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Database Design and Management

CSC 214
LECTURE 2
 Lecture Outline
 Information storage & retrieval
 Information management applications
 Information capture and representation, analysis & indexing, search, retrieval,
Information privacy; integrity, security, efficiency and effectiveness.
 Current trends in database systems: Brief Introduction to the following;
– The Basic Components of the Web Environment
– Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) standard
– Knowledge-Based and Object Based Systems
– Data warehousing & Data mining concepts
– Database Security
 Information
 What is Information?
 Information can be defined as a message received and understood.
 However, in terms of data, it is defined as a collection of facts
from which conclusions may be drawn.
 Generally, information is the result of processing, manipulating and
organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the person
receiving it.
Information life cycle
 Information Identification
 For example, if you're creating a repository of requirements for a development team,
the items of value can be initially identified as business requirements, system
requirements, and testing requirements.

 Information Capture
 Information capture is the process of collecting data in form of paper documents,
forms and e-documents, transforming them into accurate, retrievable information,
and delivering the information into business applications and databases for immediate
action.
 Information Organization
 Information organization refers to methods of rendering large amounts of information
into a form that can be stored, retrieved and manipulated by users or computer system

 Information Management
 Information management depicts a comprehensive approach to managing the flow of
an information system's data from creation and initial storage to the time when it
becomes obsolete and is deleted.
 Information Utilization
 Proper utilization involves two interrelated functions: search and navigation.
 Searching is based on the metadata associated with the repository materials; index
design based on the expected search categories dramatically speeds discovery of
properly labeled materials. Navigation is the ability to rapidly move around the
information space to locate related information.
 Information presentation is also a key factor in utilization.

 Information Archiving
 The goal of archiving is preservation rather than ready access.
 Question

 What stage of the information cycle is the Database featuring?

 Information efficiency and effectiveness

 Efficiency in general, describes the extent to which time, effort or cost is well used
for the intended task or purpose.
 Effectiveness is the capability of producing a desired result.
– When something is deemed effective, it means it has an intended or expected
outcome, or produces a deep, vivid impression
 What is Information Efficiency?
 What is Information Effectiveness?
The Information System
 Provides for data collection, storage, and retrieval
 Composed of:
– People, hardware, software
– Database(s), application programs, procedures
 Systems analysis
– Process that establishes need for and extent of information system
 Systems development
– Process of creating information system

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 The Information System (cont’d.)

 Performance depends on three factors:

– Database design and implementation
– Application design and implementation
– Administrative procedures
 Database development
– Process of database design and implementation
– Implementation phase includes:
• Creating database storage structure
• Loading data into the database
• Providing for data management
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 The Information Systems Development Life Cycle

 Divided into following five phases:

– Planning
– Analysis
– Detailed systems design
– Implementation
– Maintenance
 Iterative rather than sequential process
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The Systems Development Lifecycle

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 Planning

 General overview of company and objectives

 Assessment of flow-and-extent requirements
– Should the existing system be continued?
– Should the existing system be modified?
– Should the existing system be replaced?
 Study and evaluate alternate solutions
– Technical aspects of hardware and software requirements
– System cost
– Operational cost 14
 Analysis

 Problems defined during planning phase are examined in greater

detail during analysis
 Thorough audit of user requirements
 Existing hardware and software systems are studied
 Goal:
– Better understanding of:
• System’s functional areas
• Actual and potential problems
• Opportunities

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 Detailed Systems Design

 Designer completes design of system’s processes

 Includes all necessary technical specifications
 Steps laid out for conversion from old to new system
 Training principles and methodologies are also planned
– Submitted for management approval

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 Implementation

 Hardware, DBMS software, and application programs are installed

– Database design is implemented
 Cycle of coding, testing, and debugging continues until database is ready for delivery
 Database is created and system is customized
– Creation of tables and views
– User authorizations

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 Maintenance

 Three types of maintenance activity:

– Corrective maintenance
– Adaptive maintenance
– Perfective maintenance

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 The Database Life Cycle

 Six phases:
– Database initial study
– Database design
– Implementation and loading
– Testing and evaluation
– Operation
– Maintenance and evolution

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Database Life Cycle

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 Internet Database Environment

The figure depicts the basic environment needed to set up both Intranet/Internet database enabled-connectivity

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 Internet Database Environment cont.
 Webserver:
– Used to process client requests and return HTML pages to the
client.
 Database-enabled services:
– Database access through the webserver and database server provided
 File Transfer Protocol:
– Provides the capability to copy files between computers in the
intranet, extranet or internet.

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 Web to Database Tools

– The most popular middle ware applications for connection of

database to web applications include PHP, JSP, ASP.net,
ColdFusion etc. The following are the components of a dynamic
website;
• A DBMS
• A webserver
• Programming Languages and development technologies eg
PHP, JSP, ASP.net,COldFusion etc
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 Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) standard

 Open Database Connectivity.

– In computing, Open Database Connectivity(ODBC) is
a standard application programming interface (API) for accessing
database management systems (DBMS).
– The designers of ODBC aimed to make it independent
of database systems and operating systems.

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 Knowledge-Based Systems

Knowledge Base
– A store of factual and heuristic knowledge.
– No single knowledge representation system is optimal for all
applications.
– Knowledge can be represented using the IF-THEN rules,
Semantic networks, and Frames and so on.

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 Object-Based Systems

 An object is an instance of a class (e.g. a particular person, place or thing) that encapsulates
the data and behaviour we need to maintain about the object.
 All objects have a persistent identity.
– The state of an object encompasses its properties (attributes and relationships) and the values
those properties have,
– its behaviour represents how an object acts and reacts.
– An object's state is determined by its attribute values and links to other objects.
– An object's behaviour depends on its state and the operation being performed.
 A class of object shares a common set of attributes and behaviours.
 Object Based Systems are based on the object oriented concept.

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 Data warehousing

 a large store of data accumulated from a wide range of

sources within a company and used to guide
management decisions.

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 Data mining concepts

 Data mining is the process of sorting through large data sets to identify
patterns and establish relationships to solve problems
through data analysis. Data mining tools allow enterprises to predict
future trends.

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 Database Security
 Data is a valuable resource that must be strictly controlled and managed as with
any corporate resource.
 Security refers to the protection of database against unauthorised access, either
intentional or accidental.
Database security:
 The mechanisms that protect the database against intentional or accidental threats.
 It encompasses hardware, software, people and data.
 Database security aims to minimize losses caused by anticipated events in a cost
effective manner without unduly constraining the users.

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 Database Security cont.

 Database security can be considered in relation to the following

– theft and fraud;
– loss of confidentiality (Secrecy);
– loss of privacy;
– loss of integrity;
– loss of availability.

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• THREATS
– Any situation or event, whether intentional or accidental, that may adversely affect a
system and subsequently the organisation.

• Countermeasures-Computer-Based controls
– Authorization
– access control
– view
– backup and recovery
– integrity
– encryption
– Raid Technology. (Redundant array of independent disk)
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AUTHORIZATION

 The granting of a right or privilege that enables a subject to have legitimate access
to a system or a system’s object.
 This involves authentication of subjects requesting access to objects.
 Authentication is a mechanism that determines whether a user is who he or she
claims to be.

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ACCESS CONTROL
• Access controls for a database system is based on the granting and revoking
previleges.
• A privilege allows a user to create or access some database object or to run certain
DBMS utilities.
 Discretionary security mechanisms
– Privilege grants allow specific users to perform
specific operations on specific data
– Initial grants start with DBA
– Grants may be passed on between users

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  Mandatory security mechanisms
– Enforce multi-level security
– Data and users are classified into security classes
– Typically, user can only see data which has a lower
(or same) classification as themselves
– Role-based security is similar

A VIEW
– Dynamic result of one or more relational operations operating on base relations
to produce another relation.

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BACKUP AND RECOVERY
– Backup is the process of periodically taking a copy of the database and log file
( and possibly programs) on to offline storage media.
– A DBMS should provide facilities to assist with the recovery of database
following failure.
– Journaling is the process of keeping and maintaining a log file (or journal) of
all changes made to the database to enable recovery to be undertaken
effectively in the event of failure.

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INTEGRITY

– Integrity constraints also contribute to maintaining a

secure database system by preventing data from
becoming invalid, and hence giving misleading or
incorrect results.
ENCRYPTION

– This is the encoding of the data by a special

algorithm that renders the data unreadable by any
program without the decryption key
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 Concurrency Control
 This is the process of managing simultaneous operations on the database without having
them interfere with one another.
 A major objective in developing a database is to enable many users to share data
concurrently.
 It is easy if all users are only reading data.
 If some are reading and at least one is updating data, there may be interference that can
result in inconsistencies.

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 Potential problems caused by concurrency

 The lost update problem

– Successfully complete update operation overridden by another user.

 Uncommitted dependency problem

– When one transaction is allowed to see the intermediate results of another
transaction before committed

 Inconsistent analysis problem

– When a transaction reads several values from the database but a second transaction updates
some of them during the execution of the first.

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 Concurrency control techniques
• Locking Methods
– When one transaction is accessing the database, a lock may be deny access to other
transactions to prevent incorrect result.
– Shared lock : it can read the data item, but not update
– Exclusive lock: it can both read and update

Deadlock
An impasse that may result when two (or more0 transactions are each waiting for locks to be released
that are held by the other.

• Timestamping Methods
– A concurrency protocol that orders transactions in such way that older transactions,
transactions with smaller timestamps, get priority in the even of conflict
– Timestamp : a unique identifier created by the DBMS that indicates the relative
starting time of a transaction.
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 Timestamping Methods
– A concurrency protocol that orders transactions in such way that older transactions,
transactions with smaller timestamps, get priority in the even of conflict
– Timestamp : a unique identifier created by the DBMS that indicates the relative starting
time of a transaction.

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