LOGIC

CATEGORIAL MATHEMATICAL

PROPOSITIONAL
PREDICATE

Philosophy of logic, the study, from a philosophical perspective,

of the nature and types of logic, including problems in the field
and the relation of logic to mathematics and other disciplines.
The term logic comes from the Greek word logos.

WHAT IS LOGIC?
Philosophy of logic is the area of philosophy that studies the
scope and nature of logic. It investigates the philosophical
problems raised by logic, such as the presuppositions often
implicitly at work in theories of logic and in their application.

There is an ancient and widely held belief that what

distinguishes humans from the "beasts of the field" is that we are rational. What exactly is rationality?
That's a difficult topic, but one possible answer is that we demonstrate our rationality by engaging in
reasoning-related actions such as establishing claims and justifying them with reasons, acting in
accordance with our reasons and beliefs, drawing inferences from available evidence, and so on.

This reasoning activity can be performed well or badly; it can be performed correctly or wrongly. Logic is
the discipline that seeks to discern between good and incorrect reasoning.

In logic, we study the principles and methods that allow us to distinguish between good and bad
reasoning.

A logic must provide exact rules for evaluating reasoning as well as techniques for applying those
standards to specific cases.

The philosophy of logic can be understood in analogy to other discipline-specific branches of philosophy:
just like the philosophy of science investigates philosophical problems raised by science, so the
philosophy of logic investigates philosophical problems raised by logic.
PREDICATE LOGIC
Predicate logic is a deductive symbolic logical system that allows us to determine valid reasoning and consistency
between propositions. Unlike propositional logic, it allows us to capture the form of propositions, which allows us
to correctly determine that certain arguments are valid that propositional logic would fail to determine to be valid.
For example, consider the following argument:

1. All dogs are mammals.

2. All mammals are animals.
3. All dogs are animals.

In logic, something that can be predicated, especially one of the five most general sorts of attribution, as
mentioned in Boethius' Latin version of Porphyry's Isagoge: genus, species, differentia, property, and accident. It is
based on a similar classification proposed by Aristotle in the Topics (a, iv-viii), but using "definition" instead of
"species."

Aristotle only dealt with statements of the form "A is B," in which both the subject and the predicate are universal.
He observed that the predicate in every true statement of this sort is either convertible with the subject (i.e., "B is
A" follows from "A is B") or it is not. If the predicate is convertible and expresses its essence, it is the subject's
definition; if it is convertible but does not express its essence, it is a quality of the subject. If the predicate is not
convertible with the subject but is part of the definition, it is the subject's genus or differentia, because a definition
always consists of genus and differentia. Finally, if the predicate is not convertible and is not included in the
definition, it is a subject accident.

Some Aristotelian examples may be described shortly. The predicate in the true statement "Man is a rational
animal" is convertible with the subject and describes its essence; thus, "rational animal" is the definition of man.
While the sentences "Man is an animal" and "Man is rational" are true, they are not convertible; yet, their
predicate terms are part of the definition and so are the genus and differentia of man. The statement "Man is
capable of learning grammar," on the other hand, is accurate and convertible; but, "capable of learning grammar"
does not explain the essence of man and is thus a quality of man. The true statement "Man is featherless"
illustrates an accident. Its predicate is not convertible with its subject, nor is it part of the definition; hence, it
expresses just an incidental feature of man.

The most difficult of the two current classical logics is predicate logic. Despite the etymology, it does not see
atomic statements as indivisible, but instead emphasizes the structure inside propositions. It fulfills the goals of
Aristotelian logic in conjunction with the goals of propositional logic in its treatment of generic, as opposed to
singular, propositions. Second-order and higher-order logics are different categories in the classification structure
established by the general editors, and hence are not categorized as (ordinary) predicate calculus. This may appear
to be a curiosity; it is discussed in Eklund 1996. Relations, as well as the special predicate, identity, are permitted in
its treatment of singular propositions. In classical predicate logic, molecular or compound propositions are
constructed from atomic propositions using connectives, the meaning of which is determined by their truth tables.
Similarly, one way to grasp the meaning of the two classical quantifiers, existential and universal, is to consider
them to be enlarged disjunctions and conjunctions across the universe of speech, respectively. Compositionality
refers to the principle through which the meaning or truth conditions of compound statements can be retrieved
through this "building up" process. Aside from the challenge of understanding the meaning of the quantifiers,
there is also the issue of existential import. This leaf node belongs to the classical logic subcategory. As a result,
non-standard predicate logics are not generally classified in this category (unless a comparison between classical
logic and another logic is made or one logic is reduced to the other), but restrictions of predicate logic in which
nothing that is not a theorem in ordinary predicate logic is a theorem in the restriction do fit here. Modest
expansions of predicate logic, excluding higher-order logics as indicated above, are also appropriate, given that
Boole's three rules of thought, viz. A proposition is either true or wrong; it cannot be both. Meta-theoretical results
for predicate logic are commonly referred to as "proof theory," "model theory," "mathematical logic," and so on.