quinlan, R.F., Shumskaya, M., Bradbury, L.M.T., Beltrán, J., Ma, C., DC: Oxford University Press), pp. 151–165.
Kennelly, E.J., and Wurtzel, E.T. (2012). Synergistic interactions between Soufflet-Freslon, V., Jourdan, M., Clotault, J., Huet, S., Briard, M.,
carotene ring hydroxylases drive lutein formation in plant carotenoid Peltier, D., and Geoffriau, E. (2013). Functional gene polymorphism to
biosynthesis. Plant Physiol. 160: 204–214. reveal species history: the case of the CRTISO gene in cultivated carrots.
Rodrigo, M.J., Alquézar, B., Alós, E., Medina, V., Carmona, L., Bruno, PLoS ONE 8: e70801.
M., Al-Babili, S., and Zacarías, L. (2013). A novel carotenoid cleavage Stigliani, A.L., Giorio, G., and D’Ambrosio, C. (2011). Characterization of
activity involved in the biosynthesis of citrus fruit-specific apocarotenoid P450 carotenoid b- and e-hydroxylases of tomato and transcriptional
pigments. J. Exp. Bot. 64: 4461–4478. regulation of xanthophyll biosynthesis in root, leaf, petal and fruit. Plant
Rodriguez-Concepcion, M., and Stange, C. (2013). Biosynthesis of Cell Physiol. 52: 851–865.