EXPERIMENT NO.

-9
HALL EFFECT
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:-
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.
3. To determine other allied parameters like mobility ,hall angle and conductivity etc.

INTRODUCTION:-
Hall effect is a phenomenon that occurs in a conductor carrying current when it is placed in a
magnetic field perpendicular to that current. The charge carrier in the conductor become
deflected by the magnetic field and give rise to an electric field that is perpendicular to both
current and magnetic field. If the current density I x is along X and the magnetic field B is along
Z, the Hall field Ey is either along +Y or –Y axis depending on the polarity of charge carrier in
the material.
Hall effect is the basis of many practical application and devices such as magnetic field
measurements and the position and motion of detectors. Also , Hall effect is the measurement of
an useful technique for characterizing electrical transport properties of metals and
semiconductors. Hall effect sensors are readily used in various sensors such as rotating speed
sensor, fluid flow sensors, current sensors and pressure sensors.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-
1. Hall Effect Board
2. Hall Probe
3. Constant Current Power Supply
4. Electromagnet
5. Digital Gauss Meter with Hall Probe
6. Hall Probe Stand

THEORY:-

 Hall effect was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1897(18 years before discovery of electron).
  The conductivity measurements are not sufficient for the determination of the number of
conducting charge N and their mobility 𝜇. Moreover , these measurements do not give any
information about the sign of the prominent charge carrier. The Hall effect supplies the
information of the sign of charge carrier.
 When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a conductor carrying current ,a voltage
is developed across the specimen in a direction perpendicular to a both the current and
magnetic field .This phenomenon is known as Hall effect.
 Consider that an external electric field is applied along the axis of specimen , the electrons
will drift in opposite direction.
 Again let a magnetic field be applied perpendicular to the axis of the specimen then the
electrons will tend to be deflected to one side. The electrons will not drift into space but a
surface charge is developed. The surface charge then give rise to a transverse electric field
which causes a compensating drift such that the carriers remain in the specimen. The
effect is known as Hall effect
 The voltage produced in Hall effect is called “Hall Voltage” (VH).
Basically Semiconductors are chosen for study of Hall effect because it has ideal number of
charge carriers and it is easy to distinguish between holes and electrons. Also, the number of
charge carriers increase with increase in temperature.Let us consider N-type semiconductor
material in which the majority charge carriers are the electrons. Let the length of the
semiconductor is “L”, width is “b” and “d” is the thickness of the material.

Let IX is the current flowing through the material in the

x-direction and a magnetic field Hz is applied in z-direction as shown in figure 1.

So, in presence of magnetic field a Lorentz force acts on the electron given by
F=q(vd×H)
Where q=charge of electron= -e
Vd=drift velocity of electron= -vdî
H= applied magnetic field = HZk
So, F= -e (-vd î× HZ k) = -evdHZĵ
So, the magnetic field cause the electron to accelerate along negative y-axis. The electron
accumulated alongnegativey-axis. Thus a potential difference is induced along y-axis. This
potential difference causes a force which opposes Lorentz magnetic force. The process continues
until the Hall force balances Lorentz force. Due to Lorentz force a gap is created. The gap
creates another force. So there is a chance of break down so to maintain equilibrium between the
Lorentz force and the Hall Force,
FH= eEH
F = evdHZ
So, FH=F .................................................................…. (I)
Or, eEH=evdHZ
EH=vdHZ…….................................................................(II)

Let IX be the current density along x-axis.

So, Jx= -nevd
Where n=number density of electrons
EH −H Z
=
JX ne
−H Z
EH= JX..................................................................... (III)
ne
Before we know that ,
EHα JX H Z ...................................................................... (IV)

So, EH= RH JX H Z ........................................................ (V)

Where RH is a proportionality constant called hall coefficient.
So from equation (III) and (V),

EH 1 1 .................................... (VI)
RH ¿ J H = - ne
X Z

Hall Coefficient:
Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of Hall electric field per unit current density and
applied magnetic field.
Now, VH =EHb.......................................................... (VII)
Ix
And JX = ................................................................(VIII)
bd
EH Ix V H 1 VH d
So, RH = = =
J X HZ J X b HZ I X HZ
VH d
So, RH= .............................................................. (IX)
I X HZ

Equation (IX) is used to calculate the Hall coefficient experimentally.

 Unit of Hall coefficient cm 3/coulomb.

Mobility:
Mobility is defined as the drift velocity per unit field strength.
Vd
µ=
Ex
Vd =µEx..................................................................... (X)
EH =Vd H Z = µEx H Z ...................................................... (XI)
From equation V(a)
EH =JX H Z RH................................................................................................ (XII)
Comparing equation (XI) and (XII)
µEx H Z =JX H Z RH
µ =RHJX /Ex
JX
but =σ which is electrical conductivity.
EX

µ=σRH........................................................................ (XIII)
For experimental calculation,
IX IX
µ = RH
bt V X

WhereV X is the potential drop along the length of the semiconductor

 Unit of µ is cm2 sec-1 volt-1

 Unit of σ is mho cm-1
EH
tanϕ H = =µ H Z
EX

ϕH is called hall angle.

 For p-type semiconductors the majority charge carriers are holes. So
1
R H =+
ne
 Hall effect is used to determine the type of semiconductor.
For n- type RH is negative.
For p-type RH is positive.
 The carrier concentration in the semiconductor can be calculated using hall effect.
1
i.e.; n=
eR H
 By hall effect we can determine the magnetic flux density B.
VH d
B=
RH I
d is the thickness of material.
 Hall effect concept is used to design magnetic flux density meter.
 Along with hall voltage there are three other voltages produced in hall effect
experiment. Those are Nernst effect, Rhighieduc effect, Ettingshausen effect. These
effects can be neglected by averaging the four readings.
 Mobility of charge carriers is directly proportional to conductivity.
 Hall coefficient decreases with increase of number of charge carriers per unit volume.
 In p-type semiconductors the majority charge carriers are holes, which do move
similarly as electrons in n-type semiconductors. These holes are just vacant spaces
left when an electron leaves a site in a lattice of semiconductor. They are actually not
particles but are the site from which electrons leave is assigned with positive charge.
 Hall probe: Hall probe is a magnetic field sensor that passes electrical current when
it is perpendicular to magnetic field.
 Hall probe is to be placed perpendicular to the magnetic field because, there will be
no effect of parallel component of B to the current flow. Hall probe detects only one
component that is perpendicular component.
 In semiconductors the conductivity is less than metals. So, semiconductors show high
hall voltage and greater hall effect than conductors.
 For moderate magnetic fields,
2 2
P µ h−n µ h
 RH =
e( p µh +nµ e)2
n= concentration of electron
p=hall concentration
µh= mobility of holes
µe= mobility of electrons

ZERO FIELD POTENTIAL: Zero field potential is the potential we get on the hall
effect board along y axis while the hall probe is outside the magnetic field.it is due to the
 magnetic field of earth which creates a potential difference. We can measure voltages by
moving the probe in different direction and the direction at which we get maximum voltage
is the direction perpendicular to the earth’s magnetic field. If there is no change in the
voltage by moving the probe then the voltage is said to constant and the magnetic field is
uniform throughout the space.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Width wise contacts of the hall probe to the terminal marked “voltage” and lengthwise
contacts to the terminal marked “current” of the Hall effect board is connected.
2. The switch is marked on/off of hall effect board to ON position.
3. The meter selector switch is put towards 20 mA and current is adjusted by current adjust
pot.
4. The meter selector switch is put towards 200 mV. There may be some voltage reading even
outside the magnetic field. This is due to imperfect alignment of the four contacts of the
hall probe. In case its value is comparable to hall voltage, it should be adjusted to a
minimum possible value.
5. The probe is placed in the magnetic field. (the gap between the poles should be fixed).
6. Constant power supply is connected with the electromagnet. The power supply is switched
on and the current is adjusted to any desired value. The hall probe is rotated till it become
perpendicular to magnetic field. Hall voltage was measured for both the direction of the
current by interchanging the current leads in the hall effect board and magnetic field by
changing constant power supply leads.
7. Hall voltage was measured as a function of current keeping the magnetic field constant.
8. The potential drop Vx was measured along Ix by using multimeter.
9. Then graph VH vs. Ix was done for each constant current value and also Vx vs. Ix.
10. Now by varying the current to electromagnet calculate RH.

MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETIC FIELD:

1. Two pin mains lead of gauss meter to AC mains having 230V at 50 Hz is connected.
2. The switch was put ON and the reading of the meter was adjusted to zero by zero adjust
pot.
3. The hall probe was put between poles of electro magnet and the constant power supply is
connected to electromagnet.
4. By switching on the power supply vary the current.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:-

 Hall Effect Board: It consists of a digital meter to read hall voltage and probe current. It
also provides constant power supply.
 Hall Probe: Germanium single crystal N or P type with four spring type pressure contact is
mounted on a sun mica Bakelite strip.
 Electromagnet: An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which magnetic field is produced
by electric current supply.
 Constant Current Power Supply: It supply constant current to the electromagnet.
 Digital Gauss Meter with Hall Probe: The probe operates o the concept of hall effect
itself. The gauss meter shows the magnetic flux linked by the help of the probe.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The magnet power supply can furnish large currents at dangerous voltage levels,do not touch
the exposed magnet coil.
2. The current through the sample should not be large enough to cause heating.
3. Never suddenly interrupt or apply power to a large magnet.
4. The hall probe must be adjusted in the field until the position of maximum voltage is
reached.
5. While taking readings with varying magnetic field at a particular current value it is necessary
that the current value should be adjusted every time.
6. Do not leave the magnet current at a high setting for any length of time beyond the minimum
needed for data acquisition.
7. The hall voltage should only be measured with high input impedance device.

TABLE 1:-
S.l no. Constant current in(Ampere) Magnetic field in
(Gauss)

1 0 82

2 0.66 642

3 0.80 748

4 0.90 828

5 1.0 895

6 1.25 1092

7 1.5 1301

8 1.75 1501

9 2.0 1705

10 2.25 1985

11 2.5 2250

12 2.75 2595

13 3.0 2880

Graph 1:- ( I vs HZ )

3500

3000

2500 f(x) = 913.245069168931 x − 6.89766217534134

HZ in Gauss

2000

1500
Series2
1000 Linear (Series2)

500

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

I in Ampere
TABLE-2
(Constant Current supply=1 amp, HZ= 840 Gauss)
SR No. IX (in Zero Hall voltage VH (in mV) Mean corrected
mA) VH VH(in
Field BRYG RBYG RBGY BRGY VX
mV)
potential (in
in V
mV)
(in mV)
1 0.5 1.0 2.8 2.5 2.8 2.3 1.028 2.6 1.3
2 1 1.3 5.4 5.2 5.5 4.9 1.842 5.25 3.95
3 1.5 3.0 8.4 8.3 8.5 7.7 2.419 8.22 5.22
4 2 2.8 11.2 11.1 11.3 9.8 3.23 10.85 8.05
5 2.5 3.8 12.6 12.5 13.3 13.3 3.73 12.92 9.12

Graph 2:- ( IX vs VH And IX vs VX )

10
9 f(x) = 3.83542857142857 x − 0.187619047619047
8
7
VH in mV

6
5
4
Series2
3 Linear (Series2)
2
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

IX in mA
 4
f(x) = 1.47617142857143 x + 0.196285714285715
3.5
3
2.5
VX in V

2
1.5 Series2
1 Linear (Series2)

0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

IX in mA

Table 3:-
(Current supply=2.0-amp, HZ= 1552 Gauss)
SR No. IX (in Zero Hall voltage VH (in mV) Mean corrected
mA) VH VH(in
Field BRYG RBYG RBGY BRGY VX
mV)
potential (in
in V
mV)
(in mV)
1 0.5 0.7 4.3 4.0 4.3 4.1 0.994 4.175 3.475
2 1 1.5 9.1 8.5 8.9 8.7 1.62 8.8 7.3
3 1.5 2.1 12.3 12.1 12.3 12.1 2.19 12.2 10.1
4 2 3 16.2 15.9 16.1 16.0 2.66 16.05 13.05
5 2.5 3.3 20.1 19.7 19.8 19.8 3.1 19.9 16.55
Graph 3:- ( IX vs VH And IX vs VX )

18
16 f(x) = 6.53 x + 0.25
14
12
VH in mV

10
8
6 Series2
Linear (Series2)
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

IX in mA

3.5

3 f(x) = 1.20388571428571 x + 0.255809523809524

2.5
VX in V

1.5
Series2
1 Linear (Series2)
0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

IX in mA
TABLE-4
(Current Supply=3.0-amp, HZ=2774 Gauss)

SR No. IX (in Zero Hall voltage VH (in mV) Mean corrected

mA) VH VH(in
Field BRYG RBYG RBGY BRGY VX
mV)
potential (in
in V
mV)
(in mV)
1 0.5 1.0 5.8 5.5 5.8 5.5 1.03 5.65 4.65
2 1 1.3 10.4 10.2 10.4 10.2 1.64 10.3 9.0
3 1.5 2.2 15.9 15.7 16 15.6 2.18 15.8 13.3
4 2 2.3 21 20.6 20.9 20.7 2.86 20.8 18.5
5 2.5 3.6 27 26.2 26.5 26.6 3.23 26.6 23.0

Graph 4:- ( IX vs VH And IX vs VX )

25

f(x) = 9.18428571428571 x − 0.0761904761904741

20
VH in mV

15

10
Series2
Linear (Series2)
5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

IX in mA
 3.5
f(x) = 1.26742857142857 x + 0.239047619047619
3

2.5
VX in V

1.5
Series2
1 Linear (Series2)
0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

IX in mA

Calculation:-
For table 2. Constant current 1.0 amp
VH Vx
From graph 2: =3.835 , =¿1.476
IX IX

For table 3. Constant current 2.0 amp

VH Vx
From graph 3: =6.53, =1.203
IX IX

For table 4.constant current2 amp

VH
From graph 4: =9.184
IX
Vx
=1.267
IX
VH d 0.064
RH = =3.835× =2.92×10−4 cm3/coulomb
1
I X HZ 840
 VH d 0.064
RH = =¿ 6.53× = 2.69×10−4 cm3/coulomb
2
I X HZ 1552

VH d 0.064
RH = =¿ 9.184× =2.11×10−4 cm3/coulomb
3
I X HZ 2774

RH + RH + RH 2.92× 10−4 +2.69 ×10−4 +2.11 ×10−4 7.72×10−4

Mean R H = 1 2 3
= =
3 3 3
=2.57×10−4 cm3/coulomb
Now
1 1
n1 = 22
R H e 2.92× 10 ×1.6 × 10−19 =2.1404×10 cm
= -3
−4
1

1 1
n2 = 22
R H e 2.69× 10 × 1.6× 10−19 =2.3234×10 cm
= -3
−4
2

1 1
n3 = 22
R H e 2.11× 10 ×1.6 × 10−19 =2.9620×10 cm
= -3
−4
3

2.1404 ×1022 +2.3234 ×1022 +2.9620 ×1022

Mean n = = 2.4752×1022 cm-3
3
Mobility(µ):

l Ix 0.6 1
µ1= R H =2.92×10−4× × =0.9273×10−5 cm2 sec-1 volt-1
1
bd V x 0.2× 0.064 1.476× 103

l Ix 0.6 1
µ2= R H =2.69×10−4× × = 1.0481 ×10−5 cm2 sec-1 volt-1
2
bd V x 0.2× 0.064 1.203× 103

l Ix 0.6 1
µ3= R H =2.11×10−4× × =0.7806×10−5 cm2 sec-1 volt-1
3
bd V x 0.2× 0.064 1.267× 103

( µ 1+ µ2 +µ 3 )
Meanµ =
3
 −7 −7 −7
= 92.73 ×10 +104.813×10 + 78.06× 10
=0.9186×10−5 cm2 sec-1 volt-1

Conductivity:
µ1 92.73 ×10−7
σ 1=
RH
= −4 = 0.0317568 mho.cm
−1

1
2.92× 10
µ2 104.81×10−7
σ 2= = −4 =0.0389628 mho.cm
-1
RH2
2.69 ×10
µ3 78.06× 10
−7
σ 3= = −4 = 0.0369952mho.cm
-1
RH3
2.11×10
0.0317568+0.0389628+0.03 69952
Mean σ = 3
=0.0359049mho.cm-1

Hall angle:
Tan Φ1= µ1 H Z = 0.9273×10−5 × 840= 0.00778932
1

Φ1 = tan-1(0.00778932) =0.44 degree

Tan Φ2= µ2 H Z = 1.0481×10−5 × 1552 = 0.016266512

2

Φ2 = tan-1(0.016266512) = 0.93 degree

Tan Φ3= µ3 H Z = 0.7806 ×10−5 × 2774= 0.021653844

3

Φ3 = tan-1(0.021653844) = 1.24 degree

Mean ϕ = 0.87 degree

CONCLUSION:
From the above experiment we found that the value of hall coefficient=2.57 ×10-4 cm3/coulomb,
mobility=0.9186 ×10−5 cm2 sec-1 volt-1,

conductivity=0.0359049 mho.cm-1,no density of charge carriers=2.4752×1022 cm-3,

hall angle=0.870.