SOIL – WATER – PLANT

RELATIONSHIP
Soil composition
• Soils are the natural media that support the growth and activities of
many kinds of plants, animals and micro-organisms which play a vital
role for the existence of life on earth.

• Soil is a three phase system:

 Solid phase - soil mineral and organic matter;
 Liquid phase - soil moisture
 Gaseous phase - soil air
Soil composition
Soil composition
• Main component of the soil phase is the soil particles
• Size and shape of soil particles give rise to pore spaces of different
geometry
• Pore spaces are filled in varying proportions with:
• Water (i.e. soil moisture) and
• Air (gas i.e. soil air ).
• The volume composition of soil system varies widely
Soil composition
• Main component of the soil phase is the soil particles
• Size and shape of soil particles give rise to pore spaces of different
geometry
• Pore spaces are filled in varying proportions with:
• Water (i.e. soil moisture) and
• Air (gas i.e. soil air ).
• The volume composition of soil system varies widely
Soil Volume – Mass Relationships
Volume Mass
Relations Relations

Va Ma ~ 0 Va = Volume of air
Vv Vw = Volume of water
Vv = Volume of voids = Va + Vw
Vw Mw
Vs = Volume of solids
Vt = Total Volume = Va + Vw + Vt
Vt Mt
Ma = Mass of air
Vs Ms Mw = Mass of water
Ms = Mass of solids
Mt = Total Mass = Mw + Mt
Soil Porosity
• This is the space in a given volume of soil that is occupied by air and
water (not occupied by the soil solids)
• Inclusive of capillary (micro) and non-capillary (macro) pores
• Index of moisture storage capacity and aeration
• Provides clue on ability of the soil to transmit water, air and
penetration of roots through the soil
• Total porosity values:
Arable soils: 30 – 60%
Coarse Textured soils: 35 – 50%
Fine textured soils: 40 – 60%
Soil Porosity (cont.)
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑤
Porosity (n or ) – The ratio of pore volume 𝑛=
𝑉𝑡
to total volume

𝑉𝑎
Air filled porosity (aeration capacity) – The 𝑛𝑎 =
𝑉𝑡
ratio of volume of air to total volume

𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣 ∅
Void ratio– The ratio of pore volume to 𝑒= = =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑣 1 − ∅
solid volume
Soil Porosity (cont.)
• Porosity (n) defines only relative pore volume of soil and not pore
size distribution.
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑛𝑎 = 1 −
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

• Typical values: 30-60%

• n = 30 % - for compacted soils
• n = 60 % - for loose soils
Soil Density (ρ,γ)
• Soil Density: Ratio of total mass (weight) to total volume
𝑀𝑡 𝑊𝑡
ρ𝑡 = γ𝑡 =
𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑡
• Particle Density: Ratio of a given mass (or weight) of soil solids to its
volume. 𝑀𝑠 𝑊𝑠
ρ𝑠 = γ𝑠 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
• Bulk Density: Ratio of a given mass of an oven dried soil to its field
volume (that is, volume of solids and pore spaces)
𝑀𝑠 𝑊𝑠
ρ𝑏 = γ𝑏 =
𝑉𝑡 𝑉𝑡
Soil Density (ρ,γ) (cont.)
Particle Density: Typical values: 2.6 - 2.7 g/cm3
• Most mineral soils have a particle density of approximately 2.65g/cm3.
• This value is often used as a standard particle density in soil calculations

Bulk Density: Typical values: 1.1 - 1.6 g/cm3

• clay soil 1.1-1.3 gr cm-3
• Sandy soils 1.6-1.8 gr cm-3
• Organic soils 0.7-0.5 gr cm-3
Significance of Bulk Density
Knowledge of bulk density if of particular importance in:
• Determination of depth of water for a given depth of soil
• Determination of total, capillary and non-capillary porosity
• To understand permeability of soil for water and air
• Influences penetration of plant roots
• Compression or compaction of soil particles increases bulk density,
consequently it lowers the porosity and also the soil water storage
capacity
Example
Data given:
Fresh weight of soil = 2501g Height of core = 10cm
Weight of water = 750g Diameter = 12 cm
Calculate the bulk density
Solution
𝑊𝑠
• Bulk density γ𝑏 =
𝑉𝑡
• Ws = Wt – Ww = 2501g – 750g = 1751g
• Vt = πD2/4 = 3.14 x 122 x 10 = 1130.4 cm3
• γb = 1751 / 1130.4 = 1.549 gcm-3
Bulk Density values for various soil types (USDA – SCS)
Soil Texture Bulk Density (g/cm3)
Sandy 1.60 – 1.70
Loamy sand 1.60 – 1.70
Sandy loam 1.55 – 1.65
Fine sandy loam 1.50 – 1.60
Loamy soil 1.45 – 1.55
Silty loam 1.40 – 1.50
Silty clay loam 1.35 – 1.45
Sandy clay loam 1.40 – 1.50
Clay loam 1.30 – 1.50
Clay soil 1.25 – 1.35
Soil Depth
• This is the thickness of soil cover over the hard rock below which
roots cannot penetrate.

• Soil depth is directly related to:

 Development of root system
 Water storage capacity
 Nutrient supply, and
 Feasibility for land leveling and land shaping
Soil Depth Classes for Irrigation Purposes
Soil depth (cm) Class
Less than 7.5 cm Very shallow
7.5 – 22.5 Shallow
22.5 – 45.0 Moderately deep
45.0 – 90.0 Deep
More that 90 Very deep
Soil Texture
• Refers to size distribution of particles making up the soil i.e. sand, silt
and clay.
• Soil texture affects water movement and storage.
• The texture of soil is more or less constant and does not change with
tillage.
Particle type Equivalent diameter [mm]
Gravel >2.0
Coarse Sand 2.0 - 0.2
Fine Sand 0.2 - 0.05
silt 0.05 - 0.002
Clay <0.002
Soil Texture (cont.)
Coarse textured soil
• Larger particles, irregular in size and shape; Gritty, individual particles fall
apart when moist; Large pores promote drainage and aeration in soil
Medium textured soil
• Micro sand particles; very soft like flour when dry; smaller pore sizes;
water held by capillary forces against gravity; not sticky even when wet
Fine textured soil
• Smaller particles (<0.002 mm); Large surface area (10-10000 m2/g
compared to silt = 1 m2/g and sand = 0.1 m2/g); Sticky when wet and
hard and cloddy when dry; slow in water and air movement; Forms a ball
when pressed; Cracking of soil during dry spells.
Soil Textural Classification
• Classification by size of the
primary soil particles which
define a textural group is
based on the USDA soil
classification system
• Coarse vs Fine,
• Light vs Heavy
• Loam soil – soil particulates
(less or more) in equal
proportion
Soil surface area influences:
• Capacity of the soil to hold water

• Capacity of the soil to retain nutrients

• Propensity for soil particles to stick together or as discrete

aggregates

• Microbial reactions in soil

Soil texture is closely related to
• Water holding capacity of the soil

• Irrigation water depth

• Irrigation interval

• Permeability for air and water

• Infiltration rate
Soil Structure
• Refers to the arrangement of the particles to form aggregates within
the soil mass.
• It affects root penetration and water intake and movement.
• Soil structure classification
• 1. Simple structure in which nature cleavage planes are absent or
indistinct.
• 2. Compound structure in which natural cleavage planes are
distinct.
Soil Structure (cont.)
• Compound structure types:
a) Granular
b) Blocky
c) Prismatic
d) Columnar
e) Platy
f) Single grained
Soil Structure (cont.)
• Soil structure affects penetration of roots, air movement, crop
production etc.
• Soil structure can be changed with tillage practices.
• Good soil structure could be obtained with addition of organic matter,
growing legumes etc.
• Cultivated fine textured soil when either too wet or too dry is likely to
destroy good soil structure.
• Irrigating with water containing large amount of sodium causes
undesirable structure by dispersing soil particles.
• Granular structure is most favourable for crop production.
• Platy structure is least water transmitting
Important Terms
• Texture: size distribution of the mineral particles in the soil. Three basic soil
textural types are: clay (small particles), silt (medium particles) and sand (large
particles) (Figure 2.1 AW)

• Structure: the aggregation of these particles

• Porosity: the percentage of pore space occupied by either air of water in the soil.
It is determined mostly by soil texture and by structure to some extent. So it can
be separated into textural porosity and structural porosity

• Permeability: connectedness of pores

• Specific surface: particle area per unit volume. Clays have the largest, and sands
have the smallest specific area
Soil Water
 Water Content

Water content (mass)– The ratio of mass of liquid content 𝑊𝑤

𝜔=
to the mass of the solids 𝑊𝑠

Volumetric water content – the fraction of the total volume

𝑉𝑤
of soil that is occupied by the water contained in the soil. 𝑞=
(range 0-n) 𝑉𝑡

Degree of saturation – the fraction of the total volume of

soil that is occupied by the water contained in the soil. 𝑉𝑤 𝜃
𝑆= =
(range 0-1) 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑤 𝑛
Kinds of Soil Water
Hygroscopic Water
• Water held by soil particles by means of adhesive forces. It is so
strongly held by the soil particles, that it is not available to the plants.
Capillary Water
• Water held in pore spaces due to capillarity. It is held by cohesive
forces greater than gravity and is available to plants.
Gravitational Water
• Water which flows freely due to gravitational forces.
no water Structure Hygroscopic Capillary
water Gravitational
water water water
oven dry oven dry air dry
>>105oC 105oC

qWP qFC qs
Wilting point Field capacity saturation
Other soil water related terms
• Soil saturation
• Gravitational water (0.0 – 0.1 bars)
• Field capacity (0.1 – 0.33 bars) Decreasing
• Capillary water water content
• Available water
• Permanent wilting point (15 bars)
• Hygroscopic coefficient (31 bars)
• Hygroscopic water
Other classifications of Water in the soil
• Saturation Capacity – soil is at saturation capacity when all pores are
completely filled with water
• Harmful to plant growth
• The tension of water (soil water potential) at saturation capacity is
almost zero and it is equal to free water surface
• Gravitational water
• Not available to plants
• Drains through soil under influence of gravity
• Drains easily through large pores
• Small pores can hold water against pull of gravity through capillarity
Other classifications of Water in the soil
• Field Capacity (FC or qfc) is the amount of soil moisture or water
content held in the soil after excess water has drained away and the
rate of downward movement has decreased (becomes negligible).
Theoretical definition: amount of water held by soil against gravity.
• Soil is not saturated but still very wet; mostly influenced by texture
• Synonymous terms: Field-carrying capacity, normal moisture capacity,
capillary capacity
• Traditionally defined as the water content corresponding to a soil
water potential (soil moisture tension) of -1/10 to -1/3 bar
• Optimal for plant growth
Other classifications of Water in the soil
• Capillary water
• Capillarity is the ability of water to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
• This ability is directly related to adhesion and cohesion.
• Capillary water is water that remains in the soil after gravitational
water is drained out, that is subject to the laws of capillary
movement, and that is in the form of a film around the soil grains.
 Other classifications of Water in the soil
• Available water: Water held in the soil between field capacity and
permanent wilting point
• Moisture readily available for plant use
• Available Water Capacity (AWC) is given by:
Field Capacity – Wilting Point
AWC = qfc - qwp
• Units: depth of available water per unit depth of soil (unitless, mm/mm)
• In general, fine textured soil have a wide range of water available
between field capacity and permanent wilting point than coarse textured
soil
Other classifications of Water in the soil
• Wilting point (WP or qwp) is defined as the minimal point of
soil moisture below which a plant wilts and can no longer
recover Hygroscopic coefficient (cannot recover from water
stress)
• Still some water in the soil but not enough to be of use to
plants
• Mostly influenced by texture
• Harmful to plant growth
Other classifications of Water in the soil
• Hygroscopic water - This water forms very thin films around
soil particles and is not available to the plant. The water is
held so tightly by the soil that it can not be taken up by
roots.

• Structure water – water that is part of the particle chemical

structure.
ASM: Available
Soil Moisture
Some important relationships
• Hygroscopic water (%) = Hygroscopic coefficient

• Capillary water (%) = Field capacity – Hygroscopic coefficient

• Available water (%) = Field capacity – wilting point

• Unavailable water (%) = Wilting point

• Gravitational water (%) = Water content – Field capacity

Available Soil Moisture

(𝐹𝐶 − 𝑃𝑊𝑃) × ρ𝑏 × 𝐷𝑠
𝐴SM(mm) =
10
• Where,
• FC = Field capacity (%)
• PWP = Permanent wilting point (%)
• ρb = Bulk density (g/cm3)
• Ds = Depth of soil (cm)
• ASM = Available soil moisture (mm/m depth of soil)
Calculate the available water in m3 in a hectare area from the following
data:
• Crop: Cabbage
• Moisture content at FC = 12.7%
• Moisture content at PWP = 5.2%
• Soil Bulk density = 1.6 Mg/m3
• Root zone depth = 50 cm
• Area = 1.0 ha

(𝐹𝐶 − 𝑃𝑊𝑃) × ρ𝑏 × 𝐷𝑠 × 10000

𝐴SM(m3) =
10 × 1000

12.7 − 5.2 × 1.6 × 50 × 10000

𝐴SM m3 = = 600𝑚3
10 × 1000
Surface of the field = 1 ha = 10,000 m2 and soil depth = 50 cm = 0.5m
• Volume of root zone = 10,000 m2 x 0.5 m = 5,000 m3
• Weight of root zone = 5,000 m3 x 1.6 Mg/m3 = 8,000 Mg/ha
• ASM in the root zone = 8,000 Mg/ha x 7.5% = 600m3
(FC – PWP = 12.7 – 5.2 = 7.5%)
 Forces on Soil Water
• Adhesion:

• The attraction of different molecules (eg, soil water to soil particles)

• Holds adhesion (hygroscopic) water and cohesion (capillary) water

• Also called Matric force – which is the soil solid’s attraction (adhesion)
to water which causes adsorption and movement of water through the soil
(capillarity) not counting the force of gravity.
 Forces on Soil Water
• Cohesion: The attraction of similar molecules (eg, water molecules to
other water molecules)

• Capillarity: A capillary is a very thin tube in which a liquid can move

against the force of gravity. The narrower the tube the higher the liquid
rises due to the forces of adhesion and cohesion.

• Osmotic force is the force due to solutes in soil water.

 Forces on Soil Water
• Osmosis: movement of water from a region of high concentration of ions
to a region of lower concentration.

• Pressure: forces that increase below the water table

• Gravity: downward vertical forces exerted on water by gravity

Capillarity in soil

• The adhesion forces hold the water in the ground

• As the soil gets dryer only the thin capillaries are filled with water
Water Retention Curves
Water movements in soil - Terminology
• Infiltration – Entry of water from all or part of the soil surface in to
the soil

• Seepage – Lateral movement of water in an unsaturated soil

• Permeability – Ability of the soil to transmit air and water

• Deep percolation – Downward movement of excess water due to

gravity
Infiltration rate
• The volume flux of water flowing into the profile per unit of soil
surface area

• Factors affecting infiltration:

• Time from the onset of rainor irrigation
• Initial water content
• Hydraulic conductivity
• Soil surface conditions
• Presence of impeding layers in the profile
Infiltration rate and Cumulative Infiltration
Infiltration rates for sand, loam and clay
Wetting pattern in soils of varying texture
Important Terms
• Soil water content: percentage of volume occupied by water in the soil, usually in
units of cm3/cm3

• Field capacity: the capacity of soil to hold water under gravity

• Wilting point: minimum water content of the soil at which plants can extract
water. It depends on texture. Clays have the highest wilting point while sands
have the lowest.

• Available water capacity: field capacity less wilting point

• Water table: depth of soil at which the soil is saturated

 Soil – Plant Relationship
Water – Plant Relationship
How plants absorb water
• Water moves through plants through plants by SPAC

• The SPAC is defined as the movement of water from the soil,

through the plant and to the atmosphere along an
interconnected film of liquid water (Lambers et al 2008)

• SPAC = Soil Plant Atmosphere Continuum

Design moisture extraction depths for crops
grown on very deep, well drained soils
Rooting Depth Crops
Shallow rooted crops (60cm) Cauliflower, Cabbage, Onion, Potato,
Lettuce, Rice
Moderately deep rooted Carrots, French bean, Garden peas,
(90cm) Chilli, Tobacco, Wheat, Banana,
Groundnut
Deep rooted (120cm) Cotton, Tomato, Watermelon, Maize,
Sorghum, Soybeans, Pearl millet
Very deep rooted (180cm) Citrus, Guava, Coffee, Tea, Sugarcane,
Mango
Soil Water Balance