ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
ALECTURE / MRS. VENUS
N
A
T
O
M
Y

Study of the structure and Study of development

shape of the parts and from the
their relationships to one fertilized egg to
another adult form

TYPES OF
ANATOMY
PATHOLOGICAL
GROSS ANATOMY

(MACROSCOPIC) Study of structural

changes (from gross to
ANATOMY Study of microscopic) associated
large, easily with disease

detectable body PHYSIOL

OGY
structures Ex: heart
Study of the
or bones
function of the body
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
or body parts
Study of very small
structures of the body
requiring a microscope
TYPES OF

Ex: Histology (study PHYSIOLOGY

of tissues)
CELL PHYSIOLOGY
Cytology (study of
Study of cell function
cells)
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
SURFACE ANATOMY
o Study of functional
Study of the form
(morphology) and changes
workings of the body associated with
surface disease and aging
o Disease in
SYSTEMIC ANATOMY
relation to the
Study of the
body parts
specific
systems of the
body
EXERCISE
REGIONAL
PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY
Study of the changes in
Study of the specific region of cell or organ functions
the body during muscular activity
RADIOGRAPHIC ANATOMY NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Study of a specific Study of functional
structure of the body that characteristics of nerve
involves the use of x-ray cells (neurons)
DEVELOPMENTAL ENDOCRINOLOGY
ANATOMY
Study of hormones (chemical
regulators in the blood) and ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
how they control body
functions Groups of organs that
cooperate to accomplish a
CARDIOVASCULAR common purpose
PHYSIOLOGY
ORGANISMAL LEVEL
Study of the function of
o The living body is
the heart and blood made of 11 organ
systems o Highest
vessels IMMUNOLOGY
level of structural
Study of body defense organization
mechanisms
B. ORGAN
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
PHYSIOLOGY OVERVIEW
Study of the function of INTEGUMENTARY
the air passages and the SYSTEM
lungs
External
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
covering of
Study of renal function
the body or
LEVELS OF
the skin
STRUCTURAL
Functions:
ORGANIZATION
o Waterproofs the
body and cushions
A. LEVELS OF
and protects the
STRUCTURAL deeper tissues
from tissues from
COMPLEXITY injury
o Excretes salt and
CHEMICAL LEVEL urea in
perspiration and
o Simplest level of
regulate body
the structural temperature
complexity o Atoms o Sensation
(tiny building blocks of SKELETAL SYSTEM
matter) combines to
form molecules Consists of bones,
(water, sugar,
proteins) cartilage, ligaments,
o Association and joints Functions:
of molecules to o Supports the body
form cells and provides a
framework that
CELLULAR the skeletal
muscles can use
LEVEL
that cause
o Cells are the movement
smallest units of all o Storehouse for
living life o Individual minerals
cells vary widely in o Formation of blood
size and shape, cells (hematopoiesis)
reflecting this occurs within the
particular function in cavities of the
the body skeleton

TISSUE LEVEL MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Consists of groups of o The only function of

similar cells that have the muscles of the
common functions body is to contract
or shorten, to
ORGAN LEVEL produce
A structure composed of 2 movements
or more tiers that perform o “machines” of the body
a specific function for the Types:
body
 o Skeletal Muscles (spleen and
o Smooth Muscles tonsils);
o Cardiac Muscles cleanse the
o Nervous system blood and
house the
BODY’S FAST-ACTING cells in
CONTROL SYSTEM immunity
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves and Organs:
sensory receptors
✓ Nasal passages
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ✓ Pharynx
✓ Larynx
o Body’s slow acting
control system Functions: gas exchange
o Consists of
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
endocrine glands
producing A tube running through
hormones the body from the mouth
regulating distant to anus
target organs ✓
Pituitary Organs:
✓ Parathyroid ✓ Oral cavity
✓ Adrenal ✓ Esophagus
✓ Thymus
✓ Pancreas Functions:
✓ Pineal
✓ Ovary o Breakdown of food
✓ Testis and deliver the
products to the blood
CARDIOVASCULAR for dispersal to the
SYSTEM body cells o Excretion
of undigested food
Functions:
that remain in the
o Transportation of tract through the anus
oxygen, hormone, as feces
nutrients and other o Water absorption
substances to and (major function)
from the tissue URINARY SYSTEM
where exchanges
occur ✓ Organs
o Protection from ✓ Kidneys
foreign invaders ✓ Ureters
such as bacteria,
toxins and tumor Functions:
cells o Removal of
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM nitrogen –
containing wastes
o Complementary to (urea and uric
the cardiovascular acid) from the
system blood and flushes
o Organs: them from the
✓ Lymphatic body urine
vessels – o Maintenance of the
returns fluids body’s water and
leaked from salt balance
the blood o Regulation of acid
vessels to – base balance of
keep the the blood
blood
continuously REPRODUCTIVE
circulating SYSTEM
through the o Exists
body
primarily to
✓ Lymph nodes produce
– cleanse the offspring o
blood and house
Male
the cells involved
reproductive
in immunity
system:
✓ Lymphoid
1. Testes - produce
organs –
offspring
 2. Scrotum o Internal: baroreceptor
3. Penis
4. Accessory glands DIGESTION
- Prostate and o Breakdown of
Cowper’s gland ingested food into
5. Duct system simple molecules
FEMALE o Absorption into the
REPRODUCTIVE blood
SYSTEM o Distribution of
nutrients through
1. Ovary – produces cardiovascular
egg or ova system
2. Uterus – site for
fetal development METABOLISM
3. Uterine tube
All chemical reactions
4. Vagina
that occur within body
cells Phases of
Metabolism:

o Catabolism –
MAINTAINING
breakdown of large,
LIFE (LIFE complex molecules
into smaller, simpler
PROCESSES) A. molecules o
NECESSARY LIFE Anabolism –
consumption of
FUNCTIONS energy from
catabolism in
MAINTAINING
building body’s
BOUNDARIES structural and
functional
o Cellular level: every components
cell is surrounded
by aN EXCRETION
external
Removal of
membrane to allow
entrance of excreta or wastes
essential
substance and from the body
restrict harmful REPRODUCTION
substances
o Organismal level: Types:
integumentary system
o Cellular
o (skin) protects the
reproduction –
internal organs from
cell division used
drying out from
for growth and
bacteria, and from
repair
heat, sunlight, and
chemicals o Organismal
MOVEMENT reproduction –
involves
o Organismal level: reproductive
promoted by system, which
musculoskeletal produces sperm
system and eggs
o Organ level: cardiac
GROWTH
pumping
o Cellular level: WBC o Occurs in
migration cellular to
o Organelles: lysosomes organismal
levels o
RESPONSIVENESS Survival
o Ability to detect or Factors/Needs
respond to NUTRIENTS
changes in the
external or internal Derived from foods
environment containing chemicals for
o External: Withdrawal energy and cell building
reflex
Types:
 o Carbohydrates – HOMEOSTATIC
major energy fuel
CONTROL
for body cells
o Proteins – building MECHANISMS Chief
blocks of cells
o Fats – fuel reserve Regulators:
and cushion body ✓ Nervous System
organs o ✓ Endocrine System
Minerals/Vitamins –
enhances chemical COMPONENTS OF
reactions and oxygen HOMEOSTATIC
transport in the blood CONTROL
MECHANISMS
WATER
RECEPTOR
Single most abundant
chemical substance in the Monitors and responds to
body (60-80% of body stimulus by sending
weight) information (input) to the
BODY TEMPERATURE second component
(control center) via
T - metabolism – afferent pathway
cessation of chemical
reactions – death CONTROL CENTER

T - metabolism – Determines the level (set

breakdown of proteins – point) of a variable and
death analyzes the information
sent by the receptor and
OXYGEN determines the
Plays a key role in the appropriate response to
extraction of the stimulus
nutrients/energy from the EFFECTOR
ingested foods
o Medium of the
ATMOSPHERIC control centers
PRESSURE response to the
Force exerted on the body stimulus
surface by the weight of o Information from
air that largely affects the control center
ventilation travel via efferent
pathway by either
Atmospheric P – normal depressing
inspiration – labored (negative
expiration feedback) or
accentuating
Atmospheric P – labored
(positive
inspiration – normal
feedback) the
expiration
stimulus
HOMEOST TYPES OF
ASIS
FEEDBACK
o Body’s ability to MECHANISMS
maintain stable
internal conditions NEGATIVE
despite continuous
FEEDBACK
changes in the
external MECHANISM
environment
o Dynamic state of Compress majority of the
equilibrium, in homeostatic control
which internal mechanisms
conditions change Types:
or vary, but
always within ✓ Thermoregulation
narrow normal ✓ HR and BP regulation
limits o
o Every organs POSITIVE FEEDBACK
system plays a MECHANISMS
role in maintain Increases the stimulus,
homeostasis pushing the variable
o Homeo: the same farther from the original
o Stasis: standing still value
Ex: blood clotting
Medial o Toward or at the
mechanism and birth midline of the body
o On the inner side of
of a baby
Lateral o Away from the
HOMEOSTATIC
midline of the body
IMBALANCE o On the outer side

o Secondary inability Intermediate Between a more

of one or more medial and a more
components to lateral structure
contribute to
homeostasis o
Moderate = disease
o Severe = death Proximal Close to the origin of
the body part or at the
DISEASE point of attachment of
a limb to the body
Pathological process trunk
where part or all of the
body is not carrying on its Distal Farther from the
normal functions origin of a body part
or at the point of
Types: attachment of a limb
to the body trunk
✓ Local – one part or
a limited region of Superficial Toward or at the body
the body surface
✓ Systemic –
Deep Away from the body
several parts or
surface
entire body
Signs vs.
Symptoms REGIONAL
TERMS
✓ Symptoms – felt
ANTERIOR BODY
by the patient
LANDMARKS
(subjective) ✓ Signs
– (0bjective) 1. Abdominal –
anterior body trunk
LANGUAGE OF
inferior to the ribs
ANATOMY
2. Antecubital –
Anatomical Positions – anterior elbow
standard position 3. Nasal – nose
4. Oral – mouth
Directional Terms – for 5. Axillary – armpit
accurate location of a 6. Brachial – arm
body structure and its
7. Buccal – cheek
relation to another
8. Carpal – wrist
DIRECTIONAL 9. Cervical – neck
TERMS 10. Digital – fingers or
toes
TERM
11. Femoral – thigh
Superior o 12. Inguinal – area
(cranial/cephalad) or upperbetween
part of athe thigh and
trunk
structure or the13. Orbital – eye
body
o 14. Patellar – anterior
knee
Inferior (caudal) o 15. Peroneal – lateral
part of leg
16. Pubic – genital
region
17. Sternal –
o breastbone
18. Tarsal – ankle
Anterior (ventral) o
19. Thoracic – chest
20. Umbilical – navel
o
POSTERIOR BODY
Posterior (dorsal) o LANDMARKS
backside of the body
o 1. Cephalic – head
 2. Deltoid – curve of the diaphragm
the shoulder
3. Gluteal – buttock o Thoracic Cavity –
4. Lumbar – area houses and protects
between the ribs the heart, lungs,
and hips 5. and great blood
Occipital – vessels
posterior surface of o Abdominopelvic
the head 6. Cavity – there is no
Popliteal – physical structure
posterior knee dividing the
7. Scapular – abdominal cavity (for
shoulder blade region the sake of
8. Sural – posterior terminology)
leg
DIVISIONS OF
9. Vertebral – spine
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY ABDOMINAL
CAVITY
BODY PLANES
AND SECTIONS superior portion
o Section – cut containing the
o Planes – imaginary digestive organs
line along the section
through the body wall PELVIC CAVITY
or organ
inferior portion containing
Sections: the reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum
SAGITTAL
QUADRANTS
o cut dividing the body into
right and left parts o Scheme commonly used
Midsagittal/Midsection – to divide the
dividing the body or organ abdominopelvic cavity into
into right and left parts with four equal regions
equal size
FRONTAL/CORONAL ▪ For accurate and
SECTION facilitation of study
and clinical
cut dividing the body or procedures
organ into anterior and
posterior parts ✓ Right Upper Quadrants
✓ Right Lower Quadrants
TRANSVERSE SECTION
✓ Left Upper Quadrants
cut dividing the body or ✓ Left Lower Quadrants
organ into superior and
9
inferior parts
REGION
BODY S
CAVITIES
DORSAL BODY CAVITY UMBILICAL REGION

Has two subdivisions that o centermost region

are continuous with each o deep to and
other
surrounding the
o Cranial Cavity –
umbilicus
space inside the
skull, protecting the Structures:
brain
o Spinal Cavity – small intestine and
space formed by the transverse colon of large
vertebrae, protecting intestine
the spinal cord EPIGASTRIC REGION
VENTRAL BODY CAVITY superior to the umbilical
Larger than dorsal cavity region
containing all the Structures:
structures of the chest and
abdomen, separated by lefft lobe of liver and
 stomach direction (knee flexion)

HYPOGASTRIC/PUBIC LATERAL FLEXION

REGION
inferior to the umbilical
region
Structures:
Hypogastric Region –
small intestine and urinary
bladder
RIGHT/LEFT ILIAC
(INGUINAL)
lateral to the hypogastric
region
Structures:
✓ Right Iliac Region –
cecum and appendix ✓
Left Iliac Region –
descending colon of
large intestine and
small portion of small
intestine
RIGHT/LEFT LUMBAR
REGION
lateral to the umbilical
region CIRCUMDUCTION
lateral movement of
the trunk in a coronal
plane ABDUCTION
movement of the limb
away from the midline of
the body in the coronal
plane
ADDUCTION
movement of the limb
toward the body in the
coronal plane
ROTATION
movement of a body part
around its long axis
✓ Medial Rotation –
movement where the
anterior surface of the
part is facing medially ✓
Lateral Rotation –
movement where the
anterior surface of the
part is facing laterally

Structures: combination in sequence

of the movements of
✓ Right Lumbar flexion – extension –
Region – ascending abduction – adduction
colon of large
intestine FOREARM PRONATION
✓ Left Lumbar Region medial rotation of forearm
– descending colon where the palm of the
of large intestine and hand faces posteriorly
small portion of small
intestine FOREARM SUPINATION
RIGHT/LEFT lateral rotation of the
forearm from the pronated
HYPOCHONDRIA position, where the palm
C REGIONS of the hand faces
anteriorly
lateral to the
PROTRACTION
epigastric region
forward movement
Structures:
RETRACTION
✓ Right
Hypochondriac backward movement
Region – right lobe
INVERSION
of liver
✓ Left Hypochondriac movement of the foot
region – diaphragm
and spleen where the sole faces

TERMS RELATED medially EVERSION

TO MOVEMENT movement of the foot where
FLEXION the sole faces laterally

an anterior movement that

occurs in a sagittal plane ORIGIN OF
(except knee flexion) LIFE

EXTENSION o There is no
knowledge of life
straightening the joint except on earth o
occurring in a posterior
 Man has tried to learn life, organic
when, how and where molecules like
life originated amino acids
o A number of aggregated
theories have o these organic
been proposed to molecules were
account for the derived from the
origin of life atmosphere
o in the course of
THEORIES OF
evolution
ORIGIN OF LIFE
protoplasmic
SPONTANEOUS particles
GENERATION OR developed and
ABIOGENESIS gave rise to living
organisms
that life o this concept on the
originated origin of life gained
support from the
from non- recent studies on
viruses o several
living things
viruses crystallize like
BIOGENESIS inorganic
substances, but
o process of they behave like
reproduction or living organisms
biogenesis by reproducing
explains that new
life comes only BASIC
from a pre existing CHARACTERISTICS
life OF LIVING THINGS
o it affirms the OR ORGANISMS

genetic theory of the ORGANIZATION

origin of life o a living organism,

be it plant or
COSMOZOIC THEORY animal is
o this theory composed of one
or several cells
maintains the
simple living forms o the cell is defined
might have as the fundamental
reached the earth unit of structure and
accidentally from function of a living
some other organism o it is
sources in the capable of
universe independent existence
o the extreme and exhibits all the
temperatures and characteristics of life
the radiations of o in case of
the interstellar multicellular
space would not organisms, the
allow life to cells combine
survive together and act in
a coordinated
SPECIAL CREATION manner to perform
THEORY processes
essential to life
human reason cannot fully
explain the beginning of IRRITABILITY OR
life; hence life has been SENSITIVITY
presumed to have been
created by some o living organisms
supernatural power either react to physical and
once or at successive chemical changes in
intervals the environment
NATURALISTIC OR o changes in the
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL environment
THEORY constitute the
stimuli
o states that when o these stimuli which
the conditions of may be external or
the early earth internal are
became suitable to effective in
 producing observing the
responses occurrence of most
of these chemical
MOVEMENT reactions
o all living organisms o the rate of
have the ability to metabolism is
move o this is made influenced by
possible by the many factors like
streaming of the temperature, age,
protoplasmic mass in sex, hormones,
cells called cyclosis o nutrition and
general health
movement of animals
is more obvious than ADAPTABILITY
that of plants
o the animal body ability of a living organism
moves maybe as a to adapt or adjust itself to
result of muscular its environment in order to
contraction, of the survive
beating of the cilia TWO PHASES OF
or flagella or of the METABOLISM
amoeboid motion
of the cellular ANABOLISM
protoplasm
which forms more
o movement
complex substances from
characterized by
simpler ones resulting in
change in position
the storage of energy and
is locomotion
production of new cellular
GROWTH materials

o refers to increase in CATABOLISM

size or in the which breaks down
amount of the complex substances to
protoplasm of the release energy
body
o plants and animals MAJOR
grow by development DIFFERENCES
from within, which is BETWEEN PLANTS
by intussusception o AND ANIMALS
non-living things if Plants Animals
they increase in size,
undergo external Mode of ➢ Heterotrophic
addition which is nourishment
called accretion Autotrophic
o growth may occur
throughout the life Extent of Growth ➢ Determinate
span the organism Indeterminate
o in animals, growth Cell wall ➢ Absent
is limited by its cellulose, rigid, inert
specific and
characteristic size Nervous System ➢ Present in most
REPRODUCTION ➢ Absent
o each living
Mobility ➢ Mobile
organism is ➢ Immobile
capable of
duplicating itself in Primary Food ➢ Glycogen &
kind Reserve saturated fats
o this is done by ➢ Starch &
using materials unsaturated oils
within the body to
insure survival or Waste products ➢ Carbon Dioxide &
perpetuation of the Oxygen from Nitrogenous waste
species photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide from
METABOLISM metabolism
o all living organisms
carry on various
chemical THE
processes PROTOPLAS
o this aids in M
 o living substance of the • Free Water
cell • Bound Water
o it possesses
properties which FREE WATER
include physical, 99% of the total cellular
chemical and water, is miscible with the
physiological cytoplasm, serving as the
properties chief solvent for the
PROPERTIES OF solutes and dispersion
PROTOPLASM medium of the protoplasm
A. PHYSICAL BOUND WATER
PROPERTIES
4-5% of the cellular water,
1. Heterogeneous tied to polypeptide chains
2. Colloidal – has of protein molecules by
been described as hydrogen bonds
emulsoid,
reticular, granular, IMPORTANCE
fibrillar, alveolar or OF WATER:
foam like PHYSICAL
3. translucent, PROPERTIES
colorless, slimy,
1. Solvent Power
viscous fluid 4.
1. acts as the
Viscosity – ability of
universal solvent of
absorbing and
mineral ions and
eliminating water
substances
accounts for its
continuous changes 2. Capacity to Absorb
Heat
5. Exhibits Brownian
movement 2. due to its high
specific heat, it
6. Tyndall effect
can prevent
B. CHEMICAL drastic
PROPERTIES temperature
changes
1. Composed of efficiently
elements such as 3. Ionization Power
carbon, hydrogen, 3. easily dissociates
oxygen, nitrogen, into H and OH ions 4.
magnesium, its function as an
phosphorus, indispensable medium
potassium, in chemical reactions
calcium, sulfur, 5. its capacity for
chloride, sodium, dispersions for the
iron, copper, zinc, colloidal structures of
cobalt, protoplasm
manganese 6. its function as the
2. Elements may form agent in
compounds which absorbing,
may be classified as dispensing and
inorganic or organic transporting of
INORGANIC substances
COMPOUNDS PHYSIOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF WATER
Which are found in living
and non-living bodies are 1. dissolves or holds
more numerous than the in suspension the
organic parts of the materials of the
organisms protoplasm
2. furnishes medium
1. Water for some vital
2. Salts processes
3. Gases 3. moistens
surface for gas
WATE diffusion 4.
R regulates body
Water makes up about temperature
5. helps in functions of
80-90% of the the sense organs 6.
protoplasm It consists serves as lubricant for
movable surfaces 7.
of: serves as cushion for
 the brain and spinal found in circulating blood,
cord in parts of the cells, in
bones and calcified
CARBON cartilages, combined with
DIOXIDE phosphates and
o Source of carbon and carbonates
oxygen PHOSPHATE IONS
o Key element in the
organization of all occur in blood and tissue
organic fluids as free ions, but
compounds much are bound to
o It is directly and organic substances like
phospholipids,
indirectly essential nucleotides,
phosphoproteins
to life
INORGANIC CHLORIDE IONS

ACIDS AND o circulate in the

blood and
BASES intercellular fluids
as free ions; found
o Important roles in in small quantities
the living systems o in the cells and
When dissolved in component of
water, acids release gastric juices.
hydrogen ions; bases o with sodium,
releases hydroxyl ions chlorides maintain
o When an acid globulins in solution
reacts with a base, the and osmotic
hydrogen ions unite equilibrium of cells
with the hydroxyl ions PHOSPHORUS IONS
to form water
o The hydrogen ion o present in high
concentration is concentration within
expressed in terms of the cell protoplasm as
pH (potential in muscle and red
hydrogen) blood cells o
o Any considerable important in nerve
change in pH conduction and
affects the life of muscle contraction
the cell or the
IRON IONS
organism
found in hemoglobin and
✓ Neutral solution has a in the cytochromes in the
pH of 7 un-ionized form
✓ Acids have pH ranging
from 1-7 SULFUR
✓ Bases have pH ranging o in the organic form
from 7-14 found in amino
SALTS acids like
cysteine, cystine,
Inorganic compounds methionine where
formed when an acid is it is bound to
neutralized by a base carbon
o present in the
IMPORTANCE
OF SALT amino acid linkages in
protein o essential
1. considered as constituents of many
inorganic buffers enzymes and co-
2. important role in enzymes
some vital
processes like GASSES
irritability of Is a state of matter where
muscles and the molecules are widely
nerves dispersed in a highly
SOME OF THE disordered fashion
MINERAL IONS TWO GASSES
FOUND IN THE PRESENT IN THE
PROTOPLASM PROTOPL
CALCIUM IONS ASM:
 OXYGEN where n represents the
unknown number of
needed for biological simple sugar molecules
oxidation to release combined

energy CARBON Example: Starch,

DIOXIDE Glycogen, Cellulose

waste product of oxidation

ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS MONOSACCHARID

1. Carbohydrates ES
2. Lipids
Important source of energy
3. Protein
for the cells
4. Nucleic acid
a. Glucose - blood
sugar or dextrose
CARBOHYDRATES
b. Fructose – fruit
o Organic sugar
compounds c. Galactose – milk
containing carbon, sugar
hydrogen and DISACCHARIDES
oxygen
o The hydrogen and o 2 monosaccharides
oxygen are bonded together o
present in Principle sugar
approximately the transported
ratio of 2:1 throughout the bodies
o It includes simple of land plants
sugars, starches, a. Lactose – milk
gums, celluloses sugar: glucose +
and resins galactose b.
o It is the main Maltose – malt
sugar: glucose +
source of energy in the glucose c. Sucrose
body – table sugar:
glucose + fructose
CLASSIFICATION OF
POLYSACCHARIDES
CARBOHYDRATES
o Complex sugar
MONOSACCHARIDE o Many
S monosaccharides
(usually glucose)
simple sugars with formula bonded together
C6H12O6 d. Starch energy
storage in plants
Example: Glucose,
e. Glycogen –
Dextrose, Galactose, energy storage
in animals f.
Fructose, Levulose Cellulose –
structural
DISACCHARIDES
material in
o double sugars plants
o formed by the LIPIDS
linkage of two
molecules of o Fat soluble
simple sugars with compounds
the loss of a contain carbon,
molecule of water hydrogen and
oxygen
Formula: C12H22O11
o Make up
about 3% of
POLYSACCHARIDES the
protoplasm o
complex sugars made up Greasy
of several molecules of texture or oily
simple sugars consistency
Formula: (C6H10O5) n o Insoluble in water
o Soluble in organic
 acids such as PHOSPHOLIPIDS
ether, benzene or
chloroform o two fatty acids
o Some are liquid or linked by a glycerol
fluid at ordinary molecule to
temperature but phosphate
others are solid containing water-
o Few are firm waxes soluble
components
o It furnished fuel of high
o fundamental to
energy fuel
formation of cell
CLASSIFICATION
OF LIPIDS membranes STEROID
STEROIDS composed of four
solid alcohols which are interlocking rings of
not chemically related to
fat but they are included carbon atoms PROTEINS
among lipids because
o 15% of the
they exhibit-fat like
protoplasm
properties
o Most abundant
Examples: sex constituent of the
hormones, adreno-cortical protoplasm o
hormones, vit. D, bile C,H,O,N with sulfur,
acids and cholesterol phosphorus and
(common component of iodine o Colloidal in
membranes of eukaryotic nature
cells) o Components of
amino acids
SIMPLE LIPIDS
o Chief structural
o contain glycerol and pattern of
fatty acids protoplasm form
o alcohol esters of fatty enzymes,
acids hormones,
chromosomes and
Examples: fats, oils and cell components
waxes o Chief structural
COMPLEX LIPIDS proteins that
makes up the
simple lipids plus other plant is Cellulose
substances
TYPES OF
Examples: phospholipids PROTEINS
and cerebrosides
COMPLEX OR FIBROUS PROTEIN
COMPOUND LIPIDS polypeptides are arranged
a. Lipoproteins – parallel along a single
with protein axis to produce long fibers
b. Glycolipids – with or sheets
carbohydrates a. Keratin – principal
c. Phospholipids – with components of hair b.
phosphoric acid Silk – pleated sheet
THREE MAJOR protein produced by
TYPES OF LIPIDS silk moths and
EXIST IN spiders
PROTOPLASM GLOBULAR PROTEINS
TRIGLYCERIDES the polypeptides are so
o fatty acids (3 tightly folded into
hydrocarbon spherical or globular
chains) when shapes, such as
bounded through hemoglobin, the
their glycerol component of vertebrate
become neutral blood used to transport
fats oxygen
o that provides CONJUGATED PROTEIN
insulation and energy simple proteins in union
reserves with other substances
 a. Nucleoprotein – enzyme and that of
with nucleic acids substrate
e.g.: histones 2. Temperature
b. 3. increase rate of
Glycoprot collision with
eins – with substrate thus
carbohydra speed up reaction
tes e.g.: 4. optimum
mucin temperature is
c. Lipoprotein – with generally the body
fatty acids temperature
e.g.: serum ad brain 5. pH concentration
tissue the highest activity
d. Chromoproteins – of the enzymes is
with pigments at optimum pH
e.g.: cytochrome 6. relative
PROTOPLASMIC concentration of
the enzymes and
PROTEINS IN LIVING
substrate
BODIES ENZYMES AS
NUCLEIC
PROTEINS ACIDS

o most of the proteins o Composed of

in the body cells carbon, hydrogen,
are enzymes oxygen, nitrogen,
o catalysts that and phosphorus
control the rates of o Important in protein
many chemical synthesis as RNA
reactions such as and in heredity as
respiration, DNA
digestion, muscle o Building blocks are
contraction, nerve the nucleotides,
conduction and which are made
other metabolic up of a pentose
processes sugar (ribose or
deoxyribose), a
SIX MAIN GENERAL nitrogen base
GROUPS ACCORDING (pyrimidine or
TO CHEMICAL purine), and
REACTIONS THEY phosphoric acid
PERFORM o In DNA, purines are
1. OXIDO-REDUCTASES adenine and thymine;
• oxidation-reduction pyrimidines are
reactions cytosine and guanine
2. TRANSFERASES o In RNA,
• transfer of groups thymine is
3. HYDROLASES
• hydrolytic reactions replaced by uracil
4. LYASES DNA
• addition or removal
of a group to and A --- T T --- A C --- G G --- C
form double
RNA
bonds
5. ISOMERASES A --- U T --- A C --- G G --- C
• catalyze isomerization
6. LIGASES OR
SYNTHETASE
• condense 2
molecules by
splitting a
phosphate bond
MITOSIS AND
FACTORS THAT MEIOSIS
INFLUENCED OR
INHIBITED THE DIVIDING CELLS
ENZYMES UNDERGO CELL CYCLE

1. number of contacts 1. Interphase

or collision 2. Cytoplasmic division
between 3. Mitosis
molecules of the
 INTERPHASE o among
sexually
o Nucleus appears reproducing
normal organism o
o Cell is performing part of
its usual cellular gametogenesi
function o Cell is s
increase of all its ✓ production of
components gametes
a. Organelles - male and
1. Mitochondria female
2. Ribosomes
CELL
3. Centrioles CYCLE

b. DNA Replication INTERPHASE

• occurs toward the end
o interval of time
of interphase
between cell division o
• chromosomes
are duplicated 18-24 hours – length
and contain 2 of time required for the
chromatids entire cell cycle
held together o it usually varies
at the according to the
centromere organism o typical
for animal cell
CYTOPLASMIC
DIVISION MITOSIS AND
CYTOKINESIS
o Cytokinesis
o 2 daughter cells are lasts less than an hour to
produced more than 2 hours
4 STAGES OF
MITOSIS CELL CYCLE

o Karyokinesis G1 − organelles
o Nuclear division begin to double in
o Nuclei receives the
same no. of number S −
chromosomes as the replication of
parental nucleus
DNA
MITOSI
S G2 −synthesis of chons
1. MULTICELLULAR M − mitosis
ORGANISM
Permits growth and 4 PHASES OF
repair of tissues ANIMAL MITOSIS

• Prophase
2. EUKARYOTIC • Metaphase
UNICELLULAR
• Anaphase
ORGANISM Form
of asexual • Telophase
reproduction
MEIOSI
S
o sex cells which is egg
and sperm have half the PROPHASE
no. of chromosomes as
o chromosomes continue
the parental cell
to compact
- it is due to crossing over o nuclear disappears
of genetic material o nuclear envelope
fragments
o chromosomes occur
o spindle begins to
in various
assemble as the
combinations in the
centrosomes each
daughter cells
containing 2
o contributes to
centrioles migrate to
recombination of the poles
genetic material and o chromosomes have
variation
no apparent
 orientation within
the cell
o duplicated chromosomes
- composed of two
sister chromatids
held together at the
centromere
PROMETAPHASE
o early metaphase TELOPHASE
o mitotic spindle
occupies the region
formerly occupied by
the nucleus
o short microtubules
radiate out in a
starlike aster from
the pair of centrioles
located in each
centrosome
o spindle consists of
poles, asters and fibers
which are bundles of
parallel microtubules o
kinetochores of the sister
chromatid capture
spindle fibers coming
from the opposite poles
METAPHASE
MEIOSI
o the sister chromatids
are now attached to
the spindle
o chromosomes are
aligned at the
metaphase plate
ANAPHASE
o early anaphase
- 2 sister chromatids
of each chromosome
separate at the
centromere giving
rise to 2 daughter
chromosomes
o daughter
chromosomes
- each with a
centromere and 1
chromatid and begin
to move toward the
poles
o each pole receives
one of each kind
o therefore, it has a
diploid no. of
daughter
chromosomes
o new nuclear
envelopes form
around the daughter
chromosomes at the
poles
o each daughter
nucleus contains the
same no. and kinds of
chromosomes as the
parental cell o
chromosomes become
more diffuse chromatin
once again
o nucleolus appears in
each daughter nucleus
o division of the
cytoplasm by formation
of a cleavage furrow is
nearly complete
S
o form of nuclear
division in which the
chromosome no. is
reduced by half
o n or haploid
o meiosis occurs 2x
- meiosis I and
meiosis II
o diploid nucleus
contains homologous
chromosomes
- that look alike and
carry genes for the
same traits
o homologous pairs of
chromosomes are
indicated by size, and
parental origin of
chromosomes by
color
THE FIRST MEIOTIC
 DIVISION
reduces the number of
chromosomes to 23, all in
the replicated form
THE SECOND MEIOTIC
DIVISION
o the cells essentially
undergo mitosis
o The result of the two
meiotic divisions is
four haploid cells
STRUCTURE
ASSOCIATED WITH
MEIOSIS
Early Meiosis –
homologous
chromosomes form pairs
that is they have synapse
Each synapsed
structure – bivalent which
eventually gives rise to a
unit known as tetrad
Tetrad - consists of four
chromatids
Four Chromatids - both
homologous and therefore
bivalent
TWO DIVISIONS TO
ACHIEVE HAPLOIDY
1. Reductional Division –
Meiosis 1
2. Equational Division –
Meiosis II
REDUCTIONAL DIVISION
o The number
centromeres, each
representing one
chromosome, is
reduced by one half
following the division
o Components of each
tetrad-representing 2
homologs, separate
yielding 2 dyads
o Each Dyad -
composed of two sister
chromatids joined at a
common centromere
EQUATIONAL DIVISION
o the number of
centromeres remains
equal o each dyad -
splits into two monads
of one chromosome
each
THE 1ST MEIOTIC
DIVISION:
PROPHASE 1 The
substages of meiotic
prophase I
1. Leptonema
2. Zygonema
3. Pachynema
4. Diplonema
5. Diakinesis
LEPTONEMA
o the interphase
chromatin material
begins to condense
o chromosomes
although extended
becomes visible
o along each
chromosome are
chromomeres o
homology search -
precedes and essential
to the initial pairing of
homologs
ZYGONEMA
o chromosomes
continue to shorten and
thicken o homology
search-homologous
chromosome undergo a
loose alignment
o as meiosis proceeds,
an ultrastructural
component called
synaptonemal
complex is formed
between homologs
o the paired of
homologs are
referred to as
bivalents
o These are replicated
DNA and that each
member is double
o The number of
bivalents in each
species is equal to
the haploid no. (n)
PACHYNEMA
o coiling and
shortening of
chromosomes o
development of the
synaptonemal complex
between two bivalents
o each homologs is first
evident as double
structure
o evidence of earlier
replication of DNA o
bivalent contains 4
member chromatids o
the four membered
structure is called as
tetrad o each tetrad
contains 2 pairs of
sister chromatids
DIPLONEMA
 o each tetrad consists METAPHASE I
of 2 pairs of sister
Paired homologous
chromatids
chromosomes align along
o each pair begins to
equator of cell
separate
o chromatids are
intertwined
o each area is called as
chiasma- where non
sister chromatids
undergone genetic
exchange through a
process of crossing- ANAPHASE 1
over
o crossing over- Homologous
chromosomes separate to
important source of
opposite poles of cell
variability o genetic
material is formed
DIAKINESIS
o the chromosomes are
pull farther apart o non-
sister chromatids remain
loosely associated via TELOPHASE 1
the chiasmata
o chiasmata move o nuclear envelopes
towards the end of partially assemble
the tetrad around
terminalization chromosomes
o the centromeres of o spindle disappears
each tetrad structure are o cytokinesis divides cell
present on the into two
equatorial plate of the
cell
MEIOSI
S
An actual human cell
undergoing meiosis has PROPHASE II
23 chromosome pairs
o nuclear envelope
PROPHASE I (EARLY) fragments
Synapsis and crossing o spindle forms
over occurs o fibers attach to both
chromosomes

PROPHASE I (LATE)
METAPHASE II
o chromosomes
Chromosomes align along
condense, equator
becomes visible o
spindle forms
o nuclear envelope ANAPHASE II
fragments
Sister chromatids
o spindle fibers
separate to opposite
attach to each
poles of cell
chromosome
TELOPHASE II
o nuclear envelopes
assemble around 2
daughter nuclei
o chromosome
decondense
 o spindle disappears centrioles in animal
o cytokinesis divides cell
cells
o four non- CENTRIOLE
identical haploid Associated with the
daughter cells formation of the spindle
during cell division

STRUCTURE ASTER
ASSOCIATED WITH o Short, radiating fibers
produced by the
MITOSIS NUCLEUS centrioles
o large organelle o Important during
containing mitosis and meiosis
chromosomes o COMPARISON
control center of OF MITOSIS &
the cells
MEIOSIS MITOSIS
CHROMOSOME
o 1 Division
o rod-shaped body in o 2 daughter cells / cycle
the nucleus that is o Daughter cells
usually seen during genetically identical
mitosis and meiosis o o Chromosome no. of
contains hereditary daughter cells is
units of genes same as that of
parent (2n)
o Occurs in somatic cell
NUCLEOLUS o Occurs throughout life
o organelle found cycle
inside o Used for growth,
o composed largely repair, asexual
of RNA for reproduction
ribosome MEIOSIS
formation
o 2 Divisions
SPINDLE o 4 daughter cells / cycle
microtubule structure that o Daughter cells
brings about genetically different
chromosome movement o Chromosome no. of
during cell division daughter cells half
that of parent (n)
CHROMATIDS o Occurs in germline
2 identical parts of a cells
chromosome following o Completes after sexual
DNA replication maturity
o Used for sexual
CENTROMERE reproduction,
A constriction where producing new
duplicates the sister gene combinations
chromatids of CELLULAR
chromosome are held
together STRUCTURES AND

KINETOCHORE FUNCTIONS THREE

Disk shaped structure at DIFFERENT

the centromere that ELEMENTS IN THE
attaches a sister
chromatid to the mitotic BODY
spindle
1. Cells
CENTROSOME 2. Intercellular
Substances
o Central microtubule
3. Body Fluids
- organizing center
of cells CELL
o Consists of granular
material o Smallest functional
o Contains 2 and structural units
 of the body antigenic
o Basic unit of life determinants
▪ Serves as the
TWO BASIC selective barriers
CELL TYPES providing for the
1. Eukaryotic cell selection of what
2. Prokaryotic cell enters and leaves
the cell
EUKARYOTIC CELL ▪ Selective
permeability
Cell which has a true
nucleus and surrounded MODIFICATION OR
by a nuclear membrane SPECIALIZATION OF
or nuclear envelope THE CELL
MEMBRANE
PROKARYOTIC CELL
▪ Junctional
o Cell which Complex
has no ▪ Invaginations
presence of ▪ Microvilli
nucleus o ▪ Cilia
Lacking of
nuclear JUNCTIONAL
envelope COMPLEXES
o Nuclear substance
Structures that
is mixed or in direct
contact with the rest of provide for cell
the cytoplasm
attachments
PHYSIOLOGIC
TYPES OF
PROPERTIES OF
PROTOPLASM JUNCTIONAL
▪ Irritability COMPLEXES
▪ Contractility
▪ Conductivity ▪ Desmosomes
▪ Absorption and secretion ▪ Intermediate
▪ Excretion Junction
▪ Respiration ▪ Nexus / Gap
▪ Growth and reproduction Junction
▪ Tight Junction
PRINCIPAL PARTS
OF THE CELL DESMOSOMES

▪ Cell membrane o Macula adherens

▪ Cytoplasm o Points of firm
▪ Nucleus intercellular adhesions
CELL MEMBRANE o Abundant in
stratified epithelia of
o Trilaminar layer the mouth,
o Membrane lipids, esophagus, skin and
mostly vagina
phospholipids
have a hydrophilic SIGNIFICANCE OF
phosphate which DESMOSOME
is polar in nature ▪ Site of attachment of
and a hydrophobic the cytoskeleton to
which is a non the cell surface
polar end ▪ Sites of cell-to-cell
FUNCTION OF THE adhesions
CELL MEMBRANE INTERMEDIATE
▪ Gives shape to the JUNCTION
cell o Zonula adherens
▪ Delimits or separate
o Fascia adherens
the cell from the
o The intercellular
environment
▪ Regulates the space is filled with
passage of electron dense
materials in and amorphous
out of the cell materials
▪ Serves as the o It is quite extensive
recognition site in the intercalated
acting as discs of cardiac
 muscle ducts as in the ductus
epididymis and ductus
GAP JUNCTION deferens
o Concerned with cell-to-cell CILIA
communication o Usually
seen in epithelial, muscular o Motile projections
and nervous tissue and characterized
by a rapid forward
TIGHT JUNCTION stroke and slow
o Zonula occludens backward stroke
o Found in the cells
o Important in the
lining the upper
formation of a
respiratory tract
barrier prevents
the free passage II. CYTOPLASM
of the substances
across the o Protoplasm outside
epithelium the nucleus which
o Commonly found in contains organelles
the git and inter and inclusions
endothelial o Contains the
contacts of brain biochemical
tissue as well as components of the
capillary cytoplasm
o Contains chons, lipids
INVAGINATI and CHO
ONS
1. Organelles – living
▪ Vesicular pits substances
▪ Infoldings performing definite
VESICULAR or specific functions
PITS 2. Inclusions – inert or
non-living
Occur as substances that do
not perform definite
phagocytic and
function
pinocytic Examples:
vacuoles, crystals,
vesicles droplets, lipids,
INFOLDINGS glycogen,
secretory granules
Greatly increase the cell
surface because of their TYPES OF
inward projections ORGANELLES

MICROVI 1. Membrane bound

LLI
o Non-motile cellular
extensions which
serve to increase the
absorptive surface of
cells o Facilitate
movements and
passage of
substances in
between other
cells and
interstitial
components
FORMS OF
MICROVILLI
Striated borders – fd. In
the absorptive cells of the
intestinal epithelium
Brush borders – fd. In
the cells of the proximal
convoluted tubules of the
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS
kidney
Stereocilia – fd. In the
cells of some testicular
organelles –
mitochondria, ER,
golgi complex,
lysosomes and
microbodies
2. Non-membrane
bound organelles
– ribosomes,
centrioles,
microtubules and
microfilaments
MITOCHON
DRIA
o Powerhouse of the cell
o Concerned
primarily with the
production of
energy and are
abundant with high
metabolic rates
o Synthesize ATP –
energy source of the cell
OF MITOCHONDRIA
1. Accumulation of
 calcium ▪ Vesicles
2. Synthesis of ▪ Vacuoles
nucleic acids
and chons 3. LYSOSO
Oxidation of MES
fatty acids o Suicide bag of the
ENDOPLASMIC cell
RETICULUM o Contain hydrolytic
enzymes called as
o Chon synthesis acid hydrolases
o Complex network of which is
paired responsible for the
membranes, intracellular
saccules, vacuoles digestion
and tubules with
flattened cisternae TYPES OF
LYSOSOMES
TYPES
OF ER 1. Primary lysosomes
– not engaged in
1. Rough ER – enzymatic activities
granular er 2. Secondary
because it lysosomes –
contains attached involved in enzymatic
ribosomes and activities
concerned with
chon synthesis FUNCTION OF
2. Smooth ER – non- LYSOSOMES
granular er and 1. Defense mechanism
does not contain – being the site of
ribosomes destruction of foreign
SEVERAL FUNCTIONS bodies
OF SMOOTH ER 2. Participate in the
normal replacement
1. In striated muscles, of cell components
it is concerned and organelles
with the release 3. Its deficiency can
and recapture of cause metachromatic
calcium ions leukodystrophy
during contraction CENTRIO
and relaxation of LES
muscles
2. synthesis of steroid o Center of activities
hormones in some associated with
endocrine cell division
GLANDS o Self-duplicating
3. Detoxification of organelles and are
toxic substances prominent in
especially in the mitotic cell division
liver
FUNCTIONS OF
4. Lipid and CENTRIOLES
cholesterol
metabolism in the liver 1. Serves as basal
5. 5.formation of HCL bodies and sites of
in the parietal cells of epithelial cilia
stomach 2. Determine the polarity
of the cells
GOLGI
COMPLEX PEROXISO
MES
o Dictyosomes
o Packaging area of o Microbodies
the cell o Producing hydrogen
o Accumulate and peroxide
concentrate the o Abundant in the
secretory liver, kidneys,
products of the cell bronchioles and
o Site of sulfation odontoblast
CONSISTS OF FILAMEN
GOLGI APPARATUS TS
▪ Saccules 1. Microfilaments
 ▪ contractile filaments of the uterus –
▪ actin and myosin formation of the
filament in primary germ
skeletal layers
muscles
✓ Ectoderm
2. Intermediate ✓ Endoderm
filaments ✓ Mesoderm
▪ cytoskeleton in o The primary germ
epithelial tissue
layers are the
▪ known as embryonic tissues
tonofilament from which all
▪ in nervous tissue tissues and organs
– of the body
neurofilaments develop
and are seen in Epithelial
axons and
dendrites tissue – all
MICROTUB three germ
ULES
layers
Functions:
Connective
1. Functional elements
tissue –
of the spindle
apparatus in mesoderm
dividing cells
2. Form the mitotic Muscle tissue –
spindles along mesoderm
which the Nervous tissue –
chromosomes ectoderm
move
3. Play an important CELL
role in maintaining JUNCTIONS
different cell shape
o The points of
contact between
TISSUE adjacent plasma
S membrane
o Most cells are
o Group of cells with
closely joined to
a common embryonic form a functional
origin and with similar unit
structure and function
o The arrangement of TYPES
tissues to determine :
each organ structures
and function 1. Tight
junction
HISTOLOGY 2. Anchoring
junction
the science that 3. Gap junction
deals with the study TIGHT JUNCTIONS
of tissues PRIMARY
o Form fluid-tight
TYPES OF seals between
cells like the seal
TISSUES on a sandwich bag
1. Epithelium (covering) o Common among
2. Connective (support) epithelial cells that line
3. Nervous (control) the stomach,
4. Muscle (movement) intestines, urinary
bladder
ORIGIN OF o Prevents fluid in a
TISSUES cavity from leaking
into the body by
o 8 days after passing between
fertilization – cells
several cell
divisions – ANCHORING JUNCTION
formation of mass
cells – mass cells o Fasten cells to one
embed in the lining another or to the
 extracellular fluid the cytosol of one
material cell into the cytosol
o Common in tissues of the next
subjected to TYPES OF
friction and TISSUES
stretching
1. Epithelial
Ex: outer layer of skin, 2. Connective
cardiac muscle, 3. Muscle
epithelial lining of GIT 4. Nervous
DESMOSOME EPITHELIAL TISSUE
▪ most common type o Epithelium
▪ forms firm o The lining,
attachments covering, and the
between cells like glandular tissue of
spot welds the body
▪ on the cytoplasmic o Glandular
surface, epithelium forms
intermediate various glands in
filaments of the the body
cytoskeleton o the cells of the most
attach to a dense epithelial tissues
plaque of proteins are constantly
GAP JUNCTIONS replaced by
mitosis of
o Permit electrical or progenitor cells,
chemical signals to thus, epithelial
pass from one cell tissue is constantly
to cell being regenerated
o Allow the rapid o Covering and lining
spread of action epithelium covers all
potentials from free body surfaces
one cell to the next and contains versatile
in some parts of cells o (outer layer of
the nervous the skin and others dip
system and in into the body to line
muscle of the heart its cavities)
and GIT o Nearly all
o Chemical and substances given
electrical signals off or received by
that regulate the body must
growth and pass through the
differentiation may epithelium forms
travel by way of the boundaries
gap junctions in a that separate
developing embryo human body from
o Cancer cells do not the environment
have gap junctions
and therefore FUNCTIONS OF
cannot EPITHELIAL TISSUE
communicate with 1. Protection
each other, 2. Absorption
resulting to 3. Filtration
uncoordinated cell 4. Secretion
division and
occurs in an PROTECTION
uncontrolled
manner o The epithelium of
the skin protects
CONNEXONS against bacterial
and chemical
▪ proteins spanning
damage
the gap forming
o The epithelial lining
minute fluid-filled
of the respiratory
tunnels
tract has cilia,
▪ a tunnel where ions
which sweep dust
and small
and other debris
molecules
away from the
(glucose and
lungs
amino acids) can
pass directly from
ABSORPTION for food and
oxygen
Epithelial linings of the
stomach and small 5. Easy Regeneration
intestine, which absorbs – if epithelial cells
food into the body are well nourished
FILTRATION CLASSIFICATION
OF EPITHELIUM
Epithelium in the
Classified by the relative
kidney both filters and number of cell layers it has:
absorbs SECRETION 1. simple
Specialty of the gland, epithelia
which produce such 2. stratified
substances as epithelia
perspiration, oil, digestive SIMPLE EPITHELIA
enzymes, and mucus
o One layer of cells
SPECIAL
o Concerned with
CHARACTERISTIC
absorption,
S
secretion, filtration
1. Epithelial cells fit o Protection is not
closely together to one of their
form continuous specialties
sheets because they are
very thin
▪ neighboring cells
are bound TYPES OF
together at many SIMPLE
points by cell EPITHELIA
junctions
(desmosomes 1. Simple
and tight Squamous
junctions) 2. Simple Cuboidal
3. Simple
2. Presence of apical Columnar
surface 4.
▪ one free surface or
Pseudostratified
edge present in all
membranes Columnar Epithelium
▪ exposed to the body’
exterior or to the SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
cavity of an
o Flattened like fish
internal organ
scales (squam =
▪ the exposed
scale) o Single layer
surfaces of some
of thin squamous cells
epithelia are slick
resting on a
and smooth, but
basement membrane
others exhibit cell
surface o The cells fit closely
modifications such together
as microvilli or cilia o Usually form
3. Presence of membranes where
basement membrane filtration or
exchange of
Basement Membrane substances by
rapid diffusion
structureless material
occurs
secreted by cells,
o Forms the serous
where the lower
surface of an membranes or
epithelium rest serosae o (slick
membranes that line
4. Avascular – the ventral body
epithelial tissue cavity and cover the
that have no organs in that cavity)
blood supply of
their own and SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
depend on o One layer of cube
diffusion from the
shaped cells like
capillaries in the
dice resting on a
underlying
basement
connective tissue
 membrane o More durable
o Common in glands than the simple
and their ducts epithelia o
(salivary glands Primary
and pancreas) function is
o Forms the walls of protection
the kidney tubules
TYPES OF
and covers the
STRATIFIED
surface of the
EPITHELIA
ovaries
1. Stratified Squamous
SIMPLE COLUMNAR
Epithelium
o Made up of a single 2. Stratified
layer of tall cells Cuboidal and
that firm closely Stratified Columnar
together 3. Transitional
o Lines the entire Epithelium
length of the 4. Glandular Epithelium
digestive tract STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
from the stomach EPITHELIUM
to the anus
o Most common
Goblet Cells –
stratified epithelium in
producing a the body o The cells at
the free edge are
lubricating mucus squamous cells,
Mucosae / whereas those close to
the basement are
Mucosa / Mucus cuboidal and columnar
Membrane o Found in sites that
receive a good deal
epithelial tissues that of abuse or friction
line body cavities o Esophagus, mouth, outer
open to the body portion of the skin
exterior
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED AND STRATIFIED
COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM COLUMNAR

o All types rest on a Both of these epithelia are

rare in the body, found
basement membrane
mainly in the ducts of
o Some of its cells
large glands
are shorter than
others and their Stratified Cuboidal –
nuclei appear at consists of two cell layers
different heights with cuboidal surface cell
above the basement
membrane Stratified Columnar –
o It has different columnar cells, but its
length and height of basal cell varies in size
nuclei o Functions and shape
mainly for absorption TRANSITIONAL
and secretion EPITHELIUM

PSCCE o Highly modified,

▪ lines the respiratory stratified squamous
tract epithelium o Cells of
▪ the mucus the basal layer are
produced by the cuboidal and columnar,
goblet cells in this with varying appearance
epithelium traps at the free surface
dust and other o Forms the lining of
debris, and the only few organs
cilia propel the (urinary bladder,
mucus upward and ureters and urethra)
away from the o This are also
lungs subjected to
considerable
STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
stretching
o Consist of two or more o When the organs are
layers not stretched, the
 membrane is multi- through the ducts to
layered, and the the epithelial surface o
superficial cells are Both internal and
rounded and dome external
like o Sweat and oil
o When the organs are glands
distended with urine, o (external) liver
the epithelium thins, o (internal) pancreas
and the surface cells
flatten and become CONNECTIVE
squamous like TISSUE
o This ability of
o Connects body
transitional cells to
parts
slide past to one
o Found everywhere
another and change
their shape allows the in the body
ureter wall to stretch o The most abundant
as a greater volume and widely
of urine flows distributed of the
through the tube-like tissue types
organ FUNCTIO
o It allows more urine NS:
stored I he bladder
GLANDULAR 1. protection
EPITHELIUM 2. support
3. binding
Gland
together other
consists of one or more
cells that make and secret body structures
particular product
COMMON
Secretion
CHARACTERI
▪ the product produced STICS OF CT
by the gland
▪ typically contains 1. Variation in
protein molecules blood supply
in an aqueous 2. Extracellular
(water-based fluid) matrix
▪ an active process in
which the VARIATIONS IN BLOOD
glandular cells SUPPLY
obtain needed o Well vascularized
materials from the (good blood supply) o
blood and use
Tendons and
them to make their
ligaments have poor
secretion, which
blood supply and
then discharge
cartilages are
TWO MAJOR avascular
TYPES OF GLANDS o Tendons, ligaments
and cartilages heal
1. Endocrine very slowly when
2. Exocrine injured (due to
ENDOCRINE GLANDS poor blood
supply)
o Lose their
EXTRACELLULAR
connection (duct)
MATRIX
to the surface
(ductless) o Nonliving
o Their secretions substance outside
(hormones diffuse the connective
directly into the tissue cells
blood vessels that o Produced by the CT
weave through the cells and then
gland secreted to the
o Thyroid, adrenals, exterior
pituitary o Consist of living
EXOCRINE GLANDS cells that are
surrounded by
o With ducts, where matrix
their secretions empty o Maybe liquid, semi-
 solid or gel-like, or brain
very hard
(depending on CT CARTILAGE
type) o Less hard
o The strength and more
depends on the flexible than
amount of cell bone o Found
matrix only in few
concentration places in the
o Provides the CT to body
bear weight and
withstand TYPES:
stretching and
1. Hyaline
other abuses,
Cartilage
abrasion, that is no
2. Fibrocartilage
other tissue could
3. Elastic Cartilage
endure
HYALINE CARTILAGE
TYPES OF
FIBERS IN o Most common /
EXTRACELLULA widely distributed in
R MATRIX the body o Have
3. Collagen (white) abundant collagen
fibers fibers hidden by a
4. Elastic (yellow) rubbery matrix with a
fibers glassy (hyalin =
5. Reticular (fine glass), o Blue white
collagen) fibers appearance

The fibers are made by Form the supporting

structures of the larynx
CT cells and then
1. supporting structures of
secreted TYPES OF the larynx
CONNECTIVE 2. costal cartilages
(attaching the ribs
TISSUES of the breastbone)
3. articular surface of the
The major differences of bone
CT are their fiber type and 4. fetal skeleton (most
the number of fibers in the of the cartilage has
matrix been replaced by
1. Bone bone by the time
2. Cartilage the baby is born)
3. Dense CT FIBROCARTILAGE
4. Loose CT Form the cushion-like
5. Areolar CT discs between the
6. Adipose CT vertebrae of the spinal
7. Reticular CT column
8. Blood
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
BONE
Found where a
o Osseous tissue
structure with
o Composed of bone
cells sitting in elasticity is desired
cavities called
lacunae and Ex: cartilage
surrounded by supporting the ear
layers of a very
hard matrix that DENSE
contains calcium CONNECTIVE
salts in addition to TISSUE
larger number of
o Dense fibrous
collagen fibers
o Has an exceptional tissue
o Collagen fibers as
ability to protect
and support other its main matrix
body organs element o Form
because of its strong rope-like
rock-like hardness structures such as
tendons and ligaments
Ex: the skull protects the
 Fibroblasts bacteria, dead cells, and
other debris that they
▪ fiber forming cells destroy
located between
the collagen fibers LAMINA PROPIA
▪ manufacture the
fibers soft layer of areolar CT
underlies all mucous
TYPE / SITES OF membranes
DENSE CT EDEMA

1. Tendons swelling of the area where

2. Ligaments the areolar tissue soaks
3. Dermis of the up the excess fluid (like a
skin sponge) due to
inflammation
TENDONS
ADIPOSE
attach skeletal muscles to TISSUE
bones
o Fat
LIGAMENTS o An areolar tissue
o connects bone to where fat cells
bone at joints predominate o
o more stretchy and Glistening droplet of
contain more stored oil occupies
elastic fibers than most of a fat cells
tendons volume, compressing
the nucleus,
DERMIS OF THE SKIN displacing it to one
side
arranged in sheets
SIGNET RING
LOOSE CT APPEARANCE
Softer and have more containing the bulging
cells and fewer fibers than nucleus looks like a ring
any other CT type except with a seal
blood
FUNCTIONS OF
AREOLAR ADIPOSE TISSUE
TISSUE
1. form the
o Anchors internal subcutaneous
organs tissue beneath the
o Soft pliable tissues skin, where it
o Its fluid matrix insulates the body
contains all types and protects it
of fibers forming a from extreme cold
loose network or heat
o Most of the matrix 2. fat corpuscles
appears to be an surrounding the
empty space, kidneys and cushions
explaining the name of the eyeballs in their
the tissue o (areola = sockets
small open space) 3. fat depots in the
body (hips and
FUNCTIO breasts), where
NS: fat is stored and
1. Provides reservoir available for fuel if
of water and salts needed
for the RETICULAR CT
surrounding tissue
2. Provides nutrients to o Consists of a
all body cells delicate network of
3. Dump site for interwoven
cellular wastes reticular fibers
4. Anchors internal associated with
organs reticular cells, with
5. Cushions and resemble
protects organs fibroblasts
o Limited to certain sites
Many types of phagocytes
wander through this FUNCTIO
tissue scavenging for NS:
 1. it forms the stroma pump and propels
(bed or mattress) 2. blood through the
internal support blood vessels
framework, supporting because of its
many free blood cells contraction
(largely lymphocytes) o Cardiac cells are
straited,
In lymphoid organs such
unnucleated,
as lymph nodes, spleen,
branched cells that
and bone marrow
fit tightly together
BLOOD (like clasped
fingers) at
o Vascular tissue junctions called
o Considered as intercalated disk
connective tissue o Intercalated disk
because it consists of contains gap
blood cells surrounded junctions that
by a non living, fluid allow ions to pass
matrix called blood freely from cell to
plasma cell, resulting in
o The fibers of blood rapid conduction of
are soluble protein the exciting
molecules that electrical impulse
become visible across the heart
only during blood o Involuntary muscle,
clotting which means that
we cannot
MUSCLE
continuously
TISSUE
control the activity
o Highly specialized of the heart
to contract or
SMOOTH MUSCLE
shorten to
produce o Visceral organs
movement (absence of striations)
o Called muscle o Smooth muscle
fibers because of cells have a single
its elongated nucleus and are
muscle cells to spindle-shaped
provide a long axis (pointed at each end)
for contraction o Found in the walls
TYPES OF of hollow organs such
MUSCLE TISSUE: as stomach, bladder,
uterus, blood vessels
1. Skeletal o Smooth muscle
2. Cardiac contraction causes
3. Smooth alternating constriction
SKELETAL MUSCLE (becomes smaller)
and dilation (enlarges)
o Packaged by CT of the cavity of an
sheets into organs o organ to propel
Can be controlled substances through
voluntarily, forming the the organ along a
flash of the body specific pathway
o Pulls the bones and
skin when it contracts Peristalsis – wave-like
o Contraction causes motion that keeps food
gross body moving through the small
movements or intestine
changes in facial NERVOUS
expressions TISSUE
o The cells of skeletal
muscles are long, Neurons – receive and
cylindrical and conduct electrochemical
multinucleated impulses from one part of
with obvious the body to another
striations (stripes)
MAJOR FUNCTIONAL
CARDIAC MUSCLE CHARACTERISTICS:

o Found only in the 1. Irritability

heart 2. Conductivity
o The heart acts as
 o The cytoplasm is WOUND HEALING
drawn out into long
1. Epidermal Wound
extensions (as
Healing
much as 3 feet or
2. Deep Wound
more in the leg,
Healing
which allows a
single neuron to EPIDERMAL WOUND
conduct an HEALING
impulse over long
distances in the ▪ Occurs within 24-48
body) hours after injury ▪
o Neurons along with Skin injury
a special group of (abrasion) – response
supporting cells (that to injury – basal
insulate, support, and epidermal cells in the
protect the delicate area of the wound
neurons) make up the break their contacts
structures of the with the basement
nervous system membrane –
(brain, spinal cord, enlargement of the
and nerves) basal epidermal cells
– migration of basal
TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND epidermal cells as a
HEALING) sheet across the
wound until all
Begins almost advancing cells from
immediately when tissue opposite sides of the
injury occurs, stimulating wound meet –
the body’s inflammatory inhibition of continued
and immune responses migration / fusion of
basal epidermal cells ▪
Inflammatory Response
(contact inhibition) –
generalized non-specific epidermal growth
body response that factor stimulates other
attempts to prevent further epidermal cells to
injury divide and replace the
ones that have left –
Immune Response resurface of the
extremely specific and wound – division of
mounts a vigorous attack the migrated cells to
against recognize form new strata –
invaders (bacteria, viruses thickening of the
or toxins) epidermis

FACTORS AFFECTING CONTACT INHIBITION

WOUND HEALING o Inhibition /
1. Type of tissue cessation of the
damaged continued migration /
2. Severity of the fusion of basal
injury epidermal cells o An
epidermal cell
Clean cuts (incisions) changes its direction
heal much more of
successfully than ragged movement when it
tears (lacerations) of the encounters
tissue another epidermal
TYPES OF cell, until it
WOUND HEALING encounters
another cell and
1. Regeneration so on
2. Fibrosis o Continued
migration of the
Regeneration – epidermal cells
replacement of destroyed stops when it is
tissue by the same kind finally in contact on
of cells
all sides with other
Fibrosis – involves repair epidermal cells
by dense (fibrous) Rule: contact inhibition
connective tissue, forming occurs only among like
scar tissue cells (it does not occur
between epidermal cells
TYPES OF SKIN and other types of cells)
 ✓ Malignant cells do blood vessels –
not obey the rules granulation tissue
of contact formation composed of
inhibition capillaries
✓ Malignant cells
have the ability to Granulation tissue –
invade body delicate pink tissue filling
tissues with few the wound
restrictions The capillaries are fragile
DEEP WOUND HEALING and bleed freely, as when
a scab is picked away
Phases: from a skin wound

1. Inflammatory PROLIFERATIVE PHASE

2. Migratory
Extensive growth of
3. Proliferative
epithelial cells beneath the
4. Maturation
scab – deposition of
INFLAMMATORY PHASE collagen by the fibroblasts
in random patterns –
o Vascular and cellular continuing growth of blood
response that serves vessels
to dispose microbes,
foreign material and MATURATION PHASE
dying tissue in Restoration of dermis to
preparation for normal thickness – scab
repair – vasodilation sloughs off – collagen fibers
and ↑ permeability become more organized - ↓
of blood vessels – number of fibroblasts –
migration of WBC restoration of blood vessels
(neutrophils and to normal
monocytes /
macrophages) and FIBROS
mesenchymal cells IS
from the
o The process of scar
bloodstream into
the wound – tissue formation o
phagocytosis of Sometimes so much
microbes, dead scar tissue is formed
tissues /cells and that that a raised scar
other harmful results, one that is
substances – clot elevated above the
formation – clot normal epidermal
hold the edges of surface
the wound TYPES OF
together – walls off PATHOLOGIC
the wounded area SCAR:
o Prevention of 1. Hypertrophic Scar
bacteria and other 2. Keloid Scar
harmful
substances from HYPERTROPHIC SCAR
spreading to
The scar remains within
surrounding
the boundaries of the
tissues – exposure
original wound
of clot to the air
o (hemostasis) – KELOID SCAR
drying and
hardening of the Scar extends beyond the
clot – scab boundaries of the original
formation wound into normal
surrounding tissues
MIGRATORY PHASE
DEVELOPMENTAL
Migration of epithelial cells ASPECTS OF CELLS
beneath the scab to AND TISSUES
bridge the wound –
migration of fibroblasts o It begins as a single
along fibrin threads – cell, which divides
fibroblasts synthesize thousands of times
collagen fibers and to form
glycoproteins – scar tissue multicellular
formation (fibrosis) – embryonic body
regrowth of the damaged o The cells begin to
 specialize to form the as glucose or
primary tissue during oxygen
the very early o Has a cumulative
embryonic effect and finally
development and by succeeds in
birth, most organs are upsetting the
well formed and delicate chemical
functioning balance of the
body cells
CELL DIVISION AND
GROWTH PERIOD RADIATION
o Cell division is very X-rays or ultraviolet
important during waves contribute to the
the body’s growth aging process
period BIOLOGIC CLOCK
o Most cells (except
neuron) undergo Genetically
mitosis until the end programmed or built
of puberty and
maturity into our genes

Cells that continually divides

(even after maturity):
1. Cells exposed to EFFECTS OF
abrasion, that
continually wear AGING
away (skin and 1. Epithelial
intestinal cells) Tissues
2. Liver cells (when 2. Connective
damaged) Tissues
Cells that completely lose 3. Muscle Tissue
their ability to divide 4. Nervous
(amitotic): Tissue

1. Heart Muscle EPITHELIAL TISSUES

2. Nervous Tissue 1. Epithelial membranes
Amitotic tissues are become thinner and
severely handicapped are more easily
because the lost cells damaged
cannot be replaced by the ▪ Which causes
same type of cells sagging and loss
of elasticity of the
AGING skin
PROCESS 2. Exocrine glands of the
body (ET) become
o Begins once
much less active
maturity has
▪ causes reduced
been reached o
production of oil,
The cause of mucus, and sweat
aging is still (drying out)
unknown
3. Some endocrine glands
Theories: produce decreasing
amounts of hormones
1. Chemical insults and the body
2. Radiation processes that they
3. Aging “biologic clock” control (such as
metabolism and
CHEMICAL INSULTS reproduction) become
o Occurs continually less efficient or stop
through life altogether
o the presence of CONNECTIVE TISSUES
toxic chemicals
(alcohol, certain 1. Decrease collagen
drugs, or carbon in the body
monoxide) in the 2. Bones become
blood, or the porous and weak
temporary 3. Slow repair or tissue
absence of injuries
needed
MUSCLE
substances such
 TISSUE / benign or malignant
(cancerous)
NERVOUS
HYPERPLASIA
TISSUE
o An abnormal
Atrophy
increase in the
Major factor is the number of normal
decreased efficiency of cells in a tissue or
the circulatory system, organ, increasing
reducing nutrient and its size
oxygen delivery to the o Enlargement of
body tissues body tissues (or
organs) due to
CELL & TISSUE local irritant or
MODIFICATIONS condition that
1. Neoplasm stimulates the
2. Hyperplasia cells
3. Atrophy Ex:
NEOPLASM a. anemia – the bone
o New growth marrow goes
hyperplasia so that
o An abnormal mass
RBC may be produced
of proliferating cells
at a faster rate
that multiply wildly
caused by the failure b. breast – breast
of the cells to honor enlargement during
normal controls on cell pregnancy in response
division o May be to increased
hormones

ATROPHY
o Decrease in size of cells or tissues
o
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