vertical symmetry, even leaves of plants
and some flowers such as orchids.
LE
SSON ONE:
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN
WORLD
LECTURE (PRELIMINARY)
• A five-fold symmetry is found in the
NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
✓ Study of pattern, structure and occurrences.
✓ Fundamental to the physical and biological sciences,
engineering and information technology, to economics
and increasingly to the social sciences.
✓ Quantify, organize, and control our world, predict
phenomena and make life easier.
Role
o Helps organize patterns and regularities in our
world.
o Helps predict the behavior of nature and
phenomena.
o Helps control nature and occurrences for our own
ends.
o Indispensable due to its numerous applications.
Patterns and Numbers in Nature and the World
o Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form
found in the natural and can also be seen in the
universe.
o Rules that govern natural processes.
o Regular
o Repeated
o Recurring forms or designs
o Identify relationships
o Find logical connections to form
generalizations.
✓ Stars move in circles across the sky each day.
✓ Snowflakes six-fold symmetry.
✓ Fish patterns.
✓ Reptiles, herbivores, mammals.
✓ Waves, sad, typhoon
TYPES OF PATTERNS
Symmetry
o a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion of
balance or an object is invariant to any various
transformations (reflection, rotation or scaling.)
o Bilateral Symmetry (vertical symmetry) •
symmetry in which the left and right sides of the
organism can be divided into
approximately mirror image of each
other along the midline.
• Symmetry exists in living things such as
in insects, animals, plants, flowers and
others. Animals have mainly bilateral or
o Displays unique mathematical properties useful in
o Radial Symmetry (rotational symmetry)
• a symmetry around a fixed point known as the
center and it can be classified as
either cyclic or dihedral.
• Plants often have radial or rotational
symmetry, as to flowers and some group
of animals. echinoderms, the group in which
includes starfish (dihedral-D5 symmetry),
sea urchins and sea lilies.
• Radial symmetry suits organism like sea
anemones whose adults do not move
and jellyfish (dihedral-D4 symmetry).
• Radial symmetry is also evident in
different kinds of flowers.
Fractals
o a curve or geometric figure, each part of which
has the same statistical character as the whole.
o A fractal is a never-ending pattern found in
nature. The exact same shape is replicated in a
process called “self-similarity.”
o Repeats itself over and over again at different
scales.
o Ex: a tree grows by repetitive branching. This
same kind of branching can be seen in lightning
bolts and the veins in your body. Examine a
single fern or an aerial view of an entire river
system and you’ll see fractal patterns
Spirals
o Logarithmic spiral or growth spiral is a self
similar spiral curve which often appears in nature. o
It was first described by Rene Descartes and was
later investigated by Jacob Bernoulli.
o A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a
center point and a series of circular shapes that
revolve around it.
o Examples of spirals are pine cones, pineapples,
hurricanes.
o The reason for why plants use a spiral form is
because they are constantly trying to grow but
stay secure.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
o Integer in the infinite sequence 1,1,2,3,5,8, 13… of
which the first 2 terms are 1 and 1 and each
succeeding.
ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 1
 diverse fields (astronomy, botany, financial
markets, etc.)
o Prevents estimates from being too close to one
another.

Origin
o Discovered after investigating rabbit
reproduction. o Newly born pair, rabbits can mate
at one month of age. Second month, female can
produce another pair.
o Leonardo of Pisa also known as Fibonacci
discovered a sequence of numbers that created an
interesting number that created an interesting
pattern the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34…
each number is obtained by adding the last two
numbers of the sequence forms what is known as
golden rectangle a perfect rectangle.
• One of the best known mathematicians in
Medieval Europe.
o Can be written as “rule”.
o Add last 2 terms to get the next.

Formula

GOLDEN RATIO
o Ratio between two numbers

o Take any 2 successive Fibonacci numbers, the

ratio is very close to the Golden Ratio which is
approximately 1.618034…
o Bigger pair of Fibonacci numbers, closer
approximation.
o Golden section, golden mean, golden number,
divine proportion, divine section, and divine
proportion.
o Mona Lisa, Notre Dame Cathedral, Pathernon.

ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 2

THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS
 LECTURE (PRELIMINARY)

LESSON TWO:
LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS involve addition, subtraction, and
multiplication)
o Facilitates communication and clarifies meaning. o Twice, triple, etc.
o Bridges gap among people from various origins
o Each (they got three each, etc.)
and cultures. Division
o Own symbol system.
o Per, a
o Precise, Concise, Powerful
o Out of
DIFFICULTIES o Ratio of, quotient of
o Percent divide by 100)
o Different meaning or use of words in Math and o Equal prices, split
English. o Average
• “And” is equivalent to plus.
• “Is” may have a different meaning Equals
o Different uses of numbers.
o Is
• Cardinal
o Are
▪ Counting
o Was
• Ordinal
o Were
▪ Positions or places.
o Will
• Nominal
▪ Identify, name, or label. o Be
o Gives
TRANSLATION o Yields
o Choose a quantity to be represented by a variable, o Sold for
then write the mathematical expression for each o Cost
number.
o Ex: A three-digit number whose hundreds digit is
half the tens digit, and the tens digit is 2 more than
the unit’s digit.
•1/2 (x + 2)
Key Words
SETS
Addition
o Increased by ✓ Set is a collection of well defined and distinct
o More than objects, considered as an object in its own right. ✓
One of the most fundamental concepts in
o Combined, together
mathematics.
o Total of
o Represented usually by capital letters.
o Sum, plus
o Objects of a set are separated by commas. o
o Added to
Objects that belong in a set are the elements or
o Comparatives (greater than) members of the set.
Subtraction o Represented by listing its element between braces.
o Decreased by o Well-defined if the elements are specifically listed.
o Minus, less o Ex: A = {a,e,i,o,u}| B = {set of plane figures}| C =
o Difference between/of {Ca, Au, Ag}
o Less than, fewer than One-to-one correspondence
o Save (old-fashioned term)
o Comparatives (smaller than, less than) o Students can connect one number with one object
and then count them with understanding.
Multiplication
o Of Cardinality
o Times, multiplied by o Tells how many elements are in a set.
o Product of o Last word in the counting sequence names the
o Increased/ decreased by a factor of (can quantity for that set.

ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 3

 Fundamentals of Logic
1. Negation
• If the word is introduced in a negative
statement.
• Contradictory to the original statement.
Relationship of SETS
Universal Set
2. Conjunction and Disjunction
o Totality of all the elements in two or more • Logical connective – mathematical
given sets. equivalent of conjunction in English.
o Denoted by “U” • Most common are:
o Ex: A= {2,4,6,8} |B= {1,2,3,4} ▪ and = ^
• AUB= {1,2,3,4,6,8} ▪ or = ˅

Null Set 3. Implications or Conditional Statement •

o Has no elements. Supposed that p and q are prepositions, the
o Cardinal number is 0. proposition P → Q is called an
o Empty set is a term often used for null set. implication.
• P is called the ‘premise’ and q is called
LOGIC ‘conclusion’.
• Ex: If it rains (premise), then I bring my
✓ Set of rules that govern the structure and
umbrella (conclusion)
presentation of mathematical proofs.
✓ Allows to determine the validity of arguments in
4. Bi-implication or bi-conditional
and out of mathematics.
✓ Science of correct reasoning. • More complicated form of implication. •
Denoted by ↔
Proposition • The statement P↔Q is true if and only if
o Declarative sentence that is either true or false, but P and Q are either both true or false.
not both.
o Statement that is, by itself, either true or false,
o Expressed in symbols p,q,r or P,Q,R.

Simple
o Single idea statement.

Compound Quantifier
o Conveys two or more ideas. o Universal Quantifier
• “For all” or “for every”, denoted by ∀
Logical Connectives o Existential Quantifier
• “There exists”, denoted by ∃
 ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 4
Key Terms:

LESSON THREE:
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
LECTURE (PRELIMINARY)
PROBLEM SOLVING AND Argument
REASONING Problem Reason offered against something.
o Situation that confronts the learner. Premises
o Requires resolution
Minor or major propositions that serve as
• Methods of mathematical operation or
bases for arguments.
geometric construction.
o Method is not clear Assumption, law, rule, or idea.
• Method is the technique used to get the
answer. Syllogism
o Path to the answer is not seen. Argument composed of a 2 premises and a
conclusion.
Drill/ Exercise
Conclusion
o A situation that requires resolution.
o Method is clear Last step in reasoning process.
o Way to the answer easily seen.
o For any given premises, if the conclusion is
Reasoning guaranteed, the argument is valid (sound).
Ex:
o Drawing inferences or conclusions from known or All athletes workout in the gym.
assumed facts. Bernard is an athlete.
• Understand the question. Therefore, Bernard works out in the gym.
• Gather all pertinent facts.
• Analyze the problem o If not guaranteed in one premise (at least one
• Solve instance where conclusion doesn’t follow) valid
(unsound).
INDUCTIVE REASONING
Ex:
o Process of reaching a general conclusion by All math professors are over 5 feet tall.
examining specific examples. Mr. Diaz is a math professor.
o The conclusion is called conjecture. Therefore, Mr. Diaz is over 5 feet tall.
• Observations
• Analysis o If conclusion not guaranteed in both premises,
• Theory it is invalid.
Ex:
Ex: All professors wear eye glasses.
Each successive number is 3 larger than the Mr. Cruz wears eye glasses.
preceding number. Thus, we predict that the next Therefore Mr. Cruz is a professor.
number in the list is 2 larger than 15 which is 18.
VENN DIAGRAM
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
o A diagram consisting of various over lapping
o Process of reaching conclusion by applying figures in a rectangle called the universe.
general assumptions, procedure, or principle o
General statement to a specific Instance. • Idea
• Observations
• Conclusion
Ex: Syllogism
All men are mortal (major premise)
Socrates is a man (major premise)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion)
If p then q (major premise)
X is p (major premise)
Therefore, x is q (conclusion)
 ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 5

POLYA

’S STRATEGY
III. Carry
o Named after George Polya (1887 – 1985) o Four step
problem solving strategy
o Deceptively simple. Out the Plan

Polya’s Four Step

I. Understand the Problem

IV.
Review the Solution
II. Devise

A Plan

ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 6


Many to one function
EXTRA (RAW) LESSON:
THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
LECTURE (PRELIMINARY)
Onto Function or Subjective Function
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
o An ordered pair is represented as (Input; Output) o
Relation shows the relationship between input and
output.
o Function is a relation which derives or takes one
output for each given input.
o ALL FUNCTIONS ARE RELATIONS, BUT
NOT ALL RELATIONS ARE FUNCTIONS.
o A function if P → Q is said to be one to one
if for each element of P there is a distinct
element of Q.
o
Function that maps 2 or more elements of P
to the same element of Q.
o Function for which every element of set Q,
there is pre-image in set P.
One-one correspondence or Bijective Function
o Function matches with each element of P
with a discrete element of Q and every
element of Q has a pre-image in P.
RELATION
o Subset of the Cartesian product.
o Bunch of points or ordered pairs.
o The relation between 2 sets is defined as the
collection of ordered pairs.
o Ordered pair is formed from the object from each
set.

Types of Relations
Empty Relation
FUNCTION
When there’s no element of set X that is related or
o A relation which describes that there should only
mapped to any element of Y, then the relation R in A is
be one output for each input.
an empty relation, and also called the void relation, i.e
o Rule: every x-value should be associated with
R= ∅.
only one y-value = function.
Ex: if there are 100 mangoes in the fruit basket.
Ex: There’s no possibility of finding a relation R of getting
any apple in the basket. So, R is Void as it has 100
mangoes and no apples.
Universal relation
R is a relation in a set, let’s say A is a universal relation
Domain
because, in this full relation, every element of A is
o Collection of the first values in the ordered pair related to every element of A. i.e R = A × A.
o X-values
It’s a full relation as every element of Set A is in Set
Range
B. Identity Relation
o Collection of all second values in the ordered pair.
o Y-values If every element of set A is related to itself only, it is
called Identity relation.
Ex:
I = {(A, A), ∈ a}.
In the relation {(-2,3), (4,5), (6,5), (-2,3)}
Ex: When we throw a dice, the total number of possible
The domain is {-2,4,6} and range is {-5,3,5} outcomes is 36. I.e (1, 1) (1, 2), (1, 3) (6, 6). From
these, if we consider the relation (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)
Types of Function (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6), it is an identity relation.
One to one function or Injective Function

Inverse Relation
If R is a relation from set A to set B i.e R ∈ A X B.
The relation R−1 = {(b,a):(a,b) ∈ R}.
Ex: If you throw two dice if R = {(1, 2) (2,
3)}, R−1 = {(2, 1) (3, 2)}. Here the domain
is the range R−1and vice versa.
Reflexive Relation
A relation is a reflexive relation if every element of set
A map to itself, i.e. for every a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R.
Symmetric Relation
A symmetric relation is a relation R on a set A if (a, b)
∈ R then (b, a) ∈ R, for all a & b ∈ A.
ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 7
= This is still a function because, even if the X-values
are being repeated, they still associate with the same
Y-values.
You can write a single copy of each given pair instead.
Example: Give an example of an Equivalence relation.
If we note down all the outcomes of throwing two dice,
it would include reflexive, symmetry and transitive
relations. Then, throwing two dice is an example of an
equivalence relation.
Example: All functions are relations, but not all
relations are functions. Justify.

Transitive Relation
If (a, b) ∈ R, (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R, for all a,b,c ∈
A and this relation in set A is transitive.
Equivalence Relation = This relation is not a function because there is
If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, then duplication in the X-values and they are associated with
the relation is called an equivalence relation different Y-values.

CONVERSION OF A RELATION TO FUNCTION If they were associated with duplicated Y-values, it

would be a function.
Remember the rule: every X-value should be associated
with only one Y-value, then the relation is called a
function.
Example: Is A = {(1, 5), (1, 5), (3, -8), (3, -8), (3, -8)} a
function?

• If there are any duplicates or repetitions in the X

value, the relation is not a function.

= This relation however is a function since every X

value is associated with only one Y-value.
 ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 8

THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS
LECTURE (PRELIMINARY)

LESSON FOUR:
DATA MANAGEMENT
o Process of organizing data to interpret and analyze Inferential
in a meaningful way.
o Predictions and inferences based on analysis
Why Statistics? and interpretation of the results of the
information gathered.
o To understand various statistical studies performed o Most common are t-test, z-test, analysis of
in different fields. variance, chi-square, and Pearson r.
• Requires knowledge of vocab, concepts,
symbols, and statistical procedures. DATA
o To conduct research in different fields
o Results of an experiment, observation,
• Requires ability to design experiments w/c
investigation, etc.
involves collection, analysis, and summary
o Appears as a numerical figure.
of data.
o Evaluated.
Statistics
Quantitative
o Latin word status meaning state.
o Measurable with numbers.
o Used by state leaders to know how much tax to
order. o Distance, height, weight, revenue, speed,
o Capitalists show interest in statistics to increase etc.
demand for data processing for their increasing Discrete (bawal decimal)
benefits (ex: insurance)
• Whole numbers (integers) that cannot be
Collection divided.
Ex: survey, polls, etc. • Number of eggs, wins, dogs.
• Binary Data
Organization
Continuous (pwede)
Sorting of data.
• Can be divided (within a range).
Presentation • Weight, height, temperature.
Ex: Charts, tables, graphs, etc.
Interval Scale Data
▪ Ordering scores from high
to low.
Ex: -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

▪ Establishes uniform scale

(any equal distance
between scores = equal
magnitude).
▪ No absolute zero in scale.

Ratio Scale Data

Hatdog siya nag lagay pa : - ) ▪ Interval scale also
Statistical Methods ▪ But has absolute zero.

Descriptive Ex: Number of score on quiz

o Collection and presentation of data and Weight of packaging

collection summarizing values to describe candy
group characteristics. Distance

o Most common summarizing values are: central Amount of money in

tendency and variation. checking account.
 ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 9
Qualitative SHAPE OF DISTRIBUTION WITH
THE MEASURE OF CENTRAL
o Non-numerical data. TENDENCY
o Textual and descriptive.

Nominal (Named)
▪ Classifies 2 categories or more.
Ex: Gender
Marital status
State of residence
Ordinal (Ordered)
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
▪ Scale that ranks an individual.
o To describe a whole set of data with a single value
Ex: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. w/c represents the middle or center of its
distribution.
Letter grade in class
o Or to describe the center of a data set.
Degrees held o Also known as measures of center or central
location.
Satisfactory, serious, guarded,
o Identifies what is normal or average of a set of
critical
data.
POPULATION AND SAMPLE o Condenses data into one representative value. o
Useful when working with large amounts of data. o
Population Most representative of all values in a group is
o Groups of people, animals, places, things, or ideas, AVERAGE.
which any conclusions will be based on the
characteristics of a sample.
Sample
o Sub-group of a population.

Mean
o Sum of all values in a data set divided by the total
number of data.
o Also known as arithmetic average.
o Can be used for both continuous or discrete
numeric data.
o Influenced by outliers (data that are much higher
or lower then the rest) and skewed
(asymmetric).

STATISTICS AND PARAMETER

ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 10

Median
o Physical middle point in a distribution that
is arranged in ascending or descending order.
o Odd number – middle value
 o Even number – mean or average of the 2
middle values.
Mode
o Found in both numerical and categorical. o
Most commonly occurring value in a distribution.
o Bi-modal or multi-modal.
o Some may have no mode.

ANGELICA GRACE BITANGA BSN 1-A-16 11