A. The Nature and Scope of Analytical Chemistry.

Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the analysis
of different substances.
It involves the separation, identification, and the quantification of
matter. It involves the use of classical methods along with modern methods
involving the use of scientific instruments.
Analytical chemistry involves the following methods:
The process of separation isolates the required chemical species
which is to be analyzed from a mixture.
The identification of the analyte substance is achieved via the method
of qualitative analysis.
The concentration of the analyte in a given mixture can be determined
with the method of quantitative analysis.

What is analytical chemistry in biology?

Analytical chemistry methods refer to techniques used for the
detection, identification, characterization and quantification of
chemical compounds. These methods are commonly used in biology
for research, development and quality control of pharmaceutical
products
.How important is the study of analytical chemistry in biological
sciences?

Analytical chemistry should play an important role in the

measurement of drugs and metabolites in the field of
pharmaceutical sciences. Scientists using analytical techniques to
provide quantification of analytes should be familiar with methods for
statistically analyzing collected data.

A The Role of Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemists use science and technology to solve practical
problems.
Analytical chemistry is applied in all areas of science, industry, and
medicine.
-The concentrations of O2 and CO2 in blood samples.
- Quantities of hydrocarbons, NOx, and CO in automobile exhaust
gases for emission-control devices.
-Quantitative measurements of ionized Ca in blood serum help
diagnose parathyroid disease in humans.
- Quantitative determination of N in foods: protein content and thus
their nutritional value.
 nickel, and
-Analysis of steel during its production for carbon, corrosion
desired strength, hardness,
chromium to achieve a
resistance, and ductility. of
household gas supplies to warn

Ihe mercaptan content of

dangerous leaks. schedules to meet
Farmers tailing fertilization and irrigation
or
-
changing plant needs during the growing
Chemistry
Biochemistry
Inorganic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry
Biology ysics
Botany
Physical Chemistry
stpliysics
Genetcs Astronomy
MicTobiology Biophysies
Molecular Biology
Zoology

Engineering
CIVl
Geology
Chemical
Gcopnysk
Geochemistry Electrical
Paleontolog Mechanical
Paleobiolog
Analytical
Chemistry

Medicine
Environmental Clinical Chemistry
Sciences Mcdicinal Chemistry
Ecology Pharmacy
Meteoroioe
Oceanography
Toxicology

Agriculture
Materials Science
Agronomy
Animal Seience Metallurgy
Crop Science Polymers
Solid Slate
Food Science Social Sciences
Horticulture
Soil Science
Archcology
Anthropology
Forensics

The Central Science; all sub-disciplines rely on analytical chemistry to

function.
makes it a vital tool in
The interdisciplinary nature of chemical analysis
laboratories throughout
medical, industrial, government, and academic
the world

Methods Used in Analytical Chemistry

the quantity of the analytes
The methods used to determine the identity and
divided into classical and
in the field of analytical chemistry can be broadly
instrumental methods.

1. Classical Methods

There exist many classical methods of checking for the presence or

absence of a particular compound in a given analyte. One such
example is the acid test for gold.
 Another example of a classical method for qualitative analysis is the
Kastle-Meyer test which employs phenolphthalein as an indicato
check for the presence of hemoglobin in the given analyte.
lame tests can be used to check for the presence of specitic elemens
in tne
dn analyte by exposing it to a flame and observing the change
color of the flame.
ravimetric analysis is a classical method of quantitative analysis,
which can be used in analytical chemistry to determine the amount of
of the water
water in a hydrate by heating it and calculating weight
the
lost.
IS
O n e of the better known classical methods of quantitative analysSIS
the titration method, a
Volumetric analysis (also known as titration). In
is obtained.
reactant is added to the analyte till an equivalence point

2. Instrumental Methods
of the interaction between
Spectroscopy involves the measurement
electromagnetic radiation and the atoms or
molecules belonging toa
sample method of mass
With the help of electric fields and magnetic fields, the
spectroscopy is used to measure the ratio of the mass of the molecule
to its charge.
A common instrumental method used in the field of analytical chemistry
in an
is electrochemical analysis. In this method, the analyte placed
is
electrochemical cell and the voltage or the current flowing through it is
measured.
The interaction between the analyte and energy in the form of heat is
studied in the discipline of analytical chemistry known as calorimetry.
instrument that is used to measure the heat of a
A calorimeter is an
chemical reaction.
It can be noted that even biological measurements are made with the help
of this branch of chemistry, and this field is known as bio analytical

chemistry.
Branches of Analytical Chemistry
Two sub-branches come under analytical chemistry namely quantitative
as follows.
analysis and qualitative analysis which can be explained

1.QuantitativeAnalysis
Quantitative Analysis is a method of determining the absolute or relative
quantity regarding the concentration of one or more substances present in
a sample or compound.
For example, take a sample of an unknown solid substance. The chemists
first use "qualitative" methods to identify what type of compound is present
in the sample; then he adopts the quantitative analysis procedure to
 present in the
amount or the quantity of the compound
determine the exact
sample.
include Gravimetric Analysis
Some Quantitative analysis techniques
and Volumetricanalysis
2. Qualitative Analysis
substance. Hence,
the feature of one
Quality means the
standard or
the determination
of the quality of a
method deals with concentration. In simpler
Qualitative analysis
irrespective of its quantity or
amount of the
particular compound, does not m e a s u r e the
analysis One of the best
words, the qualitative of that material.
m e a s u r e s the quality reaction,
substance but observation of a chemical
of method is the
examples of this type
color or not.
a change in
whether there will be such as
be measured in different ways
method can
The qualitative analysis are widely
used in salt
etc. Several such tests
chemical tests, flame tests, salts).
cation & anion of inorganic
analysis (identification of the
Quantitative Analytical Methods
methods:
F o u r general a r e a s of analytical or some
determine the mass of analyte
1. Gravimetric methods:
compound chemically related to it
sufficient
solution containing
Volumetric methods
use the volume of a
2.
react with the analyte.
reagent to
methods measure electrical properties (potential,
3. Electroanalytical
find composition of samples.
current, resistance) to
methods based on interaction of electromagnetic
4. Spectroscopic or on the production of radiation
radiation with analyte atoms
& molecules,
by analytes.
 COMMON LABORATORY APPARATUS

Beakers are useful as a reaction container or to hold liquid o

Solid samples. They are also used to catch liquids from titrations
and filtrates from filtering operations.

Bunsen Burners are sources of heat.

Burets are for addition of a precise volume of liquid. The volume

of liquid added can be determined to the nearest 0.01 mL with
practice

to a ring stand
Clay Triangles are placed on a ring attached as a

support for a funnel, crucible, or evaporating dish.

A
Droppers are for addition of liquids drop by drop

Erlenmeyer Flasks areuseful to contain reactions or to

hold liquid samples. They are also useful to catch filtrates.
 Glass Funnels are for funneling liquids from one container
to another or for filtering when equipped with filter paper.

Graduated Cylinders are for measurement of an amount of

liquid. The volume of liquid can be estimated to the nearest
0.1 mL with practice.

Hot Plates can also be used as sources of heat when an

open flame is not desirable.

Pipets are used to dispense small quantities of liquids.

Ring stand with Rings are for holding pieces of

glassware in place.

Test Tubes are for holding small samples or for containing

l- scale reactions
 Test tube holders are for holding test tubes when tubes
should not be touched

Tongs are similar in function to forceps but are useful for

larger items.

Volumetric Flasks are used to measure precise volumes

of liquid or to make precise dilutions.
p h i n met

Wash bottles are used for dispensing small quantities of

distilled water.

Watch glasses are for holding small samples or for

covering beakers or evaporating dishes.

Wire Gauze on a ring supports beakers to be heated by

Bunsen burners

l-

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
Balances are used to determine the mass of a

reagent or object.

are used to measure the

Spectrophotometers
absorbance or transmittance of a liquid sample.

Fume Hoods are used to ventilate noxious or harmful

gases
 COMMON LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
Reading aMeniscus
In all
volumetric glassware (pipet,
volumetric flasks, graduated buret,
cylinder, etc.),
necessary to read the level of a liquid. A it is
in a small-diameter liquid 46
or curve at the
container will form a meniscus 46.33
surface of the liquid. Usually this
meniscus curves downward to a minimum at
the
center. To read the level of the
the eye should be at the same liquid properly,
level as the bottom 7
of themeniscus. Sometimes a white card or a white
card with a black mark on it will
help a person to 100
see the meniscus
clearly. For volumetric flasks
and transfer pipets, the volume of the glassware is Buret
exact when the bottom of the meniscus is even with
the etched line. In a graduated
cylinder or a
buret, the volume is read from the graduations 91.7
etched on the glass. To read the volume
correctly, 90
visualize the distance between the tenths of
milliliter marks as divided into ten equal amounts.
The volume is then found by
reading the number of Graduated
tenths of milliliters and estimating hundredths of
milliliters.
Cylinder

Care of Reagents

The reagents used by all of the students can be

contaminated by one careless student. Never put
anything back into the reagent bottle. A certain
amount of liquid can be obtained in several ways. 1)
Pour from the reagent bottle into a beaker and draw up
the liquid into a pipet from the beaker. 2) Pour from the GM NaOH
beaker into a graduated cylinder to within 0.1 ml of the
desired amount, adding the last drop with an eyedropper Copper
fate
filled froma beaker. Only use appropriately labeled
spatulas for each reagent bottle. Pour the solid into a
beaker, onto weighing paper, or into a weigh boat. Never
pourexcess back into the bottle. Reagents are to remain the plastic on the center
bench. This will 1)prevent spills and accidents from occurring at your work area, 2)save
time for everyone because all of the chemicals will be relatively easy to find in a central
location, and 3)make clean-up easier if a spill does occur. When you are finished using
a chemical, replace the lid! A mix-up of lids could also contaminate an expensive
chemical.
Care and Use of Balances

Each of the balances

you will be using costs somewhere in the neighborhood of $2000 to
$2500. Therefore, care must be exercised in
will help you to use the balance more
using them. Below is a simple outline that
effectively, safely, and will assist in
speed at which the Stockroom Manager's hair is tuming prematurely gray. reducing
the
1. Select a suitable container (usually a weigh boat, weigh paper, or glassware) to
weigh the chemical in.
2. Remove the balance cover.
3. Place the container on the balance pan and replace the balance cover.
the balance cover will greatly reduce fluctuations in the balance
Replacing
reading!
Allow the balance reading to stabilize. Zero the balance by pressing the TARE
button or bar which is located at the front of the balance. DO NOT hold down the
tare button/bar! This will cause the balance to
change units and you may end up
weighing your chemical in units other then grams which will cause your data to be
in error!
5. Remove the balance cover and carefuly transfer the desired chemical to the
container. If you use a spatula, use only a clean,
dry spatula for obtaining dry
chemicals. If you should spill a chemical on the balance pan, use the brush that is
attached to the balance to clean the balance pan IMMEDIATELY! Chemicals left
on the balance pan will corrode the
pan.
6. Replace the balance cover and allow the balance reading to stabilize. In the event
you weigh out too much chemical, remove the excess to a secondary container.
NEVER retum a chemical to its original container! There will always be some left
over. Try to find someone else who needs it before disposing of it.
7. Discard chemicals as directed in each experiment (See the Safety and Disposal
section for each experiment).
8. Record the balance reading in your notebook.
9 Remove the container from the balance pan and replace the balance cover.
10. Replace the appropriatelids on all reagent botles when finished.

K e e p i tC E A N !
Titration
The titration procedure is
small amounts of one reactant accomplished by adding
to a beaker or flask
containing the other until the reaction is completed. In an
acid-base reaction, the reaction is
amount of acid equals the amount of base.
complete when the
The
experimenter is aware of this condition by the change in pH
that occurs. The change in
pH is indicated by a color
change of an indicator or by a pH meter. In other types of
reactions, the completion of the reaction is usually also
indicated by a color change. Titrations are often
accomplished using a buret. A small amount (~ 5 10 mL)
of the solution is used to rinse a clean buret. The rinse
solution is discarded. The buret is filled to just below the zero
mark. The liquid level is read and recorded as the initial volume. A
buret has zero at the top as shown in the figure on page 12. Small
amounts of the solution are allowed to flow out of the buret into the
flask by turning the stopcock. Often localized color changes will be evident for a short
period of time. Mixing the solution by swirling the flask will usually cause the color to
return to the original color. As the color lasts longer, the next addition of solution needs
to be smaller. Close to the endpoint (reaction completion), the additions are one drop at
a time. When the endpoint is reached, the liquid level is read and recorded as the final
volume. The volume added is the final volume minus initial volume.

Using ABunsen Burner

Lighting the Bunsen burner Make sure the
rubber tubing is connected to the Bunsen
bumer and the gas jet. Turn the gas valve High Temp.
until it is parallel to the gas jet. You should be
able to hear the gas flow. Use a flint striker to Cool Inner Region
cause a spark and ignite the gas.
Adjusting the Bunsen burner First, adjust
the height of the flame using the gas valve at
the bottom of the burner. For a clean burning
flame, more air is required than is available
from the gas exhaust. The air vents can be
adjusted to produce an inner blue cone in the
Air Vents
flame with no yellow tip. Too little air produces Gas
a sooty, orange-yellow tipped flame that is Valve To Gas Outlet
quite noisy. Too much air supply may cause
the flame to separate from the burner and
even blow itself out. The ideal working flame
is bluish-green with a light blue cone and it
burns quietly.