EDUCATTON, SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND

MOBILITY

M. S. A. Rao

INTRODUCTION
Although education has been studied from various points
of view, the interest in the study of its relation to social
stratification and mobility is comparatively recent, Two func-
tions of education have been distinguished in this respect, viz.,
differentiation and selection. Formal education prepares indi-
viduals for a particular style of life characteristic of a status
group. It acts as a differentiating agency as it seeks to main-
tain and supply appropriately socialized individuals to each one
of the strata. Such a differentiating function is held to be more
pronounced in societies with a rigid system of stratification,
whereas the selective function is considered to bé more empha-
sized in gpen class societies. In its selective function, the
education system tends to select students from particular socio-
economic strata. Individuals belonging to certain strata are
better able to exploit educational facilities of a higher quality
than those belonging to others. The selective character of
formal education operates through families with their economic
and cultural resources and through _the schools which provide
an envirooment appropriate to the one that obtains in the
family of the child.
But looked at from another angle, both diferentiating and
selective functions form aspects of a singje process. The selective
character of formal education, as it operates through family
and school, serves to differentiate one stratum from another. It
should, however, be pointed out that when selection is on the
'
basis of merit, it would cut across strata.
It is widely recognized that formal education plays a vital
part in social mobility both horizontal and vertical. On the
one hand it is directly related to occupational mobility and the
subsequent improvement in economic status, and on the other
it forms an element of social prestige. Social mobility may
occur over a period of generations or within a generation. The
 0F EDUCAT1ON
128 THE SO CIOLOGY
EDUCAT1ON, STRATI FICATION & MOBILITY 129
latter is a characteristic feature of 'self-help' students, i.e.,those
who study while they work. castes other than Brahmins. The trading castes legrnt ac-
If formal education is seen as a socializing agency preparing counting and book-keeping. While in the courts of kings there
individuals for a style of life associated with a stratum, it is were scribes who had specialized in the art of writing and
at the same time an agency helping individuals to overcome
keeping records, in villages, there were accountants who main-
and promotingvalues and behaviour of a more tained land registers and revenue records.
prejudices Other skills necessary to pursue occupations such as smithy,
universalistic nature. Therefore, it is of importance to under-
stand the orientation that a society gives to education in the house-building, chariot-building, manufacture of weapons and
context of promoting values and achieving new goals it has set fireworks, weaving, embroidery, tanning, leather-work, pottery.
before itself. The current empirical trends have to be seen in barbering, laundering and music were passed on"in the line of
relation to such a social philosophy of education. descent from one generation to another, whether patrilineal or
matrilineal. Such a mode of acquiring skills restricted the
choice of occupation. But certain occupations such as cultiva-
LITERARY EnUCATION IN THE PaST in-
tion, trade and commerce were open to many castes. For
cultivated the
stance, Sanketi and Havik Brahmins in Mysore
Education in Independent India has, in recent years,
land thenselves. It is also necessary to note that a caste
fre-
received some planners and the public. The
attention from the
than and occupational
educational opportunities quently followed more occupations one,
Constitution guarantees equality of
weaker sections of society with a view mobility was more in evidence in cities than in villages. Prolifer
to all, and favours some
ation or specialization of occupations, to some extent, either
to uplifting them. The Plans not only provide for the growth resulted in or reflected a similar proliferation of th caste groups.
and education but also for compulsory free primary of caste, and it
of literacy Occupation was, however, only one aspect was
to be regarded as a
education. Further, education has come
not independently a basis of stratification.
necessary
a
form of investment develop human resources,
to Certain castes wielded political power in different parts of
development.
economic The idea of perspective
prerequisite of India, and these were able to rise high in the caste hierarchy
relation between educational
planning envisages a dynamic claiming the status of Kshatriya varna. For instance, Ahirs,
All this is in c o n s o n a n c e with the
and economic development. a caste of small peasants and milk-sellers, rose to political powe
the basic values of liberty, equality i n Rewari and claimed the status of Yadavas (Kshatriyas)
cherished goal of achieving
democratic means.
and social justice through Members of such castes were then entitled to literaryjeducation,
and goals reflect, however, significant as it was an aspect of high caste status. In fact, with the mem-
The cherished values stratification and value
traditional social
departures from
the bers of the róyal family literary education was a necessity. Just
the earlier phases of the
India and during as formal education leading to certàin professions such as
system. In pre-British the monopoly of
education was generally medicine and astrology raised the status of scme castes (in a.
British rule, literary middle and
like Kerala, limited way), mobility of castes to higher atatus positions
in some regions
upper castes, although was, everywhere,
access to it. Vedic learning entitled them to literary education. Sincej these two processes
low castes also had Brahmins, only a section
confined to savarnas, and
even among were notof common occurrence, it may be remarked that literary
the Vedas and practise priesthood. education was not a significant factor in follcwing an occupa-
had the right to study
study the Koran
was open
tion of one's own choice. Oral communication and hereditary
however, the of
Among the Muslims, and.
Moulvis had the right to interpret
individual for
skills played a significant part in preparing the
to all, although only education was open to a great
Buddhists, a livelihood, and these wete determined,
expound it. Similarly among earning
followers of the religion.
Certain literary professions extent,by birth in a caste. Further, literary education was.
to all the
and astrology were also open to males than to females.
such as medicine (Ayurveda) more open to
 EDUCATION, STRATIFICAT1Ox & M0BILITY 131
130 THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

parts of South India, the middle class was constituted chiefy of

GROWTH OF MoDERN EDUCATIONAL OFPORTUNITIES the Brahmins, in the earlier decades of the British rule. The
Western educational system also introduced a differentiation
%th the introduction of the Western system of education, among the educated strata. The English-educated persons were
both the meaning and content of education underwent signific- distinguished from those educated insraditional education. It
ant changes. It became less religious, and many new branches also sharpened the distinction between the educated and the
of learning were introduced. The printing presS revolution- uneducated among those castes which, earlier, did not have the
ized the educatio nal system in that the emphasis shifted from benefits of anyeducation.
personal, oral communication to impersonal communication servation of low paid
The British adopted a policy of
ideas through books, journals and other media. It brought the administrative posts for members of low castes. Persons with the
sacred scriptures within the reach of many castes who were not minimum educational qualifications but belonging to certain
allowed by custom to read them. English education was also the castes were given preference. The awareness of economic and
to the
medium for the spread of modern science and ideas of equality other advantages of English education gradually spread
and there was a widespread
and liberty. lower rungs of the caste hierarchy,
thrown on their part to seek new
education. Various caste groups
The Western system of education was gradually Formal effort
and established trusts
the religious groups and to women. bilt educational institutions and hostels,
open to all castes,
their caste members seeking
new economic oppor to provide financial assistance to
education became the basis of exploiting education became wide
extent caste free. Educational education. Thus the Western system of
tunities which were to a large the efforts of sectarian and caste associations.
one to acquire 1he necessary skills outside spread mainly by
opportunities helped element Reviewing the progress of
education in Navsari Taluka,
Occupation thus became
a relatively independent were the irst to
realize
caste K. M. Kapadia' notes how the Parsis
of soçial status. for the progress of their
to take up jobs in the Ymportance of English educatiqn
Engfsh education qualitied peop!e a school for Parsi boys,
established
which
liberal professions such as law, religious group. They
administration, and follow
later admitted studentsbelonging to other castes and religions.
However, the professional educational institutions
engineering, medicine and teaching. similar efforts to establish
the Western system of educa
There were
Patidars and Kolis. In the
town
thus grew up under
groups, which
were further
differentiated on in villages by Anavil Brahmins, facilities for the
tion, far from being
homogeneous, caste hostels meant provide
to
attached to each profession. (Navsari), many The Muslims also
and the value being.
into
the basis of inconme were valued respective caste members came
education and
Thus the medical and
engineering professions of the advantages of English
of women's educa- grew c o n s c i o u s people of
and law. The growth educational societies. Many
higher than teaching who established their own
have
career women, Navsari Taluka
tion led to the creation of a category of and different castes and religious groups in
professions such as teaching
and other countries, and they have not only
sought employment
in specitic migrated to Africa
and
collar jobs.
various white education a necessity but have given huge dona
medicine including nursing, found English
the salaried castemen.
of professions along with tions to build schoois
and hostels for their
in with
The development class. lt may
be
in Navsari Taluka fits
the growth of a middle The educational
development
occupations led to in England all India with severa! regio
those occupations
had developed to be found
over
Maha-
noted that most of industrialism. thé general pattern Karnataka and
commercialism and In Tamil Nadu, Andhra, the
and Europe with
the rise of basis for nal variations.
development was closely
associated with
formed an important educational efforts of the
the occupational groupings educated middle rashtra,
and the counteracting
There structure. The newly non-Brahmin
movement
into being
t h e development of class
there came
But frequently and thirties
different castes. In the twenties
class in India
could cut a c r o s s Brahmins.
education accrued to upger castes
be-
of English in many
the advantages Thus
of their high status.
a u s e of
a n initial àdvantage
 THE SoCiOLOG Y OF E DUCA TION
132
EDUCATION, STRA TIFICA TION &
MOBILIT Y 133
in cities number of caste and religious associations whosc main
a
universities,
programme of activity wasto build schools, colleges, INEQUALITY IN EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES
hostels, and to establish trusts. Someof the well-known cxamples
and The foregoing account statesthe manner in which
are the Khalsa, Vecrasaiva and Arya Samaj moements, new
missionaries setting up a net-work of educational opportunities have heen infiuenced by, and in
the various Christian turn
affected, the traditional social structure. One of
the major
convent schools and culleges.
In Independent India, educational activities have not only changes that the new system of education
introduced was, as
noted earlier, a gradual
been more and more associated with caste and religious, associa Pal dissociation of ocCupation from caste
While occupations in the traditional
tions but have increasingly become a part of political activity. caste system were rated
in terms of ritual purity and
New categories of castes-Backward classes, Scheduled Castes
to some
pollution, they
are today rated,
and Tribes-were created in an attempt on the part of the Govern- alyo extent, in terms of the incomes they produce. The new
scale ofalues, at least in theory, emphasizs dignity
ment to give educational and other them. This
privileges to of human
labour and the economic criterion, although in practice the
set in motion a keen competition among castes for backwardnesSs,
choice of occupation is not entirely free from caste considera-
with a view to taking advantage of the facilities.. Membership tions. Thus vegetarian Jats may not send their children for
with a lower
of these castes entitles one to get admission training în pouliry, but may get them trained in dairy farming.
marks to schools and colleges, to get financial
minimum of Broadly there exists a dichotomy between manual and non-
further studies. It
assistance to study, and to go abroad for manual occupations, as it obtains in developed countries as well,
a job from the pool of reserved jobs
also entitles one to get and generally low castes are found employed more in manual
of teachers.
including those
their sphere of\influ-
occupations than in non-manual ones. But,fften FATItual
Politicians, with a view to enlarging status of a caste is not congruent with its economic status The
educational institutions that
are
control of growing incongruence has significant implIcations forthe tradi-
ence, seek to gain
addition to establishing new ones. For tional caste syste When a caste (other than one at the top)
already in existence, in zeal to
instance, some of the Ahirs, charged with a missionary becomes economically rich, it seeks to better its position in the
established educational institutions in caste hierarchy through the process of Sanskritization. For
reform their caste, had caste politicians
But since the fifties the instance, Ahirs, who were traditionally milk-sellers and small
Rewari in the 1920s. their area of
widen
have sought to control over
gain
them to
for them to
peasants, in some regions got thapnselves educated in English,
opportunity entered various professions such as medicine, engineering, teach-
infuence. The schools provide an
favour. They can give jobs police and military and thus bettered their economic
invite V.I.Ps. and
cultivate their
their ing,
seats to students,
and these remain under position. They claimed the status of Yaduvamshi Kshatriya
to teachers and educa-
elections such a control over
(Yadavas) in the caste Thus improvement in educa-
hierarchy.
At the time of
obligation. increases their organizational
m e a n s consider-
tional and economic status throúgh Westernization helped them
tional institutions educatîonal
their v o t e - w o r t h i n e s s . Thus to claim a higher status in the traditional caste hierarchy.
ably, besides increasing an a r e n a of intense political activity. The Western type of education has also made possible the
become
institutions have
with caste and religious groups,
association upward mobility of individuals andgroups in the framework
Besides its regionalism. Often of Westernization, where membership of caste is not a decisive
educational activity
is also associated with
regions to have a college
or
factor. Individuals their children educated in public schools
get
competition between more
there exists a the regional level is also
and convents, follow modern occupations which are
Political activity at of life. Whereas
a university.
the context
birth and continuance
of the
of educa- remunerative and adopt a Westernized style
of achieving upward
significant in English education is one of the means it is
tional institutions.
outside the framework of the caste system,
mobility
 STRATIFICATION & MoBILITY 135
EDUCATION,

THE S OCIóLOGY OF EDUCATIOON

134 where there is
a more egalitarian system of social stratification, social
individual to achieve a higher
important to note that the two mechanisms of social mobilty an open chance for an

Sanskritization and Westernization-are not mutually exclusive. status.

education are neither equal nor
People participate in both these ofien without feeling the logica But the opportunities for
educational institutions
They try to make the best of both the worlds. to all. There exists a hierarchy of
contradiction. open
chance to move up in the modern with respect to the standard and quality of educátion imparted
Westernization gives them a to the students.
At the one end. there
are public
status system having an occupational base. But they do recog by them
the modern facilities and a highly
schools equipped with most
nize their obligations towards their castemen who have a lowv ill-cquipped village
and at the other, there
are
level of education and economic status. Often the elite withina qualified staff, certain
schools. A similar disparity of standards exists between
move upwards
t h e caste form an exclusive group and attempt to departments, and between one university
marital relations among equals or higher ones, and colleges and university
by seeking and another.
desired social circle. While the the hierarchy of edu-
by developing contacts in the There is a rough correlation between
of students
upward mobility of a section caste
of is related to the process cational institutions and the social background
of Westernization, the part it plays in raising the status offellow recruited to them. Students from upper
admitted and teachers and those from
castemen is related to that
of Sanskritization. The two processes schools and convents,
traditional strata tend to join public number in Municipal.
another in the context of both the found in greater
interact with one
lower ones are to be Further, when a caste
status system. Government schools.
caste system and the modern District Board and
it will give prefer.
education was also responsible for institution
The Western system of educational
starts an of the
admission to students
association
ideas and modern, scientific, rationality. matter of
the spread of egalitarian ential treatment in the the
behind the national recruited from among
These ideas became the guiding spirit At any rate
teachers are
of same caste. has a policy of
of opportunities, a source The Government
movement in the fight for equality
caste.
members of thqsame
to traditional for members of Scheduled
and a challenge ceriain percentage ofjobs
inspiration for social reforme, last of these reserving a in
schools
Government-run

the caste system. The and Tribes, and teaching

jobs actively
values which supported sanctions and a Castes Some States
re-examination of the scriptural the pool of re served jobs. admission of
resulted in a are included in of
of the caste in the matter

re-interpretation of the
ideological foundations Tilak follow a policy of diserimination institutions, and in
For instance, while other educational
and Thus
on a m o r e
rational footing. Mahatma students to
technical
the basis of caste.
system the caste system.
on
rational interpretation to
respect recruitment
of of teachers educgtiona9PPOTR
gave a The Arya Samaj or exploit
Gita theory of caste. either to create
the fosteredEE
Gandhi emphasized the in an attempt policies have
of many castes including
associations and State at from
another
m o v e m e n t hlped
Sanskritization
'evil' practices, ities.setarian socialstratiication. Looked
became a w a r e
castes
of certain ments 6f traditional in education
has brought
Harijans. Upper remarriage and
child marriage among caste enterprise
however, numbers, and
thus
the ban on widow India, many angle, the reach of greater
In Independent education within providing
reform these. modern education and
of
them, and tried to ensure more social equality. for the spread
have been taken
to
India has has been respotsible
legal measures
of for social mobilty. affect the
The Government State policies
Untouchability is made a erime. weaker sections
of the
opportunities
and preferential of the
of the Castet enterprise While some
for the uplift their own way.
taken positive steps stratification m o r e egal- education in
standards
of social system of
high
make the system education
of associatons promote deterioration
society to
opportunities in respect schools started by sectariancontributè to a general
Equality of of the others for the
itarian. the *evil' aspects education, many mainly responsible
not only in mitigating in
Since teachers
are
gains significance social mobility
both within
but also in promoting in standards.
c a s t e system, Therefore much trust is
framework of caste.
and outside the to achieve
educational opportunities
of
o n the equality
placed
 DU.CA TION
136 THE S oCIOL oGY Or
maintenance of these, their recruitment on the basis of caste
and religious considerations, at the expense of merit and objec
tive criteria, is bound to afect adversely the cducational system,
and the development of human resources.
Widespread deterioration in standards has created a nced
for educational opportunities of high quality. Thus many
public schools have come into existence in recent years. There
is also a greater rush for admission to mission schools
and con-
vents which have a reputation for maintaining high standards.
In a few cases some parents who are not satisfied withthe stand-
ards obtaining in the best of schools in India choose to get their
children educated in the U.S.A. or the United Kingdom.
There is a marked contrast in the quality of education im-
parted by the primary and secondary schools run by Local Boards
and Government on the one hand, and by the public schools
and convents on the other. The latter provide a social environ
ment for the children which is to some extent congruent with
the Westernized style of life that obtains in their homes. (Fre
quently children from a lower class background find it didicult
to adjust themselves to the public school environment). Educa-
expensive and only students
tion hereis
classes and higher income groups are
belonging to upper
best able to exploit it.
seck
They are also in an advantageous position to
admission
engineering and medical colleges which sell seats, in the name
of donations, at prices varying from Rs 5,000 to 10,000. Thus
admission of students to quality educational institutions and
certain professional courseS is governed by income and class
considerations.
The students of the richer parents have yet another advant-
over those of the poor ones. They can engage private tutors
age
Teaching in the
at the school, college and university levels.
school or college is often so poor that private tutors become
in schools and
necessary. Occasionally teachers employed
standards
collegesrun tutoria! ""colleges", and maintain higher
of teaching in the latter to attract the students studying at
the school or college to their private "colleges". The richer
students take advantage of these facilities. They can also bribe
the examiners, to get to know the questions in advance, and to
Thus membership of the
get through the public examinations.
affluent upper strata tends to help students to get a better
EDUCA TION,
STRA T IP1CATION & MO B ILITY 137
quality of education, admission to the
desired professional
courses and to exploit other ayenues to improve their merit and
get through the public examinations. But it should be stressed
here that educational opportunities are open to all those who
seek to take advantage of them, without being bound by limita-
tions of caste or religion.
EDUCATION AND SoCIAL MoBILITY
The nature of interaction between education and social
stratification, outlined above, has direct infuence on social
mobility, which may be discussed in relation tostudents and
teachers. We have noted how the social background of students
operates as a selective factor in their admission to qualitatively
different types of educational institutions. Their socíal back-
ground, to some extent, also determines the choice of subjects,
the level of aspirations and the choice of occupation after the
The level of aspirations of the stu-
completion ofeducation.
dents is influenced to a great extent by the ocupation of their
fathers. Thus students from a lower caste or class, and a rural
background tend to have lower aspirational levels than those
from an upper caste or class and an urban background3 The
aspirational level is not only infuenced by the occupational and
to
caste status of their parehts but also by the fact that they are
better equipped than the students of lower class background
to achieve them. Wealth is one of the çonsiderations which
helps one to seek higher education in order to follow a coveted
profession. Frequently, illiterate parents making money in agri-
culture, trade,
commerce and industry get their children highly
educated.
When students from lower strata get highly educated, they
not only qualify themselves to
get more remunerative jobs,
thereby raising the economic level of the family, but also
contribute to the heightening of its prestige. The family will
be in
a position
caste which have
to contract marriages with sections of a sub-
either already become more affiuent or have
higher ritual status and a_reputed ancestry. Western educa-
a
tion is one of the criteria of selection of mates." Among some
castes such as Patidars, Ahirs, and Jats, among whom dowry
has become an accepted practice, educated sons are regarded
as "post-dated cheques". Higher education has also helped, to
 MOBILITY 139
EDUCATION TION &
138 TIIE SOCLOLOGY 0F
EDUCATION, STRATIFICA
themselves. For
castes to shed the stigma of at. a proper age, to
educate
extent, the Untouchable of education Course of the Delhi University
some
it created acute emotional
belonging to a low caste, although has instance, the Correspondence
A Correspondence Course
for them. "Education has become a has on its rolls a w o m a n aged sixty.
problems of adjustment facilities to improve status, to
status: It has the special
source of prestige and a symbol higher social is, however, one of
of
access.
of women The and widows have an easy
considerably altered the traditional social
status which housewives, destitutes differs from that
families which achieve a higher,economic
status but do not, The context of social mobility of teachers
highly educated are not incontent and nature. People of diversesocial1
correspondingly. get their children of students both levels.
of teaching at different
held high in public esteem. backgrounds enter the profession were accorded a place
them- structure teachers
Social mobility in regard to students supported by In the traditional social recruited from the upper
by cases they were
selves, i.e., self-help students, differs from those supported of honour, and in most
in the same esteem either
held
signi- the teacher is not
their parents or guardians. The former concern more castes. Today,
at large. The profession is
The pro- or by the community
ficantly the situation of intra-generational mobility increased in by students such as
to other professions
of such self-help students has considerably less remunerative as compared
portion There are also less opportunities
recent years. Establishment of morning and evening colleges medicine and engineering.
another. For instance,
certificate from one category to
courses and the professional and for upward mobility teacher becomes a lecturer
correspondence a high school
leading to a degree or diploma, and the provision, by it is only rarely that an avenue
courses profession opens up
admitting external students, give
universities, of
opportun- in a college. But the teaching their social status. To
some sections to raise
educate themselves for many backward
who alrcady employed to did in the traditional
has a certain halo, as it
ities for those are
climb high in the occupational and them, teachjng still a pro
further. They attempt to the vicarious pleasure of taking up
The so-called 'tutorial colleges' prepar- past. It gives
them
the Brahmins.
social status hierarchy. monopolized by
competitive
examinations
fession which was once generally
students for different courses and and secondary schools,
ing numbers. This is a natural Whereas teachers in the primary
have also grown in significant of elevated social status,
which have feeling
a
a n s w e r s a particular
need of the people, coming from low castes, the wider community.
growth which Individuals are forced by as such by
they are nbt relly accepted tension. For instance a Mahar
is not fulfilled by regular colleges education at an early This has often been a
source of

diverse circumstances to give up formal dominated village is still

considered an
After they get settled they like teacher in a Mahratha to live in the
seek employment. he is compelled
age, and to uutouchable, and for this
themselves reason
better quality respect from
education further and claims
to pursue their When regular educa Mahar Wada of the village.
As a teacher, he
at large
for occupations yielding
higher incomes. castes, but for the community
the students fall back on
the children of the clean such, possibly
are not adequate, and he is treated as
tional opportunities All these
their education
further. he is an untouchable master, Mahar teacher within
a
tutorial colleges to pursue channel with some concession. On
the contrary,
act as an important He commands
formal adult education
of of Mahars is a person.
privileged
avenues
is characterised the caste
The pattern of mobility here
looked upon
his castemen, and is
of social mobility. than that in considerable prestige among
purposive motivation teachers is a c o m m o n
spontaneity and Further, indi- dual status of low caste
by greater as a leader. Such a Thus in the
supported by parents their and small towns.
feature, especially in villages
of students education
the case
the higher strata
work their way through higher social acceptance by
viduals are able to the span of context of social climbing
scale of social
stratification during
and climb up the becomes crucial.
educational institutions,
in higher
their caraers.
which is regarded, at least by Social mobility of teachers and religious
Education is also an activity those established or patronized by caste

end in itself.
Formal educational opportun- other than is not strictly
characterized by caste

some, as an
vere denied the opportunities associations, however,
individuals who
ities help
140 THE sOCIOLOGY EDUCA TION, STRATIFICAT1ON
OF EDUCA TION & MOBILITY 141
considerations. Upward mobility often try
is
governed more by factors to
manipulate and
influence
such as merit, influence and aspirations. A significant
aspect in recruitment of teachers. They also admission of students and
this connection needs of the latter. Such interfere with the promotion
to be
pointed out. In recent years, attempts tend to render the criterion
intellectual contact with Western universities has academic merit ineffective. It is a of
increased common saying that *a
considerably. There are many foreign foundations, besides gov. of influence is worth a ton
of merit". It is pinch
ernmental agencies, which render financial in this connection the important to stress
part played by cliques both in the recruit-
help to promote
higher learning and research. Not only has the number ment of teachers and in their
foreign trained students who are recruited as teachers at
of
the formation of upward mobility. The bases for
higher cliques are diverse.They include
levels of education
increased, but also, the number of teachers ideology. linguistic, regional, religious and castepolitical ties,
who go abroad for further
studies or research assignments. Some friendship and student-teacher ties, and afiliations,
of the
fellowships and assignments fetch them thought. Exchanges of examinership and occasionally a school of

of
money. They bring back with them many modern
substantial! sums tion and other committees are memberships of selec-
gadgets. Some of them occasionally marry foreign goods
and to a large extent
confined
members of the clique. to the
girls. They
adopt a
highly Westernized style
of life and are considered, Teachers in recent years have
among the teachers, to be the U-sector who set new norms which group
emerged as a
professional
voicing their
grievances and demands.
others tend 1o imitate. organised themselves into many regional and All-TndiaThey have
Not all foreign returned teachers, however, are of Associations. These attempts contribute to Teachers*
outstand- the
ing merit. Some of the mediocre ones
attempt to advance their general economic position of the teachers, as also toraising of the
interests, which are not strictly academic. They cultivate and their rights and privileges. safeguarding
build up a network of useful contacts both in India Another factor which needs to be
and abroad, stressed in the context of
the range of contacts
being wider in the case of those who have social mobility of students and
teachers is the medium of
foreign wives. They get themselves invited to attèFd confer- tion. One of the obvious
effects of adopting a instruc
ences and seminars, besides organizing these themseives, and sit as a medium of
instruction in schools and
regional language
on important committees. They manage to secure handsome hinders spatial mobility of colleges is that it
students and teachers, which is
financial grants to do research and assignments related to both horizontal and
involving travel vertical social mobility.
abroad. Thus they seek to win recognition in the international if the medium of
instruction is common national Whereas,
academie circle and to rise high both in the
academte hierarchy
it facilitates
spatial mobility and increases language,
and the local status hierarchy. This pattern of socia/mobility tunities. Further,
English
employment oppor
higher socia! status within theeducation
enables one to seek a
of academic entrepreneurs is not, however, confined to the framework of Westernization-a
foreign returned teachers, al1hough their scale of operation is significant mechanism of social mobility. The
at a higher and subtler level. It stands in utter contrast with English education are advantages of
advocate the cause of perceived
even by those
lonely scholars who work their way through the academic politicians who
regional language as a medium of instruc-
tion, but get their children admitted
hierarchy by merit and hard work. The latter do not necessarily to public schools where
enjoy a high social status. The point is that unless high the medium of instruction is
academic standards are maintained by the society, the former
English.
type of academic entrepreneurs who set false standards is likely SuMMARY AND CONCLUSION
to be encouraged. The Western system of education not
Social mobility of students and teachers is not values of liberty and only introduced new
wholly egalitarianism but also novel methods of
determined by educational achievements, but also influenced organizing instruction which were at variance with the tradi-
by political activities. Politicians, administrators and gthers tional values and methods. As eduçatignal gnnartunitii hrcam
142 THE soCioLOGY OF E DUCA TION & MO BILIT Y 143
EDUCATION, STRA TIFICATION
open to all. irrespcctive of sex, religion and caste, the occupa- to the hierarchy of status groups. The upper strata or classes
tional aspect of caste gradually weakened. Occupation became the lower ones to compete for
were in a position
better than
a relatively independent basis of social stratification. Modern There was thus
cducational opportunities of a higher quality.
education qualitied one either to seck a more remunerative job
an clement of selectivity which
tended to perpetuate the new
outside the traditional occupation of caste, or to follow the
stratification.
same at a different level of organization. It was also a symbol
These trends have continued in varying ways in Independ-
of contracting better marital
of prestige and a means
relations
Improved economic position and the adoption of the Westernized
ent India. In a country where opportunities for
education were

a large section of the population

style of life. made upward mobility possible within the frame-
work of Westernization. This process of social mobility, how-
ever. interacted with the process of Sanskritization where caste
groups. or sections of these, being benefited by the new education
and employment opportunities, tried to rise high in the caste
hierarchy by claiming a higher status.
Economic and other advantages of the new education system
were. however, fully perceived and exploited by the upper castes
in the earlier phase of the British rule. But later there was a
widespread attempt on the part of the middle range and low
castes to seek modern education. Innumerable caste and religi-
ous associations sprang up in important and
cities
these, as a part of their programme of activities,
educational institutions, built hostels and awarded scholarships
for the benefit of their student members. Certain States pursued
a communal policy in the matter of admission of students and
Tecruitment of teachers. Thus educational activities became
closely associated with caste and religious considerations. Such
attempts on the part of caste and religious yr ups inluenced
the education system in two ways: firstly, they wer: responsible
for bringing modern education within the reach of the members
of certain caste or religious groups. Secondly, they affected the
Standards of education in varying ways, as admission of students
and recruitment of teachers were determined by considerations
in the traditional
denied to
socia>' system,efforts to offer special concessions and privileges
to these are only in order. The Government thus gave special
Scheduled Castes
privileges and concessions to Backward Classes, the caste
and Tribes soon after Independence. At present, Scheduled
concessions mainly
to
criterion operates in giving
Castes and Tribes. But it is desirable to evolve objective criteria
with respect to these sections as well. While the granting of con-
cessions, such as a lower minimum of marks in regard to admis-
sion and scholarships and stipends, to students of backward
sections are necessary, reservation of teaching jobs along with
towns, and other jobs for Scheduled Castes and Tribes is injurious not only
to national interests but also to the interests of these backward
established
groups. The educational system is the feeder system of society,
it trains people to fit into roles and positions-both the existing
as well as the new ones. It is the chief agency to maintain
efficiency, to human resources and to foster the desired
develop
values and to achieve set goals. Any ineficiency in this feeder
system, which is bound to creep in when impersonal criteria do
not operate, will have an adverse effect on the nation as a whole.
Further, the policy of reservation of teaching jobs for Scheduled
Castes and Tribes is injurious to them in the long run. Bad
teachers produce worse students. It is in the interest of back-
ward sections that they should be trained by highly qualified

other than merit. While some schools run by caste or religious
associations promoted a high quality of education, many others
contributed to a general deterioration of standards. This stressed
the need for quality education, especially among the newly
emerging afiluent and Westernizing status groups, Many public
schools and convents and other technical institutions came
being to cater to this rising demand. There resultd a hierarchy
among the educational institutions which was roughly paralle!
teachers Under no conditions, then, should the recruitment of
teachers be influenccd by considerations other than merit, at any
leve! of formal education,
Another issue which demands a policy consideration is the
growth of cducational institutions which are either supported
into or established by sectarian associations. They not only perpe-
tuate the traditional elements of stratification but many of them
affect the educational standards adversely. It is therefore desir
able to encourage non-sectarian enterprise in education. It
 144 THE SOC1OLOGY Of EDUCATION EDUCA TION, STRA TIFICA TION & MOBILITY 145

would also be necessary for the Centre to

exercise control on general village community, where a "clean"" caste is dominant,
the communal policies adopted by some of the State
Govern- they are treated as *"untouchables", The social
acceptance of the
ments in the field of education. A suitable body, on the model position claimed by these castes is a precondition of successful
of the University Grants Commission, should be set up in
each upward mobility. The traditional ideas of pollution act as a
of the States. It could exercise control over schools and improve formidable barrier to the untouchable teacher's social
Conditions for social mobi!ity of the climbing.
the quality of pre-university education. teachers at
of education are different, as caste considerations are
higher levels
Education is a potent factor in promoting social mobility, relatively
less significant. A new
in that it is not only employment oriented but has a prestige pattern of social mobility of teachers is
value. The aspirations of students are infiuenced, to some extent, seen emerging at the level of universities and research
institu-
kinsmen and castemen, as tions. There is an increase in the number of
by the occupation of their parents,
teachers who generally adopt a highly Westernized
foreign-trained
well as by the economic status of the family. While university style of life
which others tend to initate. While higher education of
education is generally held in high esteem, technical education
This Indians in foreign countries has contributed
at the diploma and other levels is considered inferior.
social mobility anmong teachers, it has its own
significantly to
attitude has been responsible for the increasing number of stu- impact
on the
dents seeking university education. It also retards the growth system of education in India. Some of the brilliant teachers
scheme of values may,
who have had their training abroad introduce new academic
of technical skills. A change in the
values and raise the standards of education
however, occur with the diversification of job opportunities and significantly. They
have revolutionised university education in
training facilities specifically oriented to these. many branches of
Formal education in regard to the self-help students
tends learning. But at the same time. there are academic entrepre
either in promo-
neurs, described earlier, who tend to set false standards.
to be more purposive. It helps them getting
Social stratification, both traditional and new, then, tends
enables
tion in the jobs in which they are already employed
or
t o have a
them to change for better jobs. In big cities and towns manyy constraining influence, in different ways, on the deve.
who want to appear lopment of the education system and the values it is supposed
tutorial colleges, which coach students to foster. But education itself is a
privately for school, degree, diploma and competitive exami potent factor in overcoming
these constraints. Education has an
nations, have sprung up. There is a general antipathy among enobling influence helping
individuals to rise above prejudices and
most educationists to
tutorial colleges, as they are considered to
tions. In this context, however, formal
parochial considera
bemotivated commercial
by rather than academic interests. But education forms part
of the general cultural values as manifest
they fulfil certain felt needs which are in the institutions
it has to be realized that of family, religion, caste and
not met by regular colleges.
Under such circumstances it is community.
The values supported
and the universities should
by modern education may be at varíance with those fostered
advisable that both the government
administration of the tutorial colleges. by other socializing agencies, as it is the case in contemporary
regulate and control the should also be pro
India. n such a situation the education
More adequate and regular opportunities
system has also the
task of re-orienting the traditiona! institutions and values in
education as it promotes intra-genera-
vided for adult formal the new direction. It is only when it is kept above the
tional social mobility. many
in respect of teachers is some
corrupting infuences, that it can hope to realise the goals of
The nature of social mobility SOciety. As a feeder system through which individuals are
is neither financially
what different. The teaching profession trained to fi!i in roles and positions in a society, and
At lower levels of through
attractive nor socially held in high
esteem.
which the desired values are propagated or generated, the edu
education there are a
considerable number of Harijan teachers,
cation system needs contant vigil and guard. This is the
treatment by the community.
who are subject to discriminatory responsibility of every citizen, and much more so of the elite.
a higher status, in the
Whereas within their caste they occupy
 EDUCATION
SocroLOGY OF
146 THE

FoOT NOTES

1.

Kapadia. K. M.. 1959. "Progress

of Education in Navsari Taluka",
.
No. 1.
Socioiogical Bulletin, Vol. VIII,
'Social Change in Modern India,
2Sen, Shrinivas. M. N., 1966,
The University of California Press, Berkeley.
3. Shah. B. V., 1964, Social Change
and College Students of Gujarat,
Baroda.
The Maliaraja Sayajirao University of Baroda,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

am grateful M. N. Srinivas who kindly per-

to Professor
Social Change in Modern
mitted me to read his manuscript on
of Cali-
India' which was due for publication by The University
fornia Press. This has generally influenced my think
Berkeley.
Sanskritization and Westernization with
ing in reiating
education.
Dr. A. Beteilie for his comments and
I thank my colleague
criticism on this paper.