1

FOREWARD
This book is for teachers of mathematics both in primary and secondary schools. The book
is the outcome of work undertaken by mathematics teachers in Glasgow, Modena and
Barcelona and was funded by the European Union as part of the Erasmus Programme.

The aim of the book is to support teachers to develop pedagogical approaches that will
further enhance pupils’ understanding of key mathematical concepts and in turn support
learners to achieve more in mathematics. It is a professional development resource that
can be used by individual teachers, groups of teachers or whole schools to reflect on their
approaches to teaching number and mathematics.

Teaching for understanding is the underlying core approach throughout the book. The use
of manipulatives in teaching mathematics has a long tradition and solid research history.
Manipulatives not only allow students to construct their own cognitive models for abstract
mathematical ideas and processes, but they also provide a common language with
which to communicate these models to the teacher and other students. In addition to the
ability of manipulatives to aid directly in cognitive processes, manipulatives have the
additional advantage of engaging students and increasing both interest in and
enjoyment of mathematics. Students who are presented with the opportunity to use
manipulatives report that they are more interested in mathematics. Long-term interest in
mathematics translates to increased mathematical ability (Sutton & Krueger, 2002).

In 2013, the National Council of Supervisors of Mathematics (NCSM) issued a position

statement on the use of manipulatives in classroom instruction to improve student
achievement. “In order to develop every student’s mathematical proficiency, leaders
and teachers must systematically integrate the use of concrete and virtual manipulatives
into classroom instruction at all grade levels.”

The work of the Erasmus project involved pupils from ages 11 years to 18 years and of all
abilities. All teachers and schools involved in the project reported that more learners were
better engaged, enjoyed mathematics more and in turn saw improved attainment in their
classes and departments.

The approaches recommended in the book are for all pupils of all abilities, including the
more able. All pupils need time to understand concepts before moving to more abstract
approaches. The use of manipulatives provides this time and support. Meta-analyses by
Suydam & Higgins (1977), Parham (1983), and Sowell (1989) found that achievement in
mathematics could be increased by the long-term use of manipulatives.

We hope that you find the book helpful in your own classroom teaching.

Best wishes,
Stephen Watters
Quality Improvement Officer Mathematics, Glasgow City Council

2
PROJECT PARTICIPANTS
Teachers from Glasgow
Kirsty Brown Bannerman Secondary
Neil Farmer Knightswood Secondary
Lyndsey Ann Gallagher Lourdes Secondary
Conor Hanrahan Knightswood Secondary
Mark Higgins Notre Dame Secondary
Claire Mackay Bannerman Secondary
Paul McLellan Lourdes Secondary
David McClure John Paul Academy
Leeann McFadden John Paul Academy
Gillian Molloy Govan High School
Paul Smith Whitehill Secondary
Gemma McKelvie St Paul’s High School

Teachers from Italy

Nicoletta Bizzarri Istituto Comprensivo 8 di Modena
Barbara Guerzoni Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Luisa Guidetti Istituto Comprensivo 8 di Modena
Alberto Lodi Rizzini Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Maria Mingrone Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Laura Moretti Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Teresa Manna Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Raffaele Poli Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Maria Cristina Rizzo Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Domenica Rausa Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Fabiana Vaccina Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena
Paola Veronesi Istituto Comprensivo 10 di Modena

Teachers from Catalonia

Xevi Camps Sagrada Familia El Masnou
Josep Mayolas Sagrada Familia El Masnou
Josep Sans Sagrada Familia El Masnou
Cristina Fernández Sagrada Familia Sabadell
Jordi Mercadé Sagrada Familia Sabadell
Helena Rodríguez Sagrada Familia Sabadell

David Byrne - Editor

Annina Martin - Graphics

3
CONTENTS

1. Number Sense
2. Addition
3. Subtraction
4. Multiplication
5. Division
6. Percentages
7. Decimals
8. Fractions
9. Fractions - The 4 Operations
10. Integers
11. Gather Like Terms
12. Solving Equations
13. Factorising
14. Ratio

4
5
NUMBER SENSE

1
6
NUMBER SENSE

Overview
This section is aimed to develop improved understanding of number concepts. It will
provide teachers with concrete approaches to improve learners’ understanding of
numbers, their structure and sequencing.

Advice
All learners require a strong conceptual understanding of place value, sequencing and
counting strategies.

Teachers, at all stages, should provide frequent opportunities for learners to develop a
deep understanding of number structure and place value initially.

We cannot emphasise enough the need to provide pupils with opportunities to see, feel,
experience and touch numbers.

Progression in number needs to consider the number range that a learner can solve
problems within, and the sophistication of the strategies used.

For a learner to be secure in number they must understand:

• Number Structure
• Sequencing and Numerals
• Counting Strategies

This section will provide activities to promote understanding

of all 3 elements of number.

For pupils without deep understanding, it is suggested that the activities should focus on
ensuring that they understand numbers in this order:

• Number 1-10
• Number 1-20
• Number 1-100
• Number beyond 100

Learners should be able to sequence forward and backwards, use concrete materials
or visuals to provide multiple representations of the number and they should be able to
count, add and subtract in a variety of ways.

Only then can they move on to an extended number range.

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Section 1: Number Structures

General Advice
Pupils learn number best when they see and understand patterns.

They need to recognise the linguistic pattern for numerals and the pattern in the size of
number.

For example, they need to understand that 4 is made up:

• 1, 1, 1, 1 or
• 3 and 1 or
• 1 and 3 or
• 2 and 2

and that 4310 is: a 4000, a 300, a 10, etc.

In early understanding visual representations of numbers can support this.

Materials that can support this include: 10 Frame, both 5 wise and pair wise, bundles of
straws, dominoes, Number Racks and then place value materials.

Visual patterns support this as pupils learn to subitise, that is to recognise the number from
the pattern.

For example, they recognise the 5 in the domino without counting the dots or
eventually from the digits.

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Number Structure Activities
Using Fingers Patterns - Picture of fingers

1. Show a 5, show 5 another way, show the number after 5, show the number
before 5, what number is this? Show 4 another way.
2. Show 3. Show 6. Show 6 in another way.
3. Show double 3, show double 4, show double 5.
4. Show the pupils 9 fingers, ask them what number is this? Ask how they know.
Answers could be:
• 1 less than 10
• 1 more than 8
• I see 5 and 4 and this makes 9.
5. Repeat for 7 etc.

Using Dominoes

1. Flash dominoes/or cards at the pupils and ask them what numbers they see.

2. Explain what you see?

3. Ask them how they know the number.
4. Give the learners dominoes cards ask them to show you a number.
For example, show me a 7.
Now show me another domino which is 7. Explain why?

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Activities with 10 – frames
Used to reinforce 10 as the base to counting.
1. Show a 10 frame or multiple 10 frames – what number is this, what is next, what
number is before this?

Activities using Base Ten materials

Make/show the following numbers:

• 1-20
• 1-100
• 1-1000+

Make a concrete or visual model to show these numbers:

• a)1.09 b)1.9 c)9.01 d)1.90 e)9.10

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Place Value

Place value is a key building block of conceptual understanding.

All teachers should spend time developing pupil’s knowledge of place value.

A first step is to understand the hierarchical nature of number.

For example, a key step is that 9: is nine ones, and that Ten is: 10 ones, or 1 Ten. This is then
repeated for 100, 1000s etc.

Learners often find most difficulty at the transition from: tens to 100s or hundreds to 1000s,
etc. It is only when learners are secure with place value/number structure that they will
develop a deep understanding of number.

No Place Value / No Progression

Time needs to be spent, using concrete materials, to support learners understanding this
concept.

As pupil develop their understanding of place value it is important that they see the
repeated hierarchy of number.

Please note we intend to initially use “Ones” and not “Units” in our language to
promote understanding. This approach can be amended to “Units” when
appropriate.

Activities for place value.

1. Use concrete materials to explore number structure
Show me 6, 9, 12, 33, 99 in several ways.
(Note this supports pupils’ ability to partition numbers in a both standard and
non-standard way which will support the 4 operations.)
2. In 15867 what value does the 8 represent?

11
 3. What numbers do the blocks below represent?

4. Use your concrete materials to make the following number: 234.

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Section 2: Number Sequences

General Advice
For most learners this is the beginning of developing number. However special attention
should be given to the “teen” 10,11,12, 13, as the linguistic pattern is often not secure even
with older pupils. For example, 17 and 70 are often confused even by older pupils. (Issues
often occur around the decades too.)

Language can emphasise that: 13 is three and ten, or 10 and a 3.

It is important to emphasise the transition numbers across decades / hundreds, e.g., 37, 38,
39, 40 (or 4 tens).

Discussion could be around the structure as well as the sequence.

For example, “Forty” is 3 tens and 10 ones.

Number Sequences Activities 1-20

These are oral activities. These are provided in increasing complexity, so the advice is to
make sure learners are confident in their understanding before moving on.

Activities for sequences, particularly for learners who have an early understanding, can be
supported further by using concrete materials to improve number sense and
understanding including Base 10 materials, number boards, bundles of straws, counters,
Ten Frame materials, etc.

1. Say after me 6,7,8…12,13,14… 9,10,11

2. Say after me 8,7,6….14,13,12….11,10,9
3. What is the next number?
• 4, 5, 6…?
• 17, 18, 19…?
• 8, 7, 6…?
• 18, 17, 16…?
• 9, 10….?
• 13, 14…?
4. What is the number after 5…? 9…? 13…? 19...?
5. What is the number before … 4, before…10, before…19, before…20?
6. Say with me 7,9,11… and keep the sequence going.
7. Say with me 20,18,16… and keep the sequence going.

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Number Sequences Activities 1-1000 and beyond

1. Say after me 76,77,78…. and 62,63, 6... and 590,600,610

2. Say after me 48,47,46….54,53,52….71,70,69
3. What is the next number: 44, 45, 46...?
• 3700, 3800, 3900…
• 28, 27, 26...
• 48, 47, 46.
• 530, 540…?
4. What is the number after 145…? 459…63…99...803?
5. What is the number before 14, …709….790…600?
6. Say with me 277, 278, 279… and keep the sequence going.
7. Say with me 140,138,136…keep the sequence going.
8. 1.1 ,0.9 give the next 5 numbers in the sequences.
9. ¾, 1 ¼, 1 ¾ give the next 3 numbers in the sequences.

Number Boards

What number is under the boards?

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Base Ten materials
Sequence activities can be supported by using concrete materials to represent them. For
example, show the next two terms in the sequence.

Ten Frames
Use Ten Frames to extend the sequence and both forwards backwards.

Now let’s say the numbers together.

Number Cards
Use cards with digits 1 to 10 to explore sequences and to SAY the words.

This reinforces knowledge of digits.

Consider the following example.

Extend the sequence: 101, 301, 501, 701 - - by adding 2 more numbers.

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Section 3: Counting Strategies

General Advice
1. From the earliest level learners should develop a range of counting strategies.
2. Learners should not progress to an extended range of numbers until they can use
multiple strategies.
For example, if a learner can only add using a “count on approach”, then the effort
required to do 34 + 28 is such that errors would occur and the learner could become
frustrated.
3. Pupils need to “partition” numbers to allow them to add or subtract effectively and
efficiently.
This ability to “partition” should be developed through number structure and place
value activities.
4. Algorithms for the 4 operations should be the last approach to learning after learners
fully understand the processes involved.
5. Learners should be allowed to develop a range of approaches that move from:
Concrete to Pictorial to Abstract. Time should be taken to allow learners to concep-
tually understand before moving forward. This applies for all the four operations.
6. Inverse operations should be taught in tandem with each other. We should be
teaching addition and subtraction together to allow for better understanding.

Counting Strategies
Below are counting strategies that should be developed from an early age. Further
examples will be provided later in the booklet.

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Staff should:

• teach the strategies explicitly

• allow pupils to discuss strategies
• provide support materials
(For example, learners should write down notes-jottings)
• use concrete materials: counters, cubes, coins, bead lines, Numecon, 10, 100
blocks,100 square, diagrams - white boards- and number lines

Strategies

1. Counting forward or backwards

27 + 60 counting on in tens = 37, 47…87
570 + 400 count on in 100s = 670, 770 … 970
440 + 620 count on in 100s then 10s = 440,540 … 1040,1050,1060
3.2 + 0.6 count on in tenths = ?
1.7 + 0.55 count on in tenths then 1/100ths = ?

2. Partitioning

These are potential partitioning approaches. However, learners should be encouraged to

use a variety of partitioning approaches and then be able to discuss the most efficient.

4 + 15 = 4 +10 + 5
30 + 47 = 30 + 40 + 7
68 – 32 = 60 + 8 – 30 – 2
540 + 280 = 540 + 200 + 80
4.7 – 3.5 = 4.7 – 3 – 0.5
276 – 153 = 276 – 100 – 50 – 3
1.56 – 1.12 = ?

A number line is very supportive of developing and supporting these strategies.

Please note subtracting by adding-on can support many pupils to develop their skills and
is often more efficient than “taking off”.

17
Partitioning bridging through multiples of ten

3. Re-ordering

The calculations below can all be eased with re-ordering. Using partitioning can further
ease the calculation.

As stated before, number lines can provide a visual support to learners.

12 + 99 = 99 +1 + 11
25 + 76 + 15 = 25 +15 + 76
58 + 16 – 28 = 58 – 28 +16
1.7 + 2.6 + 0.3 = 1.7 + 0.3 + 2

4. Compensation

Compensation is when the sum can be eased by adding or subtracting to add at the end
to ease the sum.

84 – 18 = 84 – 20 + 2
138 + 69 = 138 + 70 – 1
5.7 + 3.9 = 5.7 + 4.0 – 0.1
2½ + 1 ¾ = 2 ½ + 2 – 1/4

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5. Doubles and Near Doubles

This strategy should be taught from the earliest level. Visuals can support the development
of this strategy.

Consider this example.

Teacher What number do we see here?

Pupil I see 9.
Teacher Explain why you see 9.
Pupil I see a 5 and 4 or 4 and 4 and 1, I see two 4s and 1.

Learners should learn doubles 1 to 9 using visuals and concretes and then apply this
knowledge to other similar questions.

4+4
4+5 Explain why? It’s two 4s and 1 etc.
9 + 10 Explain why? It’s a 10 and 10 subtract 1
19 + 20
200 + 300
25 + 27
2.5 + 2.7 It’s a 2.5 + 2.5 plus 0.2
1.19 + 1.20 It’s a 1.2 +1.2 – 0.01

For further information on early learning of number, please look at the guidance and
activities provided in The Stages of Early Arithmetic Learning (SEAL).

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ADDITION

2
20
ADDITION

Adding Double Digit Numbers

Learners should be able to use concrete and pictorial representations to demonstrate
their understanding of addition.

Once they are comfortable with this, learners should develop strategies to solve addition
problems. To do this, they may choose a pictorial method or progress to abstract models.

Concrete
What does 28 + 15 look like?

2 tens and 8 ones

1 ten and 5 ones

Collect ones into a group of ten

4 tens and 3 ones = 43

2 tens and 8 ones

1 ten and 5 ones

Collect ones into a group of ten

4 tens and 3 ones = 43

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Pictorial
When learners have used concrete materials, they can then begin to make pictorial
representations. Pictorial representation is an integral element, as it is the link between
concrete and abstract.

Drawing concrete materials

Moving on from the use of concrete materials can be made less daunting and more
accessible if the learners start by using a pictorial representation of the original concrete
material.

Consider the example: 28 + 15

2 tens and 8 ones

1 ten and 5 ones

Collect ones into a group of ten

4 tens and 3 ones = 43

22
Counting on
When learners can partition numbers, they could then use the “counting on” method,
using whichever combination of numbers that suits them.

Consider the example: 28 + 15

Using a Number Line

23
Part – part – whole
A part – part – whole model (where 2 “parts” make up a whole) breaks a calculation
down to help the learner see the relationship between numbers.

In the following case it is the “whole” that is missing, which indicates to learners that they
should add the 2 “parts”.

Consider the example: 28 + 15

What else do you know?

“Part – part –whole” leads, naturally onto the number story.

The number story

We know that 28 + 15 = 43

So, we also know that:

15 + 28 = 43
43 – 28 = 15
43 – 15 = 28

Bar model

A bar model is another visual strategy to help

solve number problems using different sized
rectangles to represent numbers. It is an
extension of “part – part – whole” as it can
be used to break a calculation down even
further.

Consider this example: 28 + 15

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Abstract
Following pictorial, learners can move to using more effective abstract methods for
addition.

Partitioning
By partitioning a number, the calculation can be eased. It also helps learners to
understand the value of each digit.

Consider this example: 28 + 15

Compensation
Compensation involves adjusting one of the numbers to make the calculation easier and
then “compensating back” at the end.

Consider this example: 28 + 15

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SUBTRACTION

3
26
SUBTRACTION
Learners should be able to use concrete and pictorial representations to demonstrate
their understanding of subtraction.

Once they are comfortable with this, learners should develop strategies to solve
subtraction problems. Learners may choose a pictorial method or progress onto abstract
models to do this.

Concrete
How could you show 38 - 12?

There are 3 tens and 8 ones.

Can we take exactly 12 away?

Take 12 away.

What do we have left?

How could you show 73 – 39?

There are 7 tens and 3 ones.

Can we take exactly 39 away?

Exchange 1 ten for 10 ones.

Can we take exactly 39 away?

Take 39 away.

What do we have left?

27
How could you show 212 – 158?

There are: 2 hundreds, 1 ten and 2 ones.

Can we take exactly 158 away?

Exchange 1 hundred for 10 tens.

Can we take exactly 158 away?

Exchange 1 ten for 10 ones.

Can we take exactly 158 away?

Take 158 away.

What do we have left?

28
Pictorial
When learners have used concrete materials, they can then begin to make pictorial
representations of their calculations.

Drawing concrete materials

Moving on from the use of concrete materials can be made less daunting and more
accessible if the learners start by using a pictorial representation of the original concrete
material.

Consider the example: 73 – 39

There are 7 tens and 3 ones.

Can we take exactly 39 away?

How do we take another 9 away?

Exchange 1 ten for 10 ones.

Take another 9 away.

What do we have left?

Subtracting without Subtracting

When calculating a difference, must we always subtract?

There are different situations in which a subtraction is not the most efficient method to use.

29
Counting on using a number line

30
Counting on
Start with the number you are subtracting and “count on” until you reach your target.

8000 - 489

31
Counting backwards
Start with the initial value and count backwards until you have subtracted the required
number.

8000 - 489

Part – part – whole

A part – part – whole model (where 2 “parts” make up a whole) breaks a calculation
down to help the learner see the relationship between numbers.

In the following case it is one of the “parts” that is missing, which indicates to learners they
should think about what they must add to the other “part” to make the “whole”. They
would have been taught a variety of addition techniques by this point.

Consider the following example: 73 – 39

What else do you know?

“Part – part –whole” leads, naturally onto the number story.

The number story

We know that 73 - 39 = 34

So, we also know that:

73 - 34 = 39
39 + 34 = 73
34 + 39 = 73

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Abstract
Following pictorial, learners can move to using more effective abstract methods for
addition.

Partitioning
By partitioning a number, the calculation can be eased. Simplified?

It also helps the learner to understand the value of each digit.

Compensation
Compensation involves adjusting one of the numbers to make the calculation simpler and
then “compensating” at the end.

33
MULTIPLICATION

4
34
MULTIPLICATION

Multiplying Single Digit Numbers

Learners should be able to use concrete and pictorial representations to demonstrate
their understanding of multiplication.

Once they are comfortable with this, learners should develop strategies to solve
multiplication problems. To do this, they may choose a pictorial method or progress to
abstract models.

Concrete
What does 6 x 4 mean?
How can 6 x 4 be represented?

6 “lots” of 4

6 groups of 4

4 “lots” of 6

4 groups of 6

35
Pictorial
When learners have used concrete materials, they can then begin to make pictorial
representations. The idea of repeated addition is key.

Adding 4 - 6 times

Adding 6 - 4 times

36
Part – part - whole

6 - 4 times 4 - 6 times

What else do you know?

Extend into the ‘number story’:

6 x 4 = 24
4 x 6 = 24
24 ÷ 4 = 6
24 ÷ 6 = 4

Area Model and Arrays

Following the part- part-whole model, learners can develop notions of area and use this
model. Learners then draw an array to represent multiplication.

4 groups of 6 – 6, 4 times

6 groups of 4 – 4, 6 times

37
This builds upon the idea of groups of 4 and groups of 6. It also develops the notion of how
multiplication can be represented using a rectangle. This model will be extended to
abstract concepts later.

What do you expect to see?

Why do you think that?

Abstract
Following this, learners can move to using the area model for developing a more efficient
method for multiplication.

leading to

38
Multiplying Two-digit Numbers
(and Beyond)
Many of the representations used already can, and should, be extended into multiplying
larger numbers, and algebraic terms.

Concrete
What does 14 x 6 mean?
How can 14 x 6 be represented?

6 “lots” of 14

6 groups of 14

39
Pictorial

Partitioning
When using concrete materials, it easy to group together 10’s and 1’s together.

14 x 6 = ?

10 x 6 = ?
4x6=?

40
When multiplying with numbers larger than 9, partitioning can be used to help developing
a deeper understanding of the process.

This leads to development of the area model, a sustainable model which can be used for
removing brackets and more.

Abstract
Following this, learners can move to using the area model for developing a more efficient
method for multiplication.

Partitioning continues to be a highly effective method.

Consider the following example: What is 8 x 137?

8 x 100 = 800 8 “lots” of 100

8 x 30 = 240 8 “lots” of 30

8 x 7 = 56 8 “lots” of 7

41
 8 x 137 = 1096

This model can be extended for longer multiplication problems.

What is 32 x 49?

32 x 49 = 1568

42
Extension into National Qualifications
The area model can be used when multiplying out brackets.

This sustainable model uses partitioning in the same way as with number.

For further support: https://youtu.be/vUOmpHI2SKk

43
DIVISION

5
44
DIVISION

Sharing and Grouping

Learners should be able to use concrete and pictorial representations to demonstrate
their understanding of division.

Once they are comfortable with this, learners should develop strategies to solve division
problems. To do this, they may choose a pictorial method or progress to abstract models.

Concrete
What does 12 ÷ 6 mean?
How can 12 ÷ 6 be represented?
Share 12 between 6, how many does each get?

From 12, make groups of 6, how many groups can you make?

The language around these problems is important, especially for developing into more
abstract concepts later. At all times, teachers should use appropriate language around
division.

“12 shared between 6, each gets 2”

“12 made into groups of 6, makes 2 groups”
“12 divided by 6 is 2”

45
What else do you know?

Extend into the ‘number story’:

12 ÷ 6 = 2
12 ÷ 2 = 6
6 x 2 = 12
2 x 6 = 12

Consider the following example:

What does 42 ÷ 6 mean?
How can 42 ÷ 6 be represented?

“42 shared between 6, each gets 7”

“42 made into groups of 6, makes 7 groups”

46
Pictorial
When learners have used concrete materials, they can then begin to make pictorial
representations. The connections to multiplication and to addition will be used, as well as
sharing and grouping.

In this example, the connection to repeated addition is used. This enables all learners to
access the problem, especially if “times-table knowledge” is weak.

Bar Model
The Bar Model makes use of the notion of sharing and is an excellent representation of
any dividing problem.

What is 30 ÷ 5?

Here, 30 is being shared between 5. How many will each get?

Using addition, place one counter into each section until all 30 have been placed.

47
The Bar Model is a sustainable model which should be used when solving problems
involving larger numbers.

What is 456 ÷ 4?

Again, 456 is being shared between 4 and addition is used. Learners can keep a running
total at the side, to assist calculations.

Also, less confident learners may choose to add “1’s” instead of “2’s” - (or may even
notice that “4’s” in each section would be quicker).

What is 429 ÷ 3?

Learners add to 300, then realise that no more hundreds can be added to each section.
Then try 20 and notice that more can be added. Finally, share 9 between 3. This model
enables all learners to access division problems by using addition.

Note the running total at the side, again to support learners.

What is 1743 ÷ 3?
1500 (500·3)
1650(+3·50)
1710(+3·20)
1740(+3·10)
1743(+3·1)
48
Area Model
Using the connection between multiplication and division - what do you expect?

• “How many groups of 4 are needed to make 20?”

• “How many lots of 2 are needed to make 14?”
• “63 shared between 9, how many does each get?”

Abstract
Using known number facts, larger numbers can be partitioned to solve division problems.

What is 78 ÷ 6? What is 84 ÷ 7?
This can be thought of as: This can be thought of as:

78 => (60 + 18) ÷ 6 84 => (70 + 14) ÷ 7

10 + 3 10 + 2
=13 =12

Dividing by Two-digit Numbers

Many of the representations used already can, and should, be extended into dividing with
larger numbers.

49
What is 91 ÷ 13?

“91 shared between 13, each gets 7”

When dividing by numbers larger than 10, it can be useful to use known number facts.

These multiples of 10, 5 and 1 can be the building blocks used to solve division problems.

What is 598 ÷ 26?

We know: 10 x 26 = 260
5 x 26 = 130
1 x 26 = 26
We can use these groups of 26 to add up to 598.

Total
10 x 26 = 260 260
10 x 26 = 260 520
At this point, we cannot add another 10 groups of 26.

Notice too that we cannot add 5 groups of 26 either.

Total
10 x 26 = 260 260
10 x 26 = 260 520
1 x 26 = 26 546
1 x 26 = 26 572
1 x 26 = 26 598
How many groups of 26 make 598?

23
50
What is 408 ÷ 24?

We know: 10 x 24 = 240
5 x 24 = 120
1 x 24 = 24
We can use these groups of 24 to add up to 408.

Total
10 x 24 = 240 240

At this point, we cannot add another 10 groups of 24.

Total
10 x 24 = 240 240
5 x 24 = 120 360
1 x 24 = 24 384
1 x 24 = 24 408

How many groups of 24 make 408?

17

For further support: https://youtu.be/DBfRcNATsPI

51
PERCENTAGES

6
52
PERCENTAGES

Overview
The purpose of this resource is to develop a greater understanding of the concept of
percentages. The resource will support teachers and equip them with additional teaching
tools in the form of concrete, pictorial and abstract approaches to teaching and learning
about percentages.

It is envisaged that this will further enhance learners’ working knowledge of percentages
and contribute to a deeper understanding of how to use percentages, undertake
calculations and apply their skills to solve problems involving percentages.

Due to the nature of percentages, these concepts would not be taught in isolation.
Connections of percentages with fractions and decimal fractions are integral to having a
deep understanding of how percentages operate.

• CfE 3rd Level Benchmarks

• Converts fractions, decimal fractions or percentages into equivalent fractions
decimal fractions, or percentages.
• Uses knowledge of fractions, decimal fractions, and percentages to carry out
calculations with and without a calculator.
• Solves problems in which related quantities are increased or decreased
proportionally.

Fractions, I have investigated the everyday • Uses knowledge of equivalent forms of

decimal contexts in which simple fractions,
fractions and percentages or decimal fractions
percentages are used and can carry out the
necessary calculations to solve
related problems.
MNU 2-07a
I can show the equivalent forms of
simple fractions, decimal fractions
and percentages, and can choose
my preferred form when solving a
problem, explaining my choice of
method.
MNU 2-07b
I have investigated how a set of
equivalent fractions can be
created, understanding the
meaning of simplest form, and can
apply my knowledge to compare
and order the most commonly used
fractions.
MTH 2-07c
common fractions, decimal fractions
and percentages, for example,
3/4 = 0.75 = 75%, to solve problems.
• Calculates simple percentages of a
quantity, and uses this knowledge to
solve problems in everyday contexts,
for example, calculates the sale price
of an item with a discount of 15%.
• Calculates simple fractions of a
quantity and uses this knowledge to
solve problems, for example find
3/5 of 60.
• Creates equivalent fractions and uses
this knowledge to put a set of most
commonly used fractions in order.
• Expresses fractions in their simplest
form.

53
Prior Knowledge
• Fraction structure
• Understanding of place value and decimal fractions

Language/Notation
The word “percent” comes from the Latin phrase meaning ‘by the hundred’.

We use the word ‘cent’ in a few everyday contexts:

• cent is the French word for one hundred

• a centurion was a commander of 100 soldiers
• a century lasts 100 years
• a centipede has 100 legs
• there are 100 cents in a Euro.

Even the percentage symbol (%) hints at its connection to both fractions and the number
100.

The use of the phrase, ‘per 100’ or ‘for every group of 100’ is very useful for initial
understanding e.g., 6% means 6 out of every 100 which also means 6/100.

What is a percentage?
In essence, a percentage is just a special fraction which is out of 100.

This image represents 1%. This image represents 35%.

(This is why learners should have prior knowledge of working with fractions.)

Although the concrete and pictorial images are very similar, it cannot be emphasised
enough, the powerful effect on learning, that comes from learners physically touching
and constructing their own examples using concrete materials as a starting point (then
progressing to pictorial methods).

Some key questions:

• Show me what (e.g.) 26% looks like.
• Which is bigger, 36% or 45%? Why?
54
Concrete
Use a Whiteboard 100 number grid or Base 10 materials or Cuisenaire rods.

Pictorial
Mathsbot.com has an excellent manipulative for use with percentages.

Abstract
It is worth noting that learners may be introduced to an extended knowledge of
percentages (e.g., 3%, 17%, 72% etc...)

• Using decimal fractions (e.g., 2.5%)

• Fractional percentage values (e.g., 33 ⅓ %)
• Values greater than 100 (e.g., 150%)

55
Calculating a percentage of an
amount
Consider the example below:

Calculate 3% of 400.

Question: What does this mean?

Answer: 3% means 3 out of every 100. See below for some strategies to solve this problem.

Concrete

Pictorial

3 out of 100 3 out of 100 3 out of 100 3 out of 100

Abstract
3% of 400 means 3 out of every hundred.

So, 3% of 400 = 4 groups of 3 = 4 x 3 = 12.

56
Variation Theory
This type of example could be used as a springboard to explore the following examples:

a. 3% of 200
(Again, it is important to stress the use of language here and to ask what 3%
of 200 really means.)
b. 3% of 300
c. 4% of 300
d. 4% of 400
e. 4% of 100
f. 40% of 100
g. 40% of 200
h. 40% of 300
i. 20% of 300
j. 20% of 600
k. 20% of 60

Reflecting on the answers calculated is an important teaching and learning strategy.

Maybe learners could estimate in advance what they think a realistic answer to each
question could be? Does the answer make sense? If not, why not?

Using Bar Models

A prerequisite to support the learning here, using bar models, might be to reference the
link between percentages and fractions.

Do you notice that ½ is the same as 50%? Why is that?

What else do you notice?

What is the same, and what is different in the diagrams above?

57
Consider the following example.

Find 50% of 80:

Concrete

Pictorial

58
Look at the example below.

Find 25% of 36:

Concrete

Pictorial

A discussion can take place on why 36 is being shared equally into 4 parts based on the
bar model and why the 9 is inserted into each box.

Therefore 25% of 36 = 9.

Notice that the same bar model could be used to explore: 50% of 36, 75% of 36 and 100%
of 36 too.

Now consider this example: What is 125% of 36?

59
Using 10% as a steppingstone for further exploration
with percentages
Exploring the number patterns to the answers of 10% of …. can be a useful platform to use
for working with other, related percentages.

Prior knowledge: with concrete, pictorial, and abstract strategies when learners are
confident with how to calculate 10% of an item then their learning can be extended into
using these calculations to explore other percentage problems.

For example, calculate 5% of 20.

(First use 10% of 20 = 2 as a platform.)

So, 5% of 20 = 1 (since 5% is a half of 10%).

(First use 10% of 20 = 2 as a platform)

Similarly, calculate 30% of 20.

So, 30% = 10% + 10% + 10% = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6.

Extension: What is 35% of 20?

60
A special property of percentages
Consider the following problems:

1. Calculate 20% of 40. and 2. Calculate 40% of 20.

So, 20% of 40 = 8 So, 40% of 20 = 8

What do you notice?

What do you wonder?

Could this special property be useful when calculating 44% of 25?

Can you explain why?

Solving Percentage Problems

Being able to calculate a percentage of an item is crucial prior knowledge for price
increase/ sale price problems. This prior knowledge needs to be secure to build upon to
solve percentage related problems.

For example, a dress costs £50. In a sale the dress has 10% off.

Calculate the sale price of the dress.

Bar modelling could be used as a strategy to solve such problems as this:

61
Calculate the sale price of the dress:

Therefore, the cost of the dress when reduced by 10% would be:

£50 - £5 = £45.

The same bar model could be used to explore if there was 20% off, or 30% off etc…

Extension: How could this model be used to help calculate the cost of the dress if there
was only a 5% reduction?

62
Consider the following problem.

The monthly payment for a mobile phone is to increase by 20%. The current monthly cost is
£30. Calculate the new monthly cost.

Therefore, the new monthly payment for the mobile phone is now £36.

Further exploration:

What would the new monthly cost be if the price increased by:
• 40%
• 60%

Future Learning:
• Appreciation/Depreciation (N5 Maths and N5 Applications of Maths)
• Reverse percentages are also a part of the N5 Maths and N5 Applications of
Maths courses.

63
DECIMALS

7
64
DECIMALS

Overview
Decimals are also referred to as decimal fractions in the Experiences and Outcomes for
Numeracy and Mathematics. A decimal number is a way of representing a number that is
not a whole, a decimal lies between two whole numbers. The decimal point separates the
whole number from the decimal or fractional part.

• 3.41 means 3 units, 4 tenths and 1 hundredth.

• 3.41 is in between the whole numbers 3 and 4.
• Language…… 3.41 is said like “three point four one”.
• After the decimal point each digit is said separately.

Everyone must understand the place value columns and understand which number in a
decimal is the most important (which one is worth the most).

65
Place Value
Using dienes blocks is an ideal way of introducing decimals. It is important for everyone to
understand what each dienes block represents when introducing decimals.

This represents 1 whole / 1 unit

This represents 10 parts out of 100

So....

This represents 1 part out of 100

So....

Equally place value counters can be used as an alternative concrete resource.

This represents 1 whole / 1

unit

66
Using concrete
materials, it should
become clear that
1 unit = 10 tenths.

This is crucial.

Using concrete
materials, it should
become clear that
1 tenth = 10 hundredths.

This is crucial.

The above equivalence is true when using place value counters.

Concrete

67
68
Pictorial
https://mathsbot.com/manipulatives/ https://mathsbot.com/manipulatives/
blocks placeValueCounters
Show 3

Show 0.3

Show 0.03

Common Fractions as Decimals

It is important for everyone to understand how a whole number can be written to include
a decimal point.

Concrete
Allowing time to use these concrete materials is important.

Understanding 1 can be split into 10 equal parts.

10 lots of =1

10 lots of 0.1 = 1

69
Pictorial
https://mathsbot.com/manipulatives/fractionWall

https://www.transum.org/Software/sw/Starter_of_the_day/Students/Fraction_line/Frac-
tion_Wall.asp

70
Adding Decimals
Concrete
Important to plan out your questions.

Question 1) 0.24 + 0.35

5
Answer: 0.59

Question 2) 0.24 + 0.36

(The hundredth has increased by 1, this will reinforce the idea of 10 hundredths making
1 tenth.)

Discuss 0.6 = 0.60

Having used variation theory with many of your well thought out questions. You can then
try a different question to assess if understanding has taken place.

Question 3) 0.68 + 0.57

71
Pictorial
Instead of doing concrete, pictorial and abstract separately, doing the abstract with
either the concrete representation and/or the pictorial representation can really help
deepen understanding.

0.24 + 0.35

Number Line
0.24 + 0.35

Why do we carry the 1? What does that mean? What does it look like?

72
0.24 + 0.36

73
0.68 + 0.57

74
Abstract
Column method Partitioning Compensation
0.24 + 0.35 0.24 + 0.36 0.68 + 0.57

0.24 0.2 + 0.3 = 0.5 0.70 + 0.57 – 0.02 = 1.25

+ 0.35 0.04 + 0.06 = 0.10
0.59 0.60 Or (round both to friendly
numbers then compensate)
*Column method is useful Again reinforcing 0.60 = 0.6
to use alongside a pictorial/ 0.7 + 0.6 - 0.05 = 1.25
concrete method.
QUESTIONS (everyone should be able to answer the following questions and use
intelligent practice so links can be made with previous questions…

Craig Barton’s variation theory:

https://variationtheory.com/2018/02/19/adding-decimals-carry/
Here is another example…. 9) 0.32 + 0.06
1) 0.4 + 0.2 10) 0.32 + 0.07
2) 0.2 + 0.4 11) 0.32 + 0.7
3) 0.2 + 0.5 12) 3.2 + 0.7
4) 0.2 + 0.55 13) 3.2 + 0.8
5) 0.2 + 0.56 14) 3.02 + 0.9
6) 0.2 + 0.66 15) 3.02 + 9.9
7) 0.22 + 0.66 16) 4.93 + 9.9
8) 0.32 + 0.66

Subtracting Decimals
Concrete
2-1=1 2 - 0.1 = 1.9

75
1 - 0.2 = 0.8 0.2 - 0.1 = 0.1

0.2 - 0.11 = 0.09 0.2 - 0.12 = 0.08

3.25 - 1.34 = 1.91

Pictorial

76
Abstract
1. Jessica has £8 she spent £3.56 at the shop. (Try the column method and the counting on
method. Why one is easier?)

2. 101.2 – 9.8

https://variationtheory.com/2018/12/08/subtracting-decimals/

77
Multiplying Decimals
Concrete
3.46 x 2

In the above picture dienes blocks have been used to represent 3.46.

We now want 2 lots of this….

ANSWER IS 6.92

78
Pictorial & Abstract
Draw 4 x 0.7 (4 lots of 0.7)

0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

You know: 4 x 7 = 28
4 x 0.7 = 2.8

Draw 13 x 0.03

0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03

You know: 13 x 3 = 39
13 x 0.3 = 3.9
13 x 0.03 = 0.39

1.23 x 3. Use the counters, set up 1.23. You now want 3 lots of each column.

Change the question slightly to show again how 10 hundredths is equal to 1 tenth.

Abstract
Abstract included above but here are some questions to try…..

https://variationtheory.com/2018/02/19/multiplying-decimals/

79
Dividing Decimals
Concrete
Calculate 2 ÷ 5

So now we want to share the 20 tenths into 5 groups……

80
Pictorial & Abstract
Draw a picture to represent 3 ÷ 0.5

1 1 1
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Therefore 3 ÷ 0.5 = 6

This can be written as a fraction

As discussed previously everyone must understand that 1 unit can be exchanged for
10 tenths.

1 tenth can also be exchanged for 10 hundredths.

Choose a simple calculation first. Show one with no numbers carrying. This will help
everyone understand the layout of the array. Doing the abstract with the pictorial method
can be very helpful.

Try:

1. 6.93 ÷ 3
2. 3.96 ÷ 3
3. 9.36 ÷ 3
4. 8.64 ÷ 2
5. 6.48 ÷ 2
6. 4.86 ÷ 3

81
82
Find 1.8 ÷ 0.6 = 3
(3 jumps have been made)

83
FRACTIONS

8
84
FRACTIONS

Equivalent Fractions
Learners should be able to use concrete and pictorial representations to demonstrate
understanding of simple equivalent fractions.

Once learners are comfortable, extend to fractions where they don’t have tiles to
represent.

To achieve this, learners may choose a pictorial method or progress to abstract models.

Learners can then apply these skills to ordering more complex sets of fractions.

Concrete
Can you find any fractions which are equivalent to (the same size as)?

a) one half? b) three quarters?

Pictorial

85
Abstract
1. Which of the following fractions are equivalent to ?

2. Find a fraction equivalent to a) b)

Simplifying Fractions
Through building knowledge of equivalent fractions learners should progress and be able
to express fractions in their simplest form.

Learners should understand that the simplest form contains the smallest numbers and that
there are various ways to progress to the simplest form.

86
Pictorial
These diagrams will help learners visualise the quickest way to simplify (by finding the
highest common factor), but also that there are other routes that can be taken, provided
they continue to divide.

87
Abstract
Express in its simplest form:

Ordering Fractions
Learners should be able to demonstrate an understanding that the greater the number of
equal parts, the smaller the size of each share, using concrete and pictorial methods.

Learners should then be able to compare the size of simple fractions and place them on a
number line with the aid of concrete or pictorial methods.

They should then progress on to the abstract method of creating equivalent fractions to
put a list of commonly used fractions in order.

Concrete
Put these fractions in order, smallest first:

88
Which fraction is the largest?

Pictorial
Place the fractions on the number line.

(A fraction wall can be used to aid this process.)

89
Abstract
Order these fractions from smallest to largest:

90
Finding a Fraction of a Quantity
Learners should be able to share out a group of concrete materials by making smaller
groups or split a whole object into smaller parts.

They should then progress on to pictorial and abstract methods of calculating a fraction of
a quantity. Bar models work well for this.

Learners who struggle with division, may wish to use the alternative method shown next to
each bar model. This allows them to think of as “one out of every four” and as “two
out of every three” etc.

Pictorial methods can also be used to challenge learners with problem solving questions
working backwards.

Concrete

91
Pictorial

92
Abstract
Consider the following examples.

Find:

a)

b)

Mixed Number and Improper

Fractions
Learners should be able to covert between mixed number and improper fractions using
concrete and pictorial methods to enhance their understanding before moving on to the
abstract method.

93
Concrete

Pictorial

Abstract
Consider the following examples.

1. Change to a mixed number fraction.

2. Change to an improper fraction

94
FRACTIONS - THE
4 OPERATIONS

9 95
FRACTIONS -
THE 4 OPERATIONS
Overview
CPA approaches are particularly effective when building understanding with fractions. All
along it is important mindful in the language we use when expressing fractions, to promote
understanding with the concrete and pictorial models in particular.

Through this section the language we use is crucial. It should be expressed in a way to
support the understanding and promote the concept that fractions are about splitting up
into equal parts. It is worth taking time developing your way of expressing fractions.

We do want eventually to refer to as “three quarters”. However, that should be after

building the conceptual understanding of what it represents.

This could be phrases like “three out of every four” or “three parts out of four”, being linked
to both concrete and pictorial models. Find your own phrases that support this
understanding, emphasise the links. Once the learners are comfortable and
demonstrating an understanding then moving on to the more everyday terminology of
“three quarters”.

Before we start with the four operations we must first consider the skills associated with
equivalent fractions and simplifying fractions.

Equivalent Fractions

Concrete
Fraction tiles are an effective concrete approach to demonstrating what fractions look
like and clearly show equivalent fractions , allowing young people a chance to
experiment with the tiles to come up with all sorts of relationships between the tiles.

96 One Whole
Another useful concrete approach, which gives greater flexibility, is using two sided
counters to represent fractions. For example (remember use the expression “2 out of
every 5”).

Repeat the pattern…

and again….

This can be repeated several more times. The discussion should be around how each of
these represent 2 out of every 5 counters are red. The number of total counters does not
matter, it is still 2 out of every 5 that are red.

So …

97
Pictorial
This can be extended into a pictorial representation using a form of bar modelling. An
advantage of this approach is the physical size is maintained (a particular advantage
when explaining to young people with autism).

Demonstrating…..
2 out of every 5 equals 4 out of every 10 equals 6 out of every 15 or….

Abstract
This leads directly on to the abstract approach of scaling up both numerator and
denominator. A discussion around what is happening with the bar model with the shaded
sections versus the overall number of sections. This can be easily linked to multiplying both
the numerator and denominator by the same number to produce an equivalent fraction.

(Note when referring to multiplying

emphasise both top and bottom are
multiplied by the same number)

Simplifying Fractions
As simplifying fractions is the reverse process of producing equivalent fractions we can
employ some of the strategies. For example…..

Simplify or 4 out of 12

98
Use the counters to produce a repeated pattern, this may take several attempts to get
the simplest form.

giving the repeated pattern 2 out of

every 6 or

giving the repeated pattern 1 out of

every 3 or
and eventually

This can then lead on to the discussion about identifying the highest common factor and
using this to simplify fractions. In the case of the above example the number of times the
pattern is repeated (number of rows) being the highest mcommon factor.

99
Adding and Subtracting Fractions
Again a good way of starting is to use the fraction tiles to build up a picture of what
adding and subtracting fractions looks like. Also it can effectively demonstrate why some
of the more common mistakes are exactly that and physically don’t make sense e.g.:

Tiles can also be used to demonstrate addition of fractions.

As well as subtraction.

From these activities it is important to have the discussion on it being essential to be able
to express all parts of an addition or subtraction with the same denominator so we are
talking about adding or subtracting equivalent parts.

This can lead on to a very effective use of bar modelling for addition and subtraction of
fractions. The following 2 examples will demonstrate this.

100
Example 1

Show

Step 1: Draw a sketch of the bar model with shading representing the calculation, one
horizontal one vertical.

Step 2: Draw in corresponding vertical/horizontal lines giving both bar models an equal
number of boxes.

Step 3: Add the shaded parts together.

101
Example 2

Show

Step 1: Draw a sketch of the bar model with shading representing the calculation, one
horizontal one vertical.

Step 2: Draw in corresponding vertical/horizontal lines giving both bar models an equal
number of boxes.

Step 3: Take away the appropriate number of shaded boxes.

102
Abstract
These pictorial models lead readily to the more abstract approach of finding the lowest
common multiple for the denominator for addition/subtraction, as shown in the examples
below:

Note that if your denominator is not the LCM then it would be expected that learners
would use the skill of simplifying fractions to express it in it’s simplest form.

103
Multiplying Fractions
Again the language we use is going to be crucial. In particular the interchanging
between “of” and “times” e.g.

“2 groups of 4 “ and “2 times 4” are expressing the same calculation.

That leads to:

Pictorial
Again bar models are an effective pictorial representation.

Step 1: Sketch the bar model for using vertical lines and shading appropriately in red.

Step 2: Draw in a horizontal line halving the initial bar model.

Step 3: Shade in the top half in green. The sections shaded in both give you the answer to
your calculation.

104
So for

It is then worth having a discussion about what do we notice about:

and...

in particular....

and...

105
Dividing by Fractions
Once again the initial language we use when describing division by fractions is crucial in
developing understanding.

So rather than 6 ÷ 2 being descrbed as “6 divided by 2”, use terminology like “How many
2’s make up to 6?” or “How many 2’s give 6?”. Emphasising we are looking to find how
many groups/jumps of 2 get us up to 6.

To give an initial feel for dividing by fractions we can again turn to fraction tiles.

We can use equivalent fractions to demonstrate dividing by fractions e,g,

The LCM for 3 and 4 is 12

106
With everything expressed in twelfths it becomes what is 8 ÷ 3.

It is worth then discussing results that you have already shown to be true and look for
learners to spot patterns and make conjectures about alternative methods. Moving
towards turning dividing by fractions into multiplying by the reciprocal.

It may be worth then showing this works by taking other fractions and dividing. Use 2
methods, one of them being the reciprocal method, and show they give the same result.
Reinforcing the reciprocal method.

107
INTEGERS

10
108
INTEGERS

Introducing the Concept of a Zero Pair

Using an investigative approach

What integer do you think the following diagrams represent?

What about the following?

• Can you draw a representation for negative 3?

• Can you draw a different representation?

109
Adding Integers
Learners should be able to use their knowledge of zero pairs to help them add integers
effectively and efficiently. They should be exposed to calculations involving smaller
integers first and this should be extended to calculations involving much larger integers
after a period of practice. The pace of learning throughout each stage will depend on
the ability of your learners. Before starting, you may wish to consider the following:

• Consider your choice of language when speaking to learners.

How would you verbally read out the following question?
◊ 8 + (-3)
◊ Positive 8 add negative 3
◊ 8 positives add 3 negatives

• To physically show the above calculation, you would start with 8 yellow counters
and then add in 3 red counters.

By eliminating zero pairs, learners can easily see their calculation.

• Encourage learners to consider whether their final answer will be positive or

negative before performing their calculation.
◊ 8 + (-3)
◊ Do you think your final answer will be positive or negative?
◊ How can you tell?

Concrete Representation
The use of double-sided counters or algebra tiles can be used for this.

110
Pictorial Representation
Start with simple examples.

Use partitioning to encourage learners to become more efficient.

Increase the size of your integers and encourage efficiency.

111
Abstract Representation
Learners could use the following technique to help bridge the gap between pictorial
representation and abstract representation.

Calculate:
(a) 7 + (-2)
(b) (-18) + 6
(c) (-54) + (-25)
(d) Positive 48 add negative 35

112
Subtracting Integers
A similar approach can be used for subtracting integers where the operation of
subtracting should be emphasised. See below for some points to consider:

• Learners should be encouraged to build connections rather than learn rules as

they progress through each stage. To perform these calculations efficiently, it is
helpful for learners to understand that subtracting a negative integer is the same
as adding the positive version of that integer. Recognising, understanding, and
believing in this connection will take careful planning and direction from the
teacher.

• Consider your choice of language when speaking to learners.

How would you verbally read out the following question?
◊ (-8) – (-3)
◊ Negative 8 take off negative 3
◊ 8 negatives take off 3 negatives

• To physically show the above calculation, you would start with 8 red counters and
then take off 3 red counters. Learners can easily see their calculation.

• Statements such as “two negatives make a positive” are extremely misleading for
learners and should be avoided.

• Encourage learners to consider whether the final answer will be positive or

negative before performing the calculation.
◊ (-8) – (-3)
◊ Do you think your final answer will be positive or negative?
◊ How can you tell?

• The pace of learning throughout each stage will depend on the ability of your
learners.

Concrete Representation
The use of double-sided counters or algebra tiles can be used for this.

113
Pictorial Representation
Start with a simple example, with the focus being on the operation of subtracting. It may
be useful to explore what this looks like on a number line too.

114
Continue to focus on subtracting but start building the connection that subtracting a
negative integer is the same as adding the positive version of that integer.

115
Encourage learners to work in a more efficient way. Make your questions more
challenging by increasing the size of the integers. Continue to build connections.

116
Establish and use connections for a more efficient way of working.

117
Abstract Representation

Calculate:
(a) (–7) – 9
(b) 2–8
(c) 10 – (–15)
(d) (–12) – (–14)
(e) Negative 50 subtract negative 20

Multiplying Integers
Most learners will become competent in multiplying integers and as a result will progress to
the abstract representation quickly.

118
Concrete/Pictorial Representation

Building connections through patterns

119
Abstract Representation
Calculate:
(a) 3x4
(b) 3 x (-4)
(c) (-3) x 4
(d) (-3) x (-4)
(e) Negative 4 multiplied by positive 5

Dividing Integers
Most learners will become competent in dividing integers and as a result will progress to
the abstract representation quickly.

Concrete/Pictorial Representation

120
121
Building connections through patterns

Abstract Representation
Calculate:
(a) 12 ÷ 3
(b) 12 ÷ (-3)
(c) (-12) ÷ 4
(d) (-12) x (-3)
(e) Positive 12 divided by negative 4

122
GATHER LIKE
TERMS

11 123
GATHER LIKE TERMS

Introducing the Concept of a Zero Pair

Representing an Algebraic Expression

Algebra tiles can be used to introduce and investigate the skills required to use
“Gathering Like Terms”.

Consider starting with an algebraic expression with small coefficients and asking the
learners to represent it using algebra tiles.

For example:

Represent 3x² + 4 + 6x + x² + 5 using algebra tiles.

Answer to be presented:

124
Adding Like Terms
After the learners can represent the expression in algebra tiles, we can move to adding
like terms together. Once the terms have been collected, the learners should be asked to
write what they have in tiles as an algebraic expression. Here is an example.

Gather like terms and simplify:

2x² + 3x + 3 + 2x + 1 + x²

which gathers to give:

Now the learner can write this simplified expression as 3x² + 5x + 4.

Once the learners have mastered this skill the questions can be extended to:

• Can you see a link between the first expression and the one you have written?
• Could you write this expression in a simpler form and then check with your tiles?

125
Adding and Subtracting Like Terms
Often learners can gather the terms but get confused what sign, + or - is required to
connect the different terms. Learners should be able to use their knowledge of zero pairs
to help them add different terms together and simplify the expression. The colour of the
tiles will make sure they get the correct sign in front of the simplified terms.

Gather like terms and simplify:

4x² + 2x - 4 - 5x + 1 - x²

Gather terms together:

Now cancelling zero pairs and writing what is left as an algebraic expression.

Answer: 3x² - 3x - 3

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Learners can be given an expression and asked to start predicting their answers. Their
knowledge of integers will help them to decide if the gathered terms are positive or
negative and be reminded to write the + or - sign in front of the simplified term.

Once the skills required are being displayed successfully (without being checked with
algebra tiles) then the expression can be written with larger coefficients which would be
difficult to represent with the tiles.

Consider the following examples:

Gather like terms and simplify:

2x² + 3x - 2 - 5x + 6 - 3x²

Gather terms:

Zero pairs and write expression:

Answer: x² - 2x + 4

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Gather like terms and simplify:

2x² + 3y² + x – 2 + 3y + 3 + 2xy – y – 4x + 5 -xy – 2y² + 3x

Gather terms:

Zero pairs and write expression:

Answer: 2x² + y² – 2y + xy + 6

All the tiles used here are part of the ‘Manipulatives’ section of mathsbot.com.

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SOLVING
EQUATIONS

12 129
SOLVING EQUATIONS

Overview
Learners should have developed fluency in simplifying algebraic expressions prior to
solving equations. They should have a good understanding of the concept of a zero pair,
both with numeric and algebraic terms. In addition, they should be familiar with using
part-part whole and bar models to solve problems.

Throughout teaching solving equations it may be useful to move between concrete,

pictorial, and abstract stages to check and reinforce understanding whilst investigating
new concepts.

Introducing the Concept of Solving

Equations
Learners can be introduced to solving equations through a problem-solving approach by
using tasks like the ones below.

1. Fill in the blanks to make the equations correct.

2. I am thinking of a number. If I double it and add 3, my answer is 28.

What is my number?

3. I am thinking of a number. If I square it and subtract 4, my answer is 45.

What is my number?

Learners should be encouraged to explain their thought process and the strategy that
they used to determine the missing values. An extension could be to ask them how we
could model these problems in a mathematical way. This could then lead on to using the
concrete materials to start to solve equations.

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Concrete Representation
Algebra tiles/algebra discs can be used to introduce learners to solving equations.

Learners could be encouraged at the start of this topic to use tiles to represent different
algebraic expressions, for example, what 3x + 1 would look like.

Learners could be given an equation and asked to represent it with algebra tiles.
Consider the example, x + 2 = 6.

Learners could then be asked:

• What do you see?

• What do you think?
• What do you wonder?

This could help learners to explore solving equations, make conjectures, and then test out
these conjectures for other equations.

Learners should apply their knowledge of zero pairs to help them balance equations.
Consider the examples below.

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When learners have become confident in balancing their equations, they can then
progress to adding on 7, for example, rather than adding on 7 individual units.

Once secure with the addition/subtraction model, learners can progress to applying their
understanding of multiplying and dividing to solve equations of the form: 2x = 10, ¼x = 2.

Learners would benefit from being encouraged to share out their unit tiles equally
between the unknown variables. By placing their tiles in this array, it will make it easier for
the learners to share the units equally/scale up between the unknown variables.

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Once secure in one step equations, learners can then move onto two step equations.
Depending on the learners in your class, it may be beneficial to explore pictorial methods
for solving one step equations, before moving onto concrete resources for solving two
step equations.

It can be helpful if learners place their algebra tiles into arrays and share out the units
equally when setting up their equations.

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At any stage, it may be beneficial to explore pictorial methods before moving onto more
complex equations with concrete resources.

Learners can be encouraged to apply the distributive law to solving equations. This should
help to consolidate learners’ understanding that we have, for example: 3 ‘lots’ of x + 2.

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At all stages of solving equations using concrete methods, learners should be encouraged
to explain their thinking and discuss the importance of balancing the equation.

Pictorial Representation
Learners should progress to using pictorial representations once they have mastered the
use of concrete materials for solving equations.

This may be at intermediate steps, for example, after one step equations, or after they
have explored all equations. This will depend upon the learners in your class.

Learners should use the part-part whole models and bar models to determine the value of
a missing variable.

It is useful to show equations with different variables and have missing variables in different
places to ensure that they do not develop any misconceptions i.e. ‘it is always a missing
x term’ or ‘the missing term is always the first term’ and reinforce learners’ understanding
that both expressions on each side of the equals sign are equivalent.

Learners should start with one step equations and then progress onto more complex
equations as appropriate.

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For the difference model, these should be read as:

• the difference between a and 20 is 4.

• the difference between 24 and 14 is y.

Once learners have mastered one step equations, they should then progress to more
complex equations. The pace and challenge of learning at all stages will depend on the
understanding and progress of the learners in the class.

Encourage learners to state 1/7m = 2 and discuss that 7/7m = m.

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Using the bar model should help learners to understand and apply the correct strategy for
solving equations when they move onto using abstract methods.

For all difference models, they should be read as the difference between … and … is ….

This should help learners in placing the bars in the correct place.

Once learners are confident in solving two step equations, they can be extended into
solving multi-step equations.

Depending on the class, it may be beneficial before moving onto multi-step equations
to stop and revisit some of the equations that the class had previously solved and look
to model their working using mathematical sentences. This could then lead learners into
solving equations using abstract methods for one and two step equations (as discussed in
the abstract section).

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Again, it may be of benefit for the class to consolidate what they have learned about
how to solve these equations and then move on to develop their understanding of
abstract methods for these multi-step equations.

Once secure in solving these equations, learners can then apply their understanding of
the distributive law to solving equations.

Learners can also use pictorial methods to solve simultaneous equations. It may be
preferable to focus on a system of equations in which the variables you are choosing to
eliminate have the same co-efficient. Once learners have mastered this, they can then
move onto abstract methods for solving systems of equations in which they need to
balance co-efficients before eliminating variables.

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Abstract Representation
Once learners have started to develop their understanding of using pictorial methods, it
would be beneficial to go back to previous questions that the class have completed
together and ask the learners if they could model their working in a mathematical
sentence.

Depending on the learners in your class, it could be beneficial to do this after solving one
step, then two step, then multi-step equations, or it may be beneficial to fully consolidate
using pictorial methods for all equations before moving onto abstract methods.

When learners are ready to move onto abstract methods, it is useful to use the bar models
to explain our strategy for balancing equations. Learners should then be encouraged to
apply their understanding of abstract methods to new examples.

At all stages, learners should be encouraged to explain their thinking and justify their
chosen strategy.

When being introduced to abstract methods, learners should start with one step equations
and progress onto more complex equations as and when is appropriate.

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When learners feel confident in using abstract methods, they should have a period of
practice of solving all kinds of equations. They should also be encouraged to apply their
learning to unfamiliar contexts and worded examples.

Once learners have mastered solving linear equations, they can then progress onto using
abstract methods for solving simultaneous equations.

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Consider the following examples below.

1.

2.

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FACTORISING

13 145
FACTORISING
Introducing the Concept of a Zero Pair

“x2” tile

This always represents length “x”.

“x” tile
This smaller edge is the same This longer edge is the same size
size as length “1” on yellow tile. as length “x” on blue tile.

“1” tile
This always represents length “1”.
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Factorising Using Algebra Tiles -
The Method of Common Factor
Algebra tiles can be used to introduce and investigate the skills required to factorise
expressions. Like gathering like terms, the learners should first select the correct tiles to
represent the expression.

Consider the examples below:

a) 3x + 9

The second skill is to form a rectangle with the algebra tiles selected. This represents an
array formed by the multiplication of the original factors to be found. Once the rectangle
has been formed the factors can be read off the edges.

Answer: 3x + 9 = 3 (x + 3)

b) 4x + 12 = 4(x + 3)

This time, the first attempt does not have the highest common factor, but it is corrected in
the second attempt.
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c) 4x2 + 8x =

After this an array can be drawn as a picture of the rectangle and the factors written on
the edge of the array. Once the concrete use of tiles has been mastered the learners can
move to the pictorial representation and start by drawing an array to find the factors.

Example:

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Difference of 2 Squares
The same ideas can now be extended to “Difference of 2 Squares” but the addition of
zero pairs must be used to help complete the rectangle.

And can now read off the factors: x2 – 9 = (x + 3) (x – 3).

We can now use the same concrete -> pictorial -> abstract principle as before to allow
learners to move away from concrete and learn the skill required.

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Trinomials
When factorising trinomials, the addition of zero pairs might be needed to help complete
the rectangle.

Consider the examples below:

a) x2 + 5x + 6

b) x2 - x - 12

This time we will need to complete the rectangle with zero pairs. Keep the units in
the bottom right position.

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RATIOS

14 151
RATIOS

Previous Knowledge
It is assumed that learners have a previous grounding in the use of concrete materials to
create arrays and build patterns, in topics such as equivalent fractions and simplifying
fractions.

Confidence in these methods will ensure that basic ratios, equivalent ratios, and the
simplifying of ratios are familiar and manageable at an early stage.

See the fractions section of this booklet to access the strategies for the introduction of
simplifying fractions.

Basic Ratio Work and Simplification

Concrete
It is important to allow learners the opportunity to work with concrete materials at the
developmental stage of ratio.

Paired with their knowledge of fractions, this will allow them to develop a greater
understanding of proportions and allow them to discover connections between ratios.

What is the ratio of red counters to blue counters?

We write this as 5:3

As 5 + 3 = 8, we have 8 counters in total.

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What is the ratio of blue counters to red counters?

We write this as 3:5.

Why is it not the same as the previous question?

Note: Teachers must establish the importance of order and language at these early
stages, deconstructing the difference between red to blue, and blue to red.

What is the ratio of red counters to blue counters?

We write this as 8:2

But could we arrange the counters to form an array?

Can we draw on previous knowledge, simplifying fractions to simplify this ratio?

This can be simplified to 4:1.

For every 4 red counters, there is 1 blue counter.

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Can you create another array that is also in the ratio 4:1 using your counters?

Pictorial
Learners can begin to use their own materials to develop a pictorial approach, and using
either colours, or differing shapes, they can draw representations of the ratio which can
replace the concrete materials.

Simplify the ratio 8:2

Abstract
Learners should draw from their own experience of the abstract methods for simplifying
fractions to allow them to access the abstract approaches. This will involve a knowledge
of factors and/or highest common factor also.

1. Simplify the following:

a) 12:3
b) 14:7
c) 24:8

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Ratio Calculations
Concrete
The use of concrete materials should supplement the knowledge from previous lessons on
basic ratio and on factors, multiples, and equivalent fractions.

Consider the following example.

In a classroom, the ratio of boys to girls is 5:4.

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How many girls are there - if there are 20 boys?

Now consider this example.

I open a packet of M&Ms and the ratio of yellow to blue is 3:2.

If there are 9 yellow M&Ms, how many blue M&Ms are there?

9 yellow M&Ms would mean there are 6 blue M&Ms.

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Abstract
Learners should use their knowledge of division and multiplication to find the multiplying/
dividing factor and scale the ratios as needed. If learners are not confident with scaling,
a ratio table may help to scaffold this task.

Consider the following example.

The ratio of students to teachers in a school is 48:2.

a) How many teachers are needed if there are 144 students?

Students could build up in patterns of:

• 48:2
• 96:4
• 144:6

If they need the help, they could work back and simplify the ratio.

24:1 and count in 24 from here.

b) How many students could 10 teachers be responsible for?

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Learners could continue the table or use their scaling skills.

Sharing a Quantity in a Given Ratio

Concrete
Learners can once again use counters to tackle uneven sharing. They should build an
array using the ratios, until the full amount has been represented.

Consider the following example.

Two cousins are given £24 by their grandmother to share in the ratio 3:1.

We can layout 24 counters and turn over 1 in every 3 as below, and then arrange into an
array.

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Alternatively, we can add 3 and 1 and build an array in groups of 4 until we reach the
amount to be shared.

How much does each cousin receive?

£3 : £1
£18 : £6
Now consider this example.

Share 10 skittles in the ratio 2:3

2:3
4:6
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At this point we can discuss with learners how we know it has been correctly shared.

We could count all our counters.

We could add our ratios.

Pictorial
Ultimately the use of the bar model should be our goal and it can be used in more difficult
tasks, where counter representations are not appropriate.

Consider the following example.

A daughter is given £80 to go to the shop by her mother.

She is to spend the money on new trainers for school and a new bag in the ratio 3:2.

• How much money is spent on the trainers?

• How much money is spent on the bag?

We should emphasise to learners at this point those previous strategies are fundamental
for the bar model. Adding our ratios of 2 and 3 to know we are sharing amongst 5 parts,
will be key in the bar model being partitioned into 5 parts also.

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Consider the following example.

Share £54 in the ratio 5:1.

Once more we should emphasise that the sum of our ratios is equal to the number of parts
in our bar model.

Abstract
The bar model should be used as method for solving problems for as long as is needed.
Some learners may feel that they have moved beyond it and are comfortable with the
abstract approaches. They often solve tasks by dividing the given amount by the
corresponding ratio, and multiplying by the entirety of the parts, or the other ratio(s).

Consider the following example.

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